第6章

ADEIMANTUS

Nonsense，hereplied。Butletmeaddsomethingmore：ThereisanothersidetoGlaucon’sargumentaboutthepraiseandcensureofjusticeandinjustice，whichisequallyrequiredinordertobringoutwhatIbelievetobehismeaning。Parentsandtutorsarealwaystellingtheirsonsandtheirwardsthattheyaretobejust；butwhy？notforthesakeofjustice，butforthesakeofcharacterandreputation；inthehopeofobtainingforhimwhoisreputedjustsomeofthoseoffices，marriages，andthelikewhichGlauconhasenumeratedamongtheadvantagesaccruingtotheunjustfromthereputationofjustice。More，however，ismadeofappearancesbythisclassofpersonsthanbytheothers；fortheythrowinthegoodopinionofthegods，andwilltellyouofashowerofbenefitswhichtheheavens，astheysay，rainuponthepious；andthisaccordswiththetestimonyofthenobleHesiodandHomer，thefirstofwhomsays，thatthegodsmaketheoaksofthejust——

Tohearacornsattheirsummit，andbeesIthemiddle；

Andthesheeptheboweddownbowedthewiththetheirfleeces。

andmanyotherblessingsofalikekindareprovidedforthem。AndHomerhasaverysimilarstrain；forhespeaksofonewhosefameis——

Asthefameofsomeblamelesskingwho，likeagod，MaintainsjusticetowhomtheblackearthbringsforthWheatandbarley，whosetreesarebowedwithfruit，Andhissheepneverfailtobear，andtheseagiveshimfish。

StillgranderarethegiftsofheavenwhichMusaeusandhissonvouchsafetothejust；theytakethemdownintotheworldbelow，wheretheyhavethesaintslyingoncouchesatafeast，everlastinglydrunk，crownedwithgarlands；theirideaseemstobethatanimmortalityofdrunkennessisthehighestmeedofvirtue。Someextendtheirrewardsyetfurther；theposterity，astheysay，ofthefaithfulandjustshallsurvivetothethirdandfourthgeneration。Thisisthestyleinwhichtheypraisejustice。Butaboutthewickedthereisanotherstrain；theyburytheminasloughinHades，andmakethemcarrywaterinasieve；alsowhiletheyareyetlivingtheybringthemtoinfamy，andinflictuponthemthepunishmentswhichGlaucondescribedastheportionofthejustwhoarereputedtobeunjust；

nothingelsedoestheirinventionsupply。Suchistheirmannerofpraisingtheoneandcensuringtheother。

Oncemore，Socrates，Iwillaskyoutoconsideranotherwayofspeakingaboutjusticeandinjustice，whichisnotconfinedtothepoets，butisfoundinprosewriters。Theuniversalvoiceofmankindisalwaysdeclaringthatjusticeandvirtuearehonourable，butgrievousandtoilsome；andthatthepleasuresofviceandinjusticeareeasyofattainment，andareonlycensuredbylawandopinion。Theysayalsothathonestyisforthemostpartlessprofitablethandishonesty；andtheyarequitereadytocallwickedmenhappy，andtohonourthembothinpublicandprivatewhentheyarerichorinanyotherwayinfluential，whiletheydespiseandoverlookthosewhomaybeweakandpoor，eventhoughacknowledgingthemtobebetterthantheothers。Butmostextraordinaryofallistheirmodeofspeakingaboutvirtueandthegods：theysaythatthegodsapportioncalamityandmiserytomanygoodmen，andgoodandhappinesstothewicked。Andmendicantprophetsgotorichmen’sdoorsandpersuadethemthattheyhaveapowercommittedtothembythegodsofmakinganatonementforaman’sownorhisancestor’ssinsbysacrificesorcharms，withrejoicingsandfeasts；andtheypromisetoharmanenemy，whetherjustorunjust，atasmallcost；withmagicartsandincantationsbindingheaven，astheysay，toexecutetheirwill。Andthepoetsaretheauthoritiestowhomtheyappeal，nowsmoothingthepathofvicewiththewordsofHesiod；——

Vicemaybehadinabundancewithouttrouble；thewayissmoothandherdwelling—placeisnear。Butbeforevirtuethegodshavesettoil，andatediousanduphillroad：thencitingHomerasawitnessthatthegodsmaybeinfluencedbymen；forhealsosays：

Thegods，too，mayheturnedfromtheirpurpose；andmenpraytothemandaverttheirwrathbysacrificesandsoothingentreaties，andbylibationsandtheodouroffat，whentheyhavesinnedandtransgressed。

AndtheyproduceahostofbookswrittenbyMusaeusandOrpheus，whowerechildrenoftheMoonandtheMuses——thatiswhattheysay——accordingtowhichtheyperformtheirritual，andpersuadenotonlyindividuals，butwholecities，thatexpiationsandatonementsforsinmaybemadebysacrificesandamusementswhichfillavacanthour，andareequallyattheserviceofthelivingandthedead；thelattersorttheycallmysteries，andtheyredeemusfromthepainsofhell，butifweneglectthemnooneknowswhatawaitsus。

Heproceeded：Andnowwhentheyounghearallthissaidaboutvirtueandvice，andthewayinwhichgodsandmenregardthem，howaretheirmindslikelytobeaffected，mydearSocrates，——thoseofthem，I

mean，whoarequickwitted，and，likebeesonthewing，lightoneveryflower，andfromallthattheyheararepronetodrawconclusionsastowhatmannerofpersonstheyshouldbeandinwhatwaytheyshouldwalkiftheywouldmakethebestoflife？ProbablytheyouthwillsaytohimselfinthewordsofPindar——

CanIbyjusticeorbycrookedwaysofdeceitascendaloftiertowerwhichmayheafortresstomeallmydays？

Forwhatmensayisthat，ifIamreallyjustandamnotalsothoughtjustprofitthereisnone，butthepainandlossontheotherhandareunmistakable。Butif，thoughunjust，Iacquirethereputationofjustice，aheavenlylifeispromisedtome。Sincethen，asphilosophersprove，appearancetyrannizesovertruthandislordofhappiness，toappearanceImustdevotemyself。Iwilldescribearoundmeapictureandshadowofvirtuetobethevestibuleandexteriorofmyhouse；behindIwilltrailthesubtleandcraftyfox，asArchilochus，greatestofsages，recommends。ButIhearsomeoneexclaimingthattheconcealmentofwickednessisoftendifficult；towhichIanswer，Nothinggreatiseasy。Nevertheless，theargumentindicatesthis，ifwewouldbehappy，tobethepathalongwhichweshouldproceed。Withaviewtoconcealmentwewillestablishsecretbrotherhoodsandpoliticalclubs。Andthereareprofessorsofrhetoricwhoteachtheartofpersuadingcourtsandassemblies；andso，partlybypersuasionandpartlybyforce，Ishallmakeunlawfulgainsandnotbepunished。StillIhearavoicesayingthatthegodscannotbedeceived，neithercantheybecompelled。Butwhatiftherearenogods？or，supposethemtohavenocareofhumanthings——whyineithercaseshouldwemindaboutconcealment？Andeveniftherearegods，andtheydocareaboutus，yetweknowofthemonlyfromtraditionandthegenealogiesofthepoets；andthesearetheverypersonswhosaythattheymaybeinfluencedandturnedby’sacrificesandsoothingentreatiesandbyofferings。’Letusbeconsistentthen，andbelievebothorneither。Ifthepoetsspeaktruly，whythenwehadbetterbeunjust，andofferofthefruitsofinjustice；forifwearejust，althoughwemayescapethevengeanceofheaven，weshalllosethegainsofinjustice；but，ifweareunjust，weshallkeepthegains，andbyoursinningandpraying，andprayingandsinning，thegodswillbepropitiated，andweshallnotbepunished。’Butthereisaworldbelowinwhicheitherweorourposteritywillsufferforourunjustdeeds。’Yes，myfriend，willbethereflection，buttherearemysteriesandatoningdeities，andthesehavegreatpower。Thatiswhatmightycitiesdeclare；andthechildrenofthegods，whoweretheirpoetsandprophets，bearaliketestimony。

Onwhatprinciple，then，shallweanylongerchoosejusticeratherthantheworstinjustice？when，ifweonlyunitethelatterwithadeceitfulregardtoappearances，weshallfaretoourmindbothwithgodsandmen，inlifeandafterdeath，asthemostnumerousandthehighestauthoritiestellus。Knowingallthis，Socrates，howcanamanwhohasanysuperiorityofmindorpersonorrankorwealth，bewillingtohonourjustice；orindeedtorefrainfromlaughingwhenhehearsjusticepraised？Andevenifthereshouldbesomeonewhoisabletodisprovethetruthofmywords，andwhoissatisfiedthatjusticeisbest，stillheisnotangrywiththeunjust，butisveryreadytoforgivethem，becausehealsoknowsthatmenarenotjustoftheirownfreewill；unless，peradventure，therebesomeonewhomthedivinitywithinhimmayhaveinspiredwithahatredofinjustice，orwhohasattainedknowledgeofthetruth——butnootherman。Heonlyblamesinjusticewho，owingtocowardiceorageorsomeweakness，hasnotthepowerofbeingunjust。Andthisisprovedbythefactthatwhenheobtainsthepower，heimmediatelybecomesunjustasfarashecanbe。

Thecauseofallthis，Socrates，wasindicatedbyusatthebeginningoftheargument，whenmybrotherandItoldyouhowastonishedweweretofindthatofalltheprofessingpanegyristsofjustice——beginningwiththeancientheroesofwhomanymemorialhasbeenpreservedtous，andendingwiththemenofourowntime——noonehaseverblamedinjusticeorpraisedjusticeexceptwithaviewtotheglories，honours，andbenefitswhichflowfromthem。Noonehaseveradequatelydescribedeitherinverseorprosethetrueessentialnatureofeitherofthemabidinginthesoul，andinvisibletoanyhumanordivineeye；orshownthatofallthethingsofaman’ssoulwhichhehaswithinhim，justiceisthegreatestgood，andinjusticethegreatestevil。Hadthisbeentheuniversalstrain，hadyousoughttopersuadeusofthisfromouryouthupwards，weshouldnothavebeenonthewatchtokeeponeanotherfromdoingwrong，buteveryonewouldhavebeenhisownwatchman，becauseafraid，ifhedidwrong，ofharbouringinhimselfthegreatestofevils。IdaresaythatThrasymachusandotherswouldseriouslyholdthelanguagewhichIhavebeenmerelyrepeating，andwordsevenstrongerthantheseaboutjusticeandinjustice，grossly，asIconceive，pervertingtheirtruenature。ButIspeakinthisvehementmanner，asImustfranklyconfesstoyou，becauseIwanttohearfromyoutheoppositeside；andIwouldaskyoutoshownotonlythesuperioritywhichjusticehasoverinjustice，butwhateffecttheyhaveonthepossessorofthemwhichmakestheonetobeagoodandtheotheraneviltohim。Andplease，asGlauconrequestedofyou，toexcludereputations；forunlessyoutakeawayfromeachofthemhistruereputationandaddonthefalse，weshallsaythatyoudonotpraisejustice，buttheappearanceofit；weshallthinkthatyouareonlyexhortingustokeepinjusticedark，andthatyoureallyagreewithThrasymachusinthinkingthatjusticeisanother’sgoodandtheinterestofthestronger，andthatinjusticeisaman’sownprofitandinterest，thoughinjurioustotheweaker。Nowasyouhaveadmittedthatjusticeisoneofthathighestclassofgoodswhicharedesiredindeedfortheirresults，butinafargreaterdegreefortheirownsakes——likesightorhearingorknowledgeorhealth，oranyotherrealandnaturalandnotmerelyconventionalgood——Iwouldaskyouinyourpraiseofjusticetoregardonepointonly：Imeantheessentialgoodandevilwhichjusticeandinjusticeworkinthepossessorsofthem。Letotherspraisejusticeandcensureinjustice，magnifyingtherewardsandhonoursoftheoneandabusingtheother；thatisamannerofarguingwhich，comingfromthem，Iamreadytotolerate，butfromyouwhohavespentyourwholelifeintheconsiderationofthisquestion，unlessIhearthecontraryfromyourownlips，Iexpectsomethingbetter。Andtherefore，Isay，notonlyprovetousthatjusticeisbetterthaninjustice，butshowwhattheyeitherofthemdotothepossessorofthem，whichmakestheonetobeagoodandtheotheranevil，whetherseenorunseenbygodsandmen。

SOCRATES—ADEIMANTUS

IhadalwaysadmiredthegeniusofGlauconandAdeimantus，butonhearingthesewordsIwasquitedelighted，andsaid：Sonsofanillustriousfather，thatwasnotabadbeginningoftheElegiacverseswhichtheadmirerofGlauconmadeinhonourofyouafteryouhaddistinguishedyourselvesatthebattleofMegara：——

’SonsofAriston，’hesang，’divineoffspringofanillustrioushero。’

Theepithetisveryappropriate，forthereissomethingtrulydivineinbeingabletoargueasyouhavedoneforthesuperiorityofinjustice，andremainingunconvincedbyyourownarguments。AndIdobelievethatyouarenotconvinced——thisIinferfromyourgeneralcharacter，forhadIjudgedonlyfromyourspeechesIshouldhavemistrustedyou。Butnow，thegreatermyconfidenceinyou，thegreaterismydifficultyinknowingwhattosay。ForIaminastraitbetweentwo；ontheonehandIfeelthatIamunequaltothetask；andmyinabilityisbroughthometomebythefactthatyouwerenotsatisfiedwiththeanswerwhichImadetoThrasymachus，proving，asIthought，thesuperioritywhichjusticehasoverinjustice。AndyetI

cannotrefusetohelp，whilebreathandspeechremaintome；Iamafraidthattherewouldbeanimpietyinbeingpresentwhenjusticeisevilspokenofandnotliftingupahandinherdefence。AndthereforeIhadbestgivesuchhelpasIcan。

Glauconandtherestentreatedmebyallmeansnottoletthequestiondrop，buttoproceedintheinvestigation。Theywantedtoarriveatthetruth，first，aboutthenatureofjusticeandinjustice，andsecondly，abouttheirrelativeadvantages。Itoldthem，whatI

——reallythought，thattheenquirywouldbeofaseriousnature，andwouldrequireverygoodeyes。Seeingthen，Isaid，thatwearenogreatwits，IthinkthatwehadbetteradoptamethodwhichImayillustratethus；supposethatashort—sightedpersonhadbeenaskedbysomeonetoreadsmalllettersfromadistance；anditoccurredtosomeoneelsethattheymightbefoundinanotherplacewhichwaslargerandinwhichtheletterswerelarger——iftheywerethesameandhecouldreadthelargerlettersfirst，andthenproceedtothelesser——thiswouldhavebeenthoughtararepieceofgoodfortune。

Verytrue，saidAdeimantus；buthowdoestheillustrationapplytoourenquiry？

Iwilltellyou，Ireplied；justice，whichisthesubjectofourenquiry，is，asyouknow，sometimesspokenofasthevirtueofanindividual，andsometimesasthevirtueofaState。

True，hereplied。

AndisnotaStatelargerthananindividual？

Itis。

Theninthelargerthequantityofjusticeislikelytobelargerandmoreeasilydiscernible。Iproposethereforethatweenquireintothenatureofjusticeandinjustice，firstastheyappearintheState，andsecondlyintheindividual，proceedingfromthegreatertothelesserandcomparingthem。

That，hesaid，isanexcellentproposal。

AndifweimaginetheStateinprocessofcreation，weshallseethejusticeandinjusticeoftheStateinprocessofcreationalso。

Idaresay。

WhentheStateiscompletedtheremaybeahopethattheobjectofoursearchwillbemoreeasilydiscovered。

Yes，farmoreeasily。

Butoughtwetoattempttoconstructone？Isaid；fortodoso，asI

aminclinedtothink，willbeaveryserioustask。Reflecttherefore。

Ihavereflected，saidAdeimantus，andamanxiousthatyoushouldproceed。

AState，Isaid，arises，asIconceive，outoftheneedsofmankind；

nooneisself—sufficing，butallofushavemanywants。CananyotheroriginofaStatebeimagined？

TherecanIbenoother。

Then，aswehavemanywants，andmanypersonsareneededtosupplythem，onetakesahelperforonepurposeandanotherforanother；

andwhenthesepartnersandhelpersaregatheredtogetherinonehabitationthebodyofinhabitantsistermedaState。

True，hesaid。

Andtheyexchangewithoneanother，andonegives，andanotherreceives，undertheideathattheexchangewillbefortheirgood。

Verytrue。

Then，Isaid，letusbeginandcreateinideaaState；andyetthetruecreatorisnecessity，whoisthemotherofourinvention。

Ofcourse，hereplied。

Nowthefirstandgreatestofnecessitiesisfood，whichistheconditionoflifeandexistence。

Certainly。

Thesecondisadwelling，andthethirdclothingandthelike。

True。

Andnowletusseehowourcitywillbeabletosupplythisgreatdemand：Wemaysupposethatonemanisahusbandman，anotherabuilder，someoneelseaweaver——shallweaddtothemashoemaker，orperhapssomeotherpurveyortoourbodilywants？

Quiteright。

ThebarestnotionofaStatemustincludefourorfivemen。

Clearly。

Andhowwilltheyproceed？Willeachbringtheresultofhislaboursintoacommonstock？——theindividualhusbandman，forexample，producingforfour，andlabouringfourtimesaslongandasmuchasheneedintheprovisionoffoodwithwhichhesuppliesothersaswellashimself；orwillhehavenothingtodowithothersandnotbeatthetroubleofproducingforthem，butprovideforhimselfaloneafourthofthefoodinafourthofthetime，andintheremainingthree—fourthsofhistimebeemployedinmakingahouseoracoatorapairofshoes，havingnopartnershipwithothers，butsupplyinghimselfallhisownwants？

Adeimantusthoughtthatheshouldaimatproducingfoodonlyandnotatproducingeverything。

Probably，Ireplied，thatwouldbethebetterway；andwhenIhearyousaythis，Iammyselfremindedthatwearenotallalike；therearediversitiesofnaturesamonguswhichareadaptedtodifferentoccupations。

Verytrue。

Andwillyouhaveaworkbetterdonewhentheworkmanhasmanyoccupations，orwhenhehasonlyone？

Whenhehasonlyone。

Further，therecanbenodoubtthataworkisspoiltwhennotdoneattherighttime？

Nodoubt。

Forbusinessisnotdisposedtowaituntilthedoerofthebusinessisatleisure；butthedoermustfollowupwhatheisdoing，andmakethebusinesshisfirstobject。

Hemust。

Andifso，wemustinferthatallthingsareproducedmoreplentifullyandeasilyandofabetterqualitywhenonemandoesonethingwhichisnaturaltohimanddoesitattherighttime，andleavesotherthings。

Undoubtedly……

Thenmorethanfourcitizenswillberequired；forthehusbandmanwillnotmakehisownploughormattock，orotherimplementsofagriculture，iftheyaretobegoodforanything。Neitherwillthebuildermakehistools——andhetooneedsmany；andinlikemannertheweaverandshoemaker。

True。

Thencarpenters，andsmiths，andmanyotherartisans，willbesharersinourlittleState，whichisalreadybeginningtogrow？

True。

Yetevenifweaddneatherds，shepherds，andotherherdsmen，inorderthatourhusbandmenmayhaveoxentoploughwith，andbuildersaswellashusbandmenmayhavedraughtcattle，andcurriersandweaversfleecesandhides，——stillourStatewillnotbeverylarge。

Thatistrue；yetneitherwillitbeaverysmallStatewhichcontainsallthese。

Then，again，thereisthesituationofthecity——tofindaplacewherenothingneedbeimportediswell—nighimpossible。

Impossible。

Thentheremustbeanotherclassofcitizenswhowillbringtherequiredsupplyfromanothercity？

Theremust。

Butifthetradergoesempty—handed，havingnothingwhichtheyrequirewhowouldsupplyhisneed，hewillcomebackempty—handed。

Thatiscertain。

Andthereforewhattheyproduceathomemustbenotonlyenoughforthemselves，butsuchbothinquantityandqualityastoaccommodatethosefromwhomtheirwantsaresupplied。

Verytrue。

Thenmorehusbandmenandmoreartisanswillberequired？

Theywill。

Nottomentiontheimportersandexporters，whoarecalledmerchants？

Yes。

Thenweshallwantmerchants？

Weshall。

Andifmerchandiseistobecarriedoverthesea，skilfulsailorswillalsobeneeded，andinconsiderablenumbers？

Yes，inconsiderablenumbers。

Then，again，withinthecity，howwilltheyexchangetheirproductions？Tosecuresuchanexchangewas，asyouwillremember，oneofourprincipalobjectswhenweformedthemintoasocietyandconstitutedaState。

Clearlytheywillbuyandsell。

Thentheywillneedamarket—place，andamoney—tokenforpurposesofexchange。

Certainly。

Supposenowthatahusbandman，oranartisan，bringssomeproductiontomarket，andhecomesatatimewhenthereisnoonetoexchangewithhim，——ishetoleavehiscallingandsitidleinthemarket—place？

Notatall；hewillfindpeopletherewho，seeingthewant，undertaketheofficeofsalesmen。Inwell—orderedStatestheyarecommonlythosewhoaretheweakestinbodilystrength，andthereforeoflittleuseforanyotherpurpose；theirdutyistobeinthemarket，andtogivemoneyinexchangeforgoodstothosewhodesiretosellandtotakemoneyfromthosewhodesiretobuy。

Thiswant，then，createsaclassofretail—tradersinourState。

Isnot’retailer’thetermwhichisappliedtothosewhositinthemarket—placeengagedinbuyingandselling，whilethosewhowanderfromonecitytoanotherarecalledmerchants？

Yes，hesaid。