第8章

Endnotes，GabrielTarde，Lesloisde1’imitation，EnglishtranslationTheLawsofImitation。DemocracyinAmerica，vol。ii，bookiii，chap。21。TheWorksofEdmundBurke(Boston，1884)，vol。iii，p。277。AmenomoriintheAtlanticMonthly，Oct。1904。FrenchTraits。P。G。Hamerton’sworks，especiallyhisFrenchandEnglish，arealsofullofsuggestion。FrenchTraits，page284。Page295。Page295。Idem，page304。Page64。Imitation-coutumeandimitation-mode。AmericansshouldnoticethatwhattheyareapttocallthesnobbishnessoftheEnglishmiddleclass梩heiranxietytoimitatethosewhomtheyregardassocialsuperiors梙asitsgoodresultinproducingadisciplineinwhichmanyofusaresomewhatgrosslylacking。Itmaybebetter，inmannersforinstance，thatpeopleshouldadoptastandardfromquestionablemotivesthanthattheyshouldhavenostandardatall。Thetroublewithusistheprevalenceofasprawling，gossipingself-contentthatdoesnotknoworcarewhethersuchthingsasmanners，artandliteratureexistornot：，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter30：Formalismand，Disorganization，CHAPTERXXX

FORMALISMANDDISORGANIZATION，THENATUREOFFORMALISM——ITSEFFECTSUPONPERSONALITY——

FORMALISMINMODERNLIFE——DISORGANIZATION，“INDIVIDUALISM“——HOWIT

AFFECTSTHEINDIVIDUAL——RELATIONTOFORMALISM——“INDIVIDUALISM“IMPLES

DEFECTIVESYMPATHY——CONTEMPORARY“INDIVIDUALISM“——RESTLESSNESSUNDER

DISCOMFORT——THEBETTERASPECTOFDISORGANIZATION

Toomuchmechanisminsocietygivesussomethingforwhichtherearemanynames，slightlydifferentinmeaning，asinstitutionalism，formalism，traditionalism，conventionalism，ritualism，bureaucracyandthelike。Itisbynomeanseasy，however，todeterminewhethermechanismisinexcessornot。Itbecomesanevil，nodoubt，whenitinterfereswithgrowthandadaptation，whenitsuppressesindividualityandstupefiesormisdirectstheenergiesofhumannature。Butjustwhenthisisthecaseislikelynottobeclearuntiltheoccasionislongpastandwecanseethematterintheperspectiveofhistory。

Thus，inreligion，itiswellthatmenshouldadheretothecreedsandritualworkedoutinthepastforspiritualedification，solongasthesedo，onthewhole，fulfiltheirfunction;anditishardtofixthetime梟otthesamefordifferentchurches，classesorindividuals梬hentheyceasetodothis。Butitiscertainthattheydie，intime，likealltissue，andifnotclearedawaypresentlyrot。

Ithasbeenwellsaidthatformalismis“anexcessofthecrganoflanguage。”*

Theaimofallorganizationis，(343)toexpresshumannature，anditdoesthisthroughasystemofsymbols，whicharetheembodimentandvehicleoftheidea。Solongasspiritandsymbolarevitallyunitedandtheideaisreallyconveyed，alliswell，butsofastastheyareseparatedthesymbolbecomesanemptyshell，towhich，however，custom，prideorinterestmaystillcling。Itthensupplantsratherthanconveysthereality。

Underlyingallformalism，indeed，isthefactthatitispsychicallycheap;itsubstitutestheouterfortheinnerasmoretangible，morecapableofbeingheldbeforethemindwithoutfreshexpenseofthoughtandfeeling，moreeasilyextended，therefore，andimpresseduponthemultitude。Thusinourownarchitectureorliteraturewehaveinnumerablecheap，unfeltrepetitionsofformsthatweresignificantandbeautifulintheirtimeandplace。

TheeffectofformalismuponpersonalityistostarveitsNigherlifeandleaveitthepreyofapathy，self-complacency，sensualityandthelowernatureingeneral。Aformalizedreligionandaformalizedfreedomare，notoriously，thecongenialdwelling-placeofdepravityandoppression。

Whenasystemofthissortisthoroughlyestablished，asinthecaseofthelaterRomanEmpire，itconfinestheindividualmindasinanarrowcagebysupplyingitwithonlyonesortofsuggestions。Thevariationofideasandthesupplantingofoldtypesbynewcanbeginonlybyindividualsgettingholdofsuggestionsthatconflictwiththoseoftherulingsystem;

andintheabsenceofthisanoldtypemaygoonreproducingitselfindefinitely，indi-

(344)-vidualsseemingnomoretoitthantheleavesofatree，whichdropintheautumnandinthespringarereplacedbyothersindistinguishablefromthem。It“breedstrue“onthesameprinciplethatwildpigeons，longkepttoafixedtypebynaturallimitations，arelessvariablethan]

domesticspecies，inwhoserecentpasttherehavebeenelementsofchange。

AmongtheHindoos，forinstance，achildisbroughtup]frominfancyinsubjectiontoceremoniesandriteswhichstampuponhimtheimpressionofafixedandimmemorialsystem。Theycontrolthemostminutedetailsofhislife，andleavelittleroomforchoiceeitheronhispartorthatofhisparents。Thereisnoattempttojustifytraditionbyreason：customassuchisobligatory。

Intolerancegoesverynaturallywithformalism，sincetoamindintheunresistedgraspofafixedsystemofthoughtanythingthatdepartsfromthatsystemmustappearirrationalandabsurd。ThelowestChinamanunaffectedlydespisestheforeigner，ofwhateverrank，asavulgarbarbarian，justasChristiansusedtodespisetheJews，andtheJews，intheirtime，theSamaritans。

Tolerancecomesinalongwithpeacefuldiscussion，whenthereisacompetitionofvariouswaysofthinking，nooneofwhichisstrongenoughtosuppresstheothers。

InAmericaandwesternEuropeatthepresentdaythereisagreatdealofformalism，butitis，onthewhole，ofapartialandsecondarycharacter，existingratherfromtheinadequacyofvitalforcethanasarulingprinciple。

Thegeneralstateofthoughtfavorsadaptation，becauseweareusedtoitandhavefounditonthewholebeneficial。

(345)Weexpect，forexample，thatamorevitalandflexible;formoforganizationwillsupplanttherigidsystemsofRussiaandtheOrient，andwhateverinourownworldisanalogoustothese。

Butdeadmechanismistoonaturalaproductofhumanconditionsnottoexistatalltimes，andwemayeasilyfinditto-dayinthechurch，inpolitics，ineducation，industryandphilanthropy;whereverthereisalackofvitalthoughtandsentimenttokeepthemachineryplianttoitswork。

Thusourschools，highandlow，exhibitagreatdealofit。Routinemethods，hereaseverywhere，areadeviceforturningoutcheapworkinlargequantities，andthetemptationtousethem，intheeaseofateacherwhohastoomuchtodo，orisrequiredtodothatwhichhedoesnotunderstandorbelievein，isalmostirresistible。Indeed，theyaretoofrequentlyinculcatedbyprincipalsandtrainingschools，incontemptofthefactthattheoneessentialthinginrealteachingisapersonalexpressionbetweenteacherandpupil。Drilliseasyforonewhohasgottheknackofit，justbecauseitrequiresnothingvitalorpersonal，butisaconvenientapplianceforgettingthebusinessdonewithanappearanceofsuccessandlittletroubletoanyone。

Evenuniversitieshavemuchofthissortofcant。Inliterature，forinstance，whetherancientormodern，Englishorforeign，littlethatisvitaliscommonlyimparted。Compelledbyhispositiontoteachsomethingtolargeanddiverseclasses，theteacherisledtofixuponcertainmatters梥uchasgrammar，metres，orthebiographiesoftheauthors梬hosedefinitenesssuitsthemforthedidac-

(346)-ticpurpose，anddrillthemintothestudent;whiletherealthing，thesentimentsthatarethesoulofliterature，arenotcommunicated。Iftheteacherhimselffeelsthem，whichisoftenthecase，thefactthattheycannotbereducedtoformulasandtestedbyexaminationsdiscourageshimfromdwellinguponthem。

Inlikemannerourwholesystemofcommerceandindustryisformalinthesensethatitisavastmachinegrindingonandoninablindwaywhichisoftendestructiveofthehumannatureforwhoseserviceitexists。Mammon梐sinthepaintingbyWatts梚snotafiend，Iwilfullycrushingthewoman’sformthatliesunderhishand，butonlyasomewhathardenedmanoftheworld，lookinginanotherdirectionandpreoccupiedwiththeconductofbusinessuponbusinessprinciples。

Acuriousinstanceofthesamesortofthingisthestereotypingoflanguagebythecheappressandthehabitofhastyreading。Thenewspapersarecalledupontogiveamaximumofcommonplaceinformationforaminimumofattention，andindoingthisareledtoadoptasmallstandardvocabularyandauniformarrangementofwordsandsentences。Allthatrequiresfreshthought，eitherfromreaderorwriter，isavoidedtothegreatercomfortofboth。Thetelegraphplaysaconsiderablepartinthis，andanobserverfamiliarwithitstechniquepointsouthowitputsapremiumonlongbutunmistakablewords，onconventionalphrases(forwhichtheoperatorshavebriefsigns)andonasentencestructuresoobviousthatitcannotbeupsetbymistakesinpunctuation。[2]

(347)Inthiswayournewspapers，andthemagazinesandbooksthatpartakeoftheircharacter，aretheseatofaconventionalismperhapsasdestructiveofthespiritofliteratureasecclesiasticismisofthespiritofChristianity。

Theapparentoppositeofformalism，butinrealitycloselyakintoit，isdisorganizationordisintegration，often，thoughinaccurately，called“individualism。”[3]Oneismechanismsupreme，theothermechanismgoingtopieces;andbothareincontrasttothatharmonybetweenhumannatureanditsinstrumentswhichisdesirable。

Inthisstateofthingsgeneralorderanddisciplinearelacking。Thoughtheremaybepraiseworthypersonsandactivities，societyasawholewantsunityandrationality，likeapicturewhichisgoodindetailsbutdoesnotmakeapleasingcomposition。Individualsandspecialgroupsappeartobeworkingtoomuchatcrosspurposes;thereisa“reciprocalstruggleofdiscordantpowers“butthe“harmonyoftheuniverse“cloesnotemerge。

Asgoodactorsdonotalwaysmakeagoodtroupenorbravesoldiersagoodarmy，soanationorahistoricalepoch？sayItalyintheRenaissance梞aybeprolificindistinguishedpersonsandscatteredachievementsbutsomewhatfutileandchaoticasasystem。

Disorganizationappearsintheindividualasamindwithoutcogentandabidingallegiancetoawhole，andwithoutthelargerprinciplesofconductthatflowfromsuchallegiance。Thebetteraspectofthisisthatthelack，(348)ofsupportmaystimulateamantogreateractivityandindependence，theworsethattheabsenceofsocialstandardsislikelytolowerhisplaneofachievementandthrowhimbackuponsensualityandotherprimitiveimpulses：

alsothat，ifheisofasensitivefibreheisapttobeoverstrainedbythecontestwithuntowardconditions。Howsoothingandelevatingitistobreathetheatmosphereofsomelargeandquietdiscipline。IrememberfeelingthisinreadingLordRoberts’Forty-oneYearsinIndia，abookpervadedwithonegreatandsimplethought，theAnglo-Indianservice，whichdominatesallnarrowconsiderationsandgivespeopleaworthyidealtoliveby。Howrarely，inourday，isabookoramandominatedbyrestfulandunquestionedfaithinanything！

Thefactthatgreatpersonalitiesoftenappearindisorderedtimesmayseemtobeacontradictionoftheprinciplethatthehealthydevelopmentofindividualsisonewiththatofinstitutions。ThustheItalianRenaissance，whichwasatimeofpoliticaldisorderandreligiousdecay，producedthegreatestpaintersandsculptorsofmoderntimes，andmanygreatpersonalitiesinliteratureandstatesmanship。Butthegeniuswhichmayappearinsuchaperiodisalways，inonepointofview，thefruitageofaforegoingandtraditionaldevelopment，neveramerelypersonalphenomenon。ThatthiswastrueofRenaissanceartneedsnoexposition;likeeverygreatachievementitwasfoundeduponorganization。

Itisnodoubtthecase，however，thatthereisaspurinthestrugglesofaconfusedtimewhichmayexciteafewindividualstoheroiceffortsandaccomplishment，justasafireorarailroaddisastermaybetheoccasionofheroism;

(349)andsothedisorderoftheRenaissancewasperhapsonecauseofthemenofgenius，aswellasofthedemoralizationwhichtheydidnotescape。

Itlooksatfirstsightasifformalismanddisorganizationwereasfarapartaspossible，butinfacttheyarecloselyconnected，thelatterbeingonlythenextstepaftertheformerinalogicalsequence梩hedecayofabodyalreadydead。Formalismgoesverynaturallywithsensuality，avarice，selfishambition，andothertraitsofdisorganization，becausethemerelyformalinstitutiondoesnotenlistanddisciplinethesouloftheindividual，buttakesholdofhimbytheoutside，hispersonalitybeinglefttotorporortoirreverentandriotousactivity。SointhelatercenturiesoftheRomanEmpire，whenitssystemwasmostrigid，thepeoplebecameunpatriotic，disorderlyandsensual。

Inthesamewayaschoolwhosedisciplineismerelyformal，notengagingtheinterestandgood-willofthescholar，isprettycertaintoturnoutunrulyboysandgirls，becausewhateverismostpersonalandvitalinthembecomesaccustomedtoassertitselfinoppositiontothesystem。Andsoinachurchwhereexternalobservancehasbeendevelopedattheexpenseofpersonaljudgment，theindividualconformstotheriteandthenfeelsfreeforallkindsofself-indulgence。Ingeneralthelower“individualism“

ofourtime，theruthlessself-assertionwhichissoconspicuous，forexample，inbusiness，isnotsomethingapartfromourinstitutionsbutexpressesthefactthattheyarelargelyformalandunhuman，notcontainingandenlargingthesouloftheindividual。

(350)Therealoppositeofbothformalismanddisorderisthatwholesomerelationbetweenindividualityandtheinstitutioninwhicheachsupportstheother，thelattercontributingastablebasisforthevitalityandvariationoftheformer。

Fromonepointofviewdisorganizationisalackofcommunicationandsocialconsciousness，adefectintheorganoflanguage，asformalismisanexcess。Thereisalways，Isuppose，alargerwhole;thequestioniswhethertheindividualthinksandfeelsitvividlythroughsomesortofsympatheticcontact;ifhedoeshewillactasamemberofit。

Inthewritingsofoneofthemostsearchingandyethopefulcriticsofourtimes[4]wefindthat“individualism“isidentifiedprimarilywithanisolationofsentiment，likethatofthescholarinhisstudy，thebusinessmaninhisofficeorthemechanicwhodoesnotfeelthebroadermeaningofhiswork。Theoppositeofitisthelifeofshoulder-to-shouldersympathyandcooperation，inwhichthedesireforseparatepowerordistinctionislostintheoverrulingsenseofcommonhumanity。Andthelogicalremedyfor“individualism“issoughtinthatbroadeningofthespiritbyimmediatecontactwiththelargercurrentsoflife，whichistheaimofthesocialsettlementandsimilarmovements。

Thisis，indeed，aninspiringandtimelyideal，butletusholditwithoutforgettingthatspecializedandlonesomeendeavor，indeedevenindividualprideandself-seeking，havealsotheiruses。Ifwedwelltooexclusivelyuponthe，(351)we-feelingandthelossoftheoneinthemany，wemaylapseintoastructurelessemotionalism。Eye-to-eyefellowshipandtheprideofsolitaryachievementarebothessential，eachinitsownway，tohumangrowth，andeitheriscapableofover-indulgence。Weneedthemosterectindividualwiththewidestbaseofsympathy。

Insofarasitistrueofourtimethatthelargerinterestsofsocietyarenotimpressedupontheindividual，sothathisprivateimpulsescooperatewiththepublicgood，itisatimeofmoraldisintegration。Awell-orderedcommunityislikeashipinwhicheachofficerandseamanhasconfidenceinhisfellowsandinthecaptain，andiswellaccustomedtodohisdutywithnomorethanordinarygrumbling。Allhangstogether，andissubjecttoreasonintheformoflong-triedrulesofnavigationanddiscipline。

Virtueisasystemandmendoheroicactsaspartoftheday’sworkandwithoutself-consciousness。Butsupposethattheshipgoestopieces條etussayuponaniceberg梩hentheorderlywholeisbrokenupandofficers，seamenandpassengersfindthemselvesstrugglingmiscellaneouslyinthewater。Rationalcontrolandthevirtuethatishabitbeinggone，eachoneisthrownbackuponhisundisciplinedimpulses。Survivaldependsnotuponwisdomorgoodness梐sitlargelydoesinasocialsystem梑utuponruthlessforce，andthebestmayprobablyperish。

Hereis“individualism“inthelowestsense，anditistheanalogueofthiswhichissaid，notwithoutsomereason，topervadeourownsociety。

Oldinstitutionsarepassingawayandbetterones，wehope，arepreparingtotaketheir，(352)place，butinthemeantimethereisalackofthathigherdisciplinewhichprintsthegoodofthewholeupontheheartofthemember。Inatraditionalorderoneisaccustomedfromchildhoodtoregardusage，theauthorityofeldersandthedominantinstitutionsastheruleoflife。“Soitmustbe“

isone’sunconsciousconviction，and，liketheseaman，hedoeswiseandheroicthingswithoutknowingit。Butinourowntimethereisformanypersons，ifnotmost，noauthoritativecanonoflife，andforbetterorworseweareruledbynativeimpulseandbythatprivatereasonwhichmaybesoweakwhendetachedfromarationalwhole。Thehighermorality，ifitistobeattainedatall，mustbespeciallythoughtout;andofthefewwhocandothisalargepartexhausttheirenergyinthinkinganddonotpracticewithanyheartinessthetruthstheyperceive。

Wefind，then，thatpeoplehavetomakeuptheirownmindsupontheirdutiesaswives，husbands，mothersanddaughters;uponcommercialobligationandcitizenship;upontheuniverseandthenatureandauthorityofGod。

Inevitablymanyofusmakeapoorbusinessofit。Itistoomuch。Itisasifeachoneshouldsitdowntoinventalanguageforhimself：thesethingsshouldbethoughtoutgradually，cooperativelyeachaddinglittleandacceptingmuch。Thatgreattraditionsshouldrapidlygotopiecesmaybeanecessaryphaseofevolutionandadisguisedblessing，butthepresenteffectislargelydistractionanddemoralization。

Inparticular，wenoticethatfewwhohaveburdenstobeararemuchunderthecontrolofsubmissivetradition，(353)buteveryoneasks“WhymustIbearthis？”andthepainoftryingtoseewhyisoftenworsethantheevilitself。Thereiscommonlynoobviousreason，andtheanswerisoftenasenseofrebellionandabitternessoutofwhichcomes，perhapsrecklessness，divorce，orsuicide。

WhyamIpoorwhileothersarerich？WhydoIhavetodoworkIdonotlike？WhyshouldIbehonestwhenothersareunscrupulous？WhyshouldIwearmyselfoutbearingandrearingchildren？WhyshouldIbefaithfultomyhusbandorwifewhenwearenothappytogether，andanotherwouldpleasemebetter？WhyshouldIbelieveinagoodGodwhenallIknowisabadworld？WhyshouldIlivewhenIwishtodie？Never，probably，weresomanyaskingsuchquestionsasthisandfindingnoclearanswer。Therehavebeenothertimesofanalogousconfusion，butitcouldneverhavepenetratedsodeeplyintothemassesasitdoesinthesedaysofuniversalstirandcommunication。

Howcontemptiblethesecalculationsseemincomparisonwiththeattitudeofthesoldier，whoknowsthathemustsufferprivationandnotimprobablydeath，andyetfacestheprospectquitecheerfully，withacertainprideinhisself-devotion。Inthisspirit，evidently，allthedutiesoflifeoughttobetakenup。Butthesoldier，theseaman，thefireman，thebrakeman，thedoctorandotherswhosetradeleadsthemintoobviousperilhaveonegreatadvantage：theyknowwhattheirdutyisandhavenootherthoughtthantodoit;thereisnomentaldistractiontocomplicatethesituation。

Andasfastasprinciplesbecomesettledandhabitsformed，peoplewillbeasheroicinotherfunctionsastheyareinthese。

(354)WemayapplytomanyinourowntimethewordsofBurckhardtindescribingthedisorganizationoftheRenaissance：“Thesightofvictoriousegoisminothersdriveshimtodefendhisownrightbyhisownarm。And，whilethinkingtorestorehisinwardequilibrium，hefalls，throughthevengeancewhichheexecutes，intothehandsofthepowersofdarkness。”

Thatis，wethinkwemustbeasselfishasotherpeople，butfindthatselfishnessismiseryInoticethatmanymen，evenofmuchnaturalsympathyandfellow-feeling，haveaccepted“everymanforhimself“asakindofdogma，makingthemselvesbelievethatitisthenecessaryruleofacompetitivesociety，andpracticingitwithakindoffanaticismwhichgoesagainsttheirbetternatures。Perhapsthesensitivearemoreapttodothisthanothers梑ecausetheyaremoreupsetbythespectacleof“victoriousegoism“

aroundthem。Butthetruegoodoftheindividualisfoundonlyinsubordinatinghimselftoarationalwhole;andinturningagainstothershedestroyshimself。

Theembitteredanddistractedindividualmustbeabadcitizen。Thereisthesamekindofmoraldifferencebetweenthosewhofeellifeasarationalwhole，andsohavesomesortofabeliefinGod，asthereisbetweenanarmythatbelievesinitscommanderandonethatdoesnot。Ineithercasethefeelingdoesmuchtobringaboutitsownjustification。

Thefactthatthebreakingupoftraditionsthrowsmenbackuponimmediatehumannaturehas，however，itsgoodaswellasitsbadside。Itmayobscurethoselargertruthsthatarethegrowthoftimeandmayletloosepride，(355)sensualityandscepticism;butitalsoawakensthechildinmanandachildlikepliabilitytothebetteraswellastheworseinnaturalimpulse。Wemaylook，amongpeoplewhohavelostthesenseoftradition，forthesortofvirtues，aswellasofvices，thatwefindonthefrontier：

forplaindealing，loveofcharacterandforce，kindness，hope，hospitalityandcourage。Alongsideofanextravagantgrowthofsensuality，prideandcaprice，wehaveaboutusageneralcultofchildhoodandwomanhood，avastphilanthropy，andaninterestineverythingrelatingtothewelfareofthemassesofthepeople。Thelargeprivategiftstophilanthropicandeducationalpurposes，andthefactthatagreatdealofpersonalprideismingledwiththesegifts，areequallycharacteristicofthetime。

And，afterall，thereisneveranygeneralstateofextremedisintegration。

Suchasourtimesuffersfrominartandsocialrelationsischieflythepenaltyofaconcentrationofthoughtuponmaterialproductionandphysicalscience。Inthesefieldsthereisnolackofunifiedandcumulativeendeavor梩houghunhumaninsomeaspects梤esultingintotalachievement。IfwehavenotDanteandgothicarchitecture，wehaveDarwinandthemodernrailway……

Andasfastasthegeneralmindturnstootheraimswemayhopethatourchaoticmaterialwilltakeonorder。

Endnotes，ThePoet。Emerson。342，SeethearticlebyR。L。O’BrienintheAtlanticMonthly，Oct。1904。Inaccurately，becausethefulldevelopmentoftheindividualrequiresorganization，JaneAddams，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter31：Disorganization：TheFamily，CHAPTERXXXI

DISORGANIZATION：

THEFAMILY，OLDANDNEWREGIMESINTHEFAMILY——THEDECLININGBIRTH-RATE——

“SPOILED“CHILDREN——THEOPENINGOFNEWCAREERSTOWOMEN——EUROPEAN

ANDAMERICANPOINTSOFVIEW——PERSONALFACTORSINDIVORCE——INSTITUTIONAL

FACTORS——CONCLUSION

THEmediaevalfamily，likeothermediaevalinstitutions，wasdominatedbycomparativelysettledtraditionswhichreflectedtheneedsofthegeneralsystemofsocietyMarriagewasthoughtofchieflyasanallianceofinterests，andwasarrangedbytherulingmembersofthefamiliesconcernedongroundsofconvenance，thepersonalcongenialityofthepartiesbeinglittleconsidered。

WeknowthatthisviewofmarriagehasstillconsiderableforceamongthemoreconservativeclassesofEuropeansociety，andthatroyaltyornobility，ontheonehand，andthepeasantry，ontheother，adheretotheideathatitisafamilyratherthanapersonalfunction，whichshouldbearrangedongroundsofrankandwealth。InFranceitishardlyrespectabletomakearomanticmarriage，andMr。Hamertontellsofayoungwomanwhowasindignantatarumorthatshehadbeenweddedforlove，insistingthatithadbeenstrictlyamatterofconvenance。Healsomentionsayoungmanwhowascompelledtoaskhismotherwhichoftwosistershehadjustmetwastobehiswife。[1]

(357)

Alongwiththissubordinationofchoiceincontractingmarriagegenerallywentanautocraticfamilydiscipline。Legallythewifeandchildrenhadnoseparaterights，theirpersonalitybeingmergedinthatofthehusbandandfather，whilesociallythelatterwasrathertheirmasterthantheircompanion。Hisrule，however梩houghitwasnodoubtharshandoftenbrutal，judgedbyournotions梐uthorityinourday;sincehewaswaspossiblynotsoarbitraryandwhimsicalaswouldbetheexerciseofsimilarhimselfsubordinatenotonlytosocialsuperiors，butstillmoretotraditionalideas，defininghisowndutiesandthoseofhishousehold，whichhefeltboundtocarryout。Thewholesystemwasauthoritative，admittinglittleplayofpersonalchoice。

Evidentlythedriftofmodernlifeisawayfromthisstateofthings。

Thedecayofsettledtraditions，embracingnotonlythoserelatingdirectlytothefamilybutalsothereligiousandeconomicideasbywhichtheseweresupported，hasthrownusbackupontheunschooledimpulsesofhumannature。Inenteringuponmarriagethepersonaltastesofthecoupledemandgratification，and，rightorwrong，thereisnoauthoritystrongenoughtoholdthemincheck。Nor，ifuponexperienceitturnsoutthatpersonaltastesarenotgratified，istherecommonlyanyinsuperableobstacletoadissolutionofthetie。Beingmarried，theyhavechildrensolongastheyfindit，onthewhole，agreeabletotheirinclinationstodoso，butwhenthispointisreachedtheyproceedtoexercisechoicebyrefusingtobearandrearanymore。AndasthespiritofchoiceisinItheair，thechildrenarenotslowtoinhaleitandtoexercisetheirownwillsinaccordancewiththesamelawofim-

(358)-pulsetheireldersseemtofollow。“Doasyoupleasesolongasyoudonotevidentlyharmothers“istheonlyruleofethicsthathasmuchlife;thereislittleregardforanyhigherdiscipline，fortheslowlybuilttraditionsofadeeperrightandwrongwhichcannotbejustifiedtothefeelingsofthemoment。

Amongthephasesofthisdomestic“individualism“orrelapsetoimpulseareadecliningbirthrateamongthecomfortableclasses，somelackofdisciplineandrespectinchildren，agrowingindependenceofwomenaccompaniedbyallegedneglectofthefamily，andanincreaseofdivorce。

Thecausesofdeclineinthebirthrateareclearlypsychological，being，ingeneral，thatpeoplepreferambitionandluxurytothelargefamiliesthatwouldinterferewiththem。

Freedomofopportunitydiffusesarestlessdesiretoriseintheworld，beneficentfrommanypointsofviewbutbynomeansfavorabletonaturalincrease。Mendemandmoreoflifeinthewayofpersonalself-realizationthaninthepast，andittakesalongertimeandmoreenergytogetit，theconsequencebeingthatmarriageispostponedandthebirth-rateinmarriagedeliberatelyrestricted。Theyoungpeopleofthewell-to-doclasses，amongwhomambitionismostdeveloped，commonlyfeelpoorerinregardtothismatterthanthehand-workers，sothatwefindinEngland，forinstance，thattheprofessionalmenmarryatanaverageageofthirty-one，whileminersmarryattwenty-four。Moreover，whilethehand-workingclasses，bothonthefarmsandintowns，expectto，(359)maketheirchildrenmorethanpayforthemselvesaftertheyarefourteenyearsold，alargefamilythusbecominganinvestmentforfutureprofit，thewell-to-do，onthecontrary，seeintheirchildrenasourceofindefinitelycontinuousexpense。Andthetrendofthingsisbringinganeverlargerproportionofthepeoplewithintheambitiouschtssesandsubjecttothissortofchecks。

Thespreadofluxury，orevencomfort，worksinthesamedirectionbycreatingtastesandhabitsunfavorabletothebearingandrearingofmanychildren。Amongthosewhoselife，ingeneral，ishardthesethingsarenotharderthantherest，andacertaincallousnessofmindthatisapttoresultfrommonotonousphysicallaborrenderspeoplelesssubjecttoanxiety，asarule，thanthosewhomightappeartohavelessoccasionforit。Thejoyofchildren，the“luxuryofthepoor，“mayalsoappearbrighterfromthedulnessandhardshipagainstwhichitisrelieved。Butaspeopleacquirethehabit，oratleastthehope，ofcomforttheybecomeawarethatadditionalc}ildrenmeanasacrificewhichtheyoftenrefusetomake。

Theseinfluencesgohand-in-handwiththatgeneraltendencytorebelagainsttroublewhichisinvolvedinthespiritofchoice。Informerdayswomenacceptedthebearingofchildrenandtheaccompanyingcaresandprivationsasamatterofcourse;itdidnotoccurtothemthatanythingelsewaspossible。Now，beingaccustomedtochoosetheirlife，theydemandareasonwhytheyshouldundergohardships;andsincetheadvantageswhicharetofollowaredoubtfulandremote，andthesufferingnearandobvious，theyarenotunlikelytorefuse。Toocom-

(360)-monlytheyhavenoinwroughtprinciplesandtrainingthatdisposethemtosubmit。

Thedistractionofchoicegrievouslyincreasestheactualburdenandstressuponwomen)foritiscomparativelyeasytoputupwiththeinevitable。

Whatwithmoralstrainofthissortandtheanxiousselectionamongconflictingmethodsofnurtureandeducationitpossiblycoststhemotherofto-daymorepsychicalenergytoraisefourchildrenthanitdidhergrandmothertoraiseeight。

Itwouldbestrangeifchildrenwerenothospitabletothemodernsentimentthatonewillisasgoodasanother，exceptastheothermaybedemonstrablywiserinregardtothematterinhand。Willingsubmissiontoauthorityassuch，orsenseofthevalueofdisciplineasaconditionofthelargerandlessobviouswell-beingofsociety，ishardlytobeexpectedfromchildishreasoning，andmustcome，ifatall，astheunconsciousresultofatrainingwhichreflectsgeneralsentimentandcustom。Itisinstitutionalinitsnature，notvisiblyreasonable。

Butthechild，inourday，findsnosuchinstitution，nogeneralstateofsentimentsuchasexistsinJapanandexistedinourownpast，whichfillsthemindfrominfancywithsuggestionsthatparentsaretobereverencedandobeyed;nordoparentsordinarilydomuchtoinstilthisbytraining。

Probably，sogreatisthepowerofgeneralopinioneveninchildhood，theywouldhardlysucceediftheytried，butasaruletheydonotseriouslytry。Beingthemselvesaccustomedtotheviewthatauthoritymustappealtothereasonofthesubject，theyseenothingstrange，(361)Thefondattentionwhichparentsgivetotheirchildrenisoftenofasorttooverstimulatetheirself-consequence。Thisconstantlyaskingthem，Whatwouldyoulike？Shallwedothisorthat？Wheredoyouwanttogo？andsoon，thoughamiableonourpart，doesthechildlittlegood。

Theoldpracticeofkeepingchildrenatadistance，whateveritsevils，wasmoreapttofosterreverence。

Amonghand-workers，especiallyinthecountry，theworkbeingmoreobviousandoftensharedbythewholefamily，thepressureofnecessarylabormakesakindofdisciplineforall，andthechildrenaremorelikelytoseethattherearerulesandconditionsoflifeabovetheirimmediatepleasure。

Socialplay，aswehaveseen，mayalsodomuchforthisperception。Butthisvisiblecontrolofahigherlawhasadecreasingpartinmodernlife，especiallywiththewell-to-doclasses，whoselaborsareseldomsuchaschildrenmayshare，orevenunderstand。

Inthis，asinsomanyotherrespects，weareapproachingahigherkindoflifeatthecostofincidentaldemoralization。Themodernfamilyatitsbest，withitsintimatesympathyanditsdisciplineoflove，isofahighertypethanthefamilyofanolderregime。“Inever，“saidThackeray，“sawpeopleonbettertermswitheachother，morefrank，affectionate，andcordial，thantheparentsandthegrown-upyoungfolksintheUnitedStates。Andwhy？Becausethechildrenwerespoiled，tobesure。”[2]Butwherethisidealisnotreached，thereisapttobeasomewhatdisastrousfailurewhichmakesoneregrettheauto-

(362)-craticandtraditionalorder。Notmerelyisdisciplinelacking，buttheaffectionwhichmightbesupposedtogowithindulgenceisturnedtoindifference，ifnotcontempt。Asarulewelovethosewecanlookupto，thosewhostandforthehigherideal。Inolddaysparentssharedsomewhatinthatdivinitywithwhichtraditionhedgedthegreatoftheearth，andmightreceiveareverencenotdependentupontheirpersonality;andevento-daytheyarelikelytobebetterlovediftheyexactrespect梛ustasanofficerisbetterlovedwhoenforcesdisciplineandisnottoofamiliarwithhissoldiers。Humannatureneedssomethingtolookupto，anditisapitywhenparentsdonotinpartsupplythisneedfortheirchildren。

Inshort，thechild，likethewoman，helpstobeartheoftengrievousburdenofdisorganization;bearsit，amongthewell-to-doclasses，inanill-regulatedlife，inlackofreverenceandlove，innervousnessandpetulance;

aswellasinprematureandstuntinglaboramongthepoor：

Theopeningofnewcareerstowomenandaresultingeconomicindependenceapproachingthatofmenisanotherphaseof“individualism“thathasitsworseandbetteraspects。Ingeneralithas，throughthefullerself-expressionofwomen，mostbeneficialreactionsbothuponfamilylifeandsocietyatlarge，butcreatessometroubleinthewayofdomesticreluctanceanddiscontent。

Thedispositiontorejectmarriagealtogethermaybesetasideasscarcelyexistent。Themarriagerateshowslittledecline，thoughtheaverageageissomewhatadvancedThewage-earningoccupationsofwomenaremostlyofatemporarycharacter，andthegreatmajorityofdomestic，(363)servants，shopandfactorygirls，clerks，typewritersandteachersmarrysoonerorlater。Thereisnoreasontodoubtthatacongenialmarriagecontinuestobethealmostuniversalfeminineideal。

Amorerealproblem，perhapsisfoundintheexcessiverequirements，inthewayofcomfortandrefinement，thatyoungwomenaresaidtocherish。

IntheUnitedStatestheireducation，sofarasgeneralcultureisconcerned，outstripsthatofmen，somethinglikethree-fifthsofourhighschoolpupilsbeinggirls，whileeveninthehigherinstitutionsthestudyofhistory，foreignlanguagesandEnglishliteratureislargelygivenovertowomen。

Acertainsenseofsuperioritycomingfromthisstateofthingsprobablycausestherejectionofsomehonestclerksorcraftsmenbygirlswhocanhardlylookforabetteroffer;andithasatendencytowardthecultivationofrefinementattheexpenseofchildrenwheremarriagedoesoccur。Itneedhardlybesaid，however，thataggressiveidealismOilthepartofwomenisinitselfnobadthing，andthatitdoesharmonlywhereill-directed。

Hardlyanything，forinstance，wouldbemoresalutarythanthegeneralenforcementbywomenofahighermoralstandarduponthemenwhowishtomarrythem。

Andcertainlynothinginmoderncivilizationismorewidelyandsubtlybeneficentthantheenlargementofwomeninsocialfunction。Itmeansthatahalfofhumannatureisnewlyenfranchised，instructedandenabledtobecomeamoreconsciousandeffectivefactorinlife。Theidealsofhomeandthecareofchildren，inspiteofpessimists，arechangingforthebetter，andtheworkofwomeninindependentcareersislargelyinthedirection，(364)ofmuch-neededsocialserviceeducationandphilanthropyinthelargestsenseofthewords。Anyonefamiliarwiththesemovementsknowsthatmuchoftheintellectualandmostoftheemotionalforcebackofthemisthatofwomen’Onemaysaythatthematernalinstincthasbeensetfreeandorganizedonavastscale，fortheactivitiesinwhichwomenmostexcelarethoseinspiredbysympathywithchildrenandwiththeweakorsufferingclasses。

TothecontinentalEuropean，accustomedtoasocietyinwhichthefunctionsandconventionsofmenandwomenaresharplydistinguishedanddefinedbytradition，itseemsthatAmericansbreakdownanaturalandsalutarydifferentiation，makingwomenmasculineandmenfemininebyatooindiscriminateassociationandcompetition。Nodoubtthereissomegroundfordistinctstandardsandeducation，andinthegeneralcrumblingoftraditionsandswayofasomewhatdoctrinaireideaofequalitysome“achieveddistinctions“ofvaluemayhavebeenlostsightof。Likeothersocialdifferentiations，however，thisisonethatcannolongerbedeterminedbyauthority，butmustworkitselfoutinafreeplayofexperiment。AsMr。Ellissays，“Thehopeofourfuturecivilizationliesinthedevelopment，inequalfreedom，ofboththemasculineandfeminineelementsinlife。”[3]

Perhaps，also，themasculineelement，asbeingonthewholemorerationalandstable，shouldbethemainsourceofgovernment，keepinginordertheemotionalitymorecommonlydominantinwomen：anditmayappearthatthiscontrollingfunctionisill-performedinAmerica。It，(365)shouldberemembered，however，thatwithustheemancipationofwomencomeschieflyfrommaleinitiativeandisavoluntaryfosteringofdasewigWeiblicheoutofloveandrespectforit。AndalsothatmostEuropeansocietiesgovernwomenlbycoercivelawsorconventionsand，inthelowerclasses，evenbyblows。Americanshavealmostwhollyforegonetheseextrinsicaids，aimingatahigherorvoluntarydiscipline，andifAmericanwomenare，afterall，quiteaswellguided，onthewhole，asthoseofEurope，itisnomeanachievement。Thereareingeneraltwosortsofforces，onepersonalandoneinstitutional，whichholdpeopletogetherinwedlock。BythepersonalImeanthosewhichspringmoredirectlyfromnaturalimpulse，andmayberoughlysummedupasaffectionandcommoninterestinchildren。Theinstitutionalarethosethatcomemorefromthelargerorganizationofsociety，suchaseconomicinterdependenceofhusbandandwife，orthestateofpublicsentiment，traditionandlaw。

Asregardsaffection，presentconditionsshouldapparentlybefavorabletothestrengthofthebond。Sincepersonalchoiceissolittleinterferedwith，andthewholematterconductedwithaviewtocongeniality，itwouldseemthatahighdegreeofcongenialitymust，onthewhole，besecured。

And，indeed，thisiswithoutmuchdoubtthecase：nowhereprobably，istheresolargeaproportionofcouplesli-vingtogetherinloveandconfidenceasinthosecountrieswheremarriageismostfree。Evenifseriousfrictionarises，thefactthateachhaschosentheotherwithoutconstraintfavorsasenseofresponsibilityforthe，(366)relation，andadeterminationtomakeitsucceedthatmightbelackinginanarrangedmarriage。Weknowthatifwedonotmarryhappilyitisourownfault，andthemorecharacterandself-respect~ehasethemore~etrytomakethebestofourventure。Therecanhardlybeageneralfeelingthatmarriageisonethingandloveanother，suchasmayprevailundertheruleofconvenance。

Yetitisnotinconsistenttosaythatthisaimatloveincreasesdivorce。

Thetheorybeingthatthecontractingpartiesaretobemadehappy，then，iftheyarenot，itseemstofollowthattherelationisafailureandshouldcease：thebrightertheidealthedarkerthefactbycontrast。Whereinterestandcustomrulemarriagethosewhoenterintoitmaynotexpectcongeniality，or，iftheydo，theyfeelthatitissecondaryanddonotdreamofdivorcebecauseitisnotachieved。Thewomanmarriesbecauseherparentstellherto，becausemarriageishercareer，andbecauseshedesiresaweddingandtobemistressofahousehold;themanbecausehewantsahouseholdandchildrenandisnotindifferenttothedowry。Thesetangibleaims，ofwhichonecanbefairlysecurebeforehand，givestabilitywhereloveproveswanting。

Andwhilefreedominwell-orderedmindstendstowardresponsibilityandtheendeavortomakethebestofachosencourse，intheill-ordereditislikelytobecomeanimpulsivenesswhichisdisplayedequallyincontractingandinbreakingoffmarriagewithoutgoodcause。Theconditionsofourtimegiveaneasyreintoundisciplinedwills，andoneindexoftheiractivityisthedivorcerate。Badtraininginchildhoodisalargefactorinthis，neglectedorspoiledchildrenmakingbadhusbandsorwives，and，(367)probablyfurnishingthegreaternumberofthedivorced。Commonobservationseemstoshowthatthelatterareseldompeopleofthoroughlywholesomeantecedents。

Itmaynotbeamisstoaddthatpersonalaffectionisattilebestaninadequatefoundationformarriage。Toexpectthatonepersonshouldmakeanotherhappyorgoodisrequiringtoomuchofhumannature。Bothpartiesoughttobesubjecttosomehigheridea，inreverenceforwhichtheymayriseabovetheirownimperfection：thereoughttobesomethinginthewayofreligioninthecase。AremarkwhichGoethemadeofpoetrymightwellbeappliedtopersonallove：“Itisaverygoodcompanionoflife，butinnowaycompetenttoguideit“;[4]andbecausepeoplehavenohigherthoughttoshelterthemindisappointmentisfrequentlythereasonthatmarriageprovesafailure。

Asregardsinstitutionalbondsthereisofcourseagreatrelaxation。

Thuseconomicinterdependencedeclineswiththeadvanceofspecialization。

Thehomeindustriesaremostlygone，andeveryyearmorethingsareboughtthatusedtobemadeinthehouse。Littleisleftbutcooking，andthat，eitherasataskofthewifeorintheshapeoftheDomesticServiceQuestion，issotroublesomethatmanyareeagertoseeitfollowtherest。Atonetimemarriagewas，forwomen，abouttheonlywaytoarespectablemaintenance，whiletomenagoodhousewifewasequallyaneconomicnecessity。Nowthisistrueonlyofthefarmingpopulation，(368)andlesstrueofthemthanitusedtobeinthetownstheeconomicconsiderationsaremostlyopposedtomarriedlife。

Besidesmakinghusbandandwifelessnecessarytoeachother，thesechangestendtomakemarriedwomenrestless。Nothingworksmoreforsanityandcontentmentthanareasonableamountofnecessaryandabsorbinglabor;

discipliningthemindandgivingoneasenseofbeingofuseintheworld。

Itseemsaparadoxtosaythatidlenessisexhausting，butthereismuchtruthinit，especiallyinthecaseofsensitiveandeagerspirits。Aregularandnecessarytaskreststhewillbygivingitassurance，whiletheabsenceofsuchataskweariesitbyuncertaintyandfutilechoice。Justasapersonwhofollowsatrailthroughthewoodswillgofurtherwithlessexertionthanonewhoisfindinghisway，soweallneedafoundationofroutine，andthelackofthisamongwomenofthericherclassesisachiefcauseoftherestless，exacting，oftenhysterical，spirit，harassingtoitsownerandeveryoneelse，whichtendstowarddiscontent，indiscretionanddivorce。

Theoldtraditionalsubordinationonthepartofthewifehaditsuses，likeotherdecayingstructuresofthepast;andhoweverdistastefultomodernideasoffreedom，wasafactorinholdingthefamilytogether。For，afterall，nosocialorganizationcanbeexpectedtosubsistwithoutsomeregularsystemofgovernment。Wesaythatthemodernfamilyisademocracy;

andthissoundsverywell;butanarchyissometimesamorecorrectdescription。

Awell-ordereddemocracyhasaconstitutionandlaws，prescribingtherightsanddutiesofthevariousmembersofthestate，andprovidingamethodofdeterminingcon-

(369)-troversies：thefamily，exceptaswerecognizewithinreasonablelimitstheauthorityofthehusbandandfather，hasnothingofthesort。

Solongasthemembersareoneinmindandfeelingthereisanunconsciousharmonywhichhasnothingtodowithauthority;butwithevenslightdivergencecomestheneedofdefinitecontrol。Whatwouldhappenonshipboardifthecaptainhadtogovernbymerepersonalascendancy，withoutthebackingofmaritimelawandcustom？Evidentlytherewouldbemutinies，asamongpiratecrews，whichonlyanuncommonlystrongmancouldquell;andthefamilyisofteninasimilarcondition。[5]

Therelaxationofmoralsentimentregardingmarriagebymigrationsandothersortsofdisplacementiseasilytracedinstatistics，whichshowthatdivorceismorefrequentinnewcountries，incities梡eopledbymigration梐ndintheindustrialandcommercialclassesmostaffectedbyeconomicchange。Tohaveaneffectivepublicopinionholdingpeopletotheirdutyitisimportantthatmenshouldlivelonginoneplaceandinonegroup，inheritingtraditionalideasandenforcingthemuponone，(370)another。Allbreakingupofoldassociationsinvolvesan“individualism“

whichisnowheremoreactivethaninfamilyrelations。

Thesameprinciplesgotoexplaindiminishedcontrolbythelawandthechurch。ThuswenoticethatthestatesoftheAmericanUnion，havingmadetheirmarriagelawsincomparativeindependenceoftheEnglishtraditionandinharmonywitharelaxingpublicsentiment，havemuchdivorce;whileinCanadatherestraininghandofthattraditionhaskeptthelawconservativeandmadedivorcedifficultandrare。ThesurprisingcontrastinthisregardbetweenthetwosidesoftheDetroitorSt。Lawrenceriversisonlypartlyexplainedbythedifferentsocialtraitsofthepeople。

Christianteachingisthechiefsourceoftheidealofmarriageasasacredandalmostindissolublebond，andchurchorganizationhasbeenthemainagentinenforcingthisideal。TheRomanCatholicchurchhasneveradmittedthepossibilityofabsolutedivorce，andtoherauthority，chiefly，isdueitsabsenceinSpainandItaly;whileinEnglandtheEstablishedChurch，notmuchbehindRomeinstrictness，hasbeenperhapsthechiefcauseofconservatisminEnglishlawandsentiment。AndtheotherProtestantchurches，thoughmoreliberal，areconservativeincomparisonwiththedriftofpopularfeeling。Sothefact，needlesstodiscussinthisconnection，thatthedisciplinaryauthorityofthechurchhasdeclined，makesdirectlyfortheincreaseofdivorce。

Therelaxationofthefamilyisdue，then，tochangesprogressiveonthewhole，butinvolvingmuchincidental，(371)demoralization;beingingeneralthosearisingfromasomewhatrapiddecayofoldtraditionsanddisciplinesandaconsequentdependenceuponhumanimpulseandreason。

Theevilinvolvedislargelyoldevilinanewform;itisnotsomuchthatnewtroubleshavearisenbetweenhusbandandwifeasthatanewremedyissoughtforoldones。Theyquarreledandmarriagevowswerebrokenquiteasmuchinformertimesasnow，asmuchinEnglandtodayasinAmerica：

themaindifferenceisintheoutcome。

Moreover，thematterhasitsbrighterside;fordivorcethoughfullofevils，isassociatedwithabeneficentriseinthestandingofwomen，ofwhichitistoacertaindegreetl~ecause。Thefactthatlawandopinionnowpermitwomentorevoltagainsttheabuseofmaritalpoweroperateswidelyandsubtlytoincreasetheirself-respectandtherespectofothersforthem，andliketherightofworkmentostrike，doesmostofitsgoodwithoutovertexercise。

Endnotes，FrenchandEnglish，357。Philip，chapter28。ManandWoman，396。DieMusedasLebenzwargembegleitet，abereskeineswegszuleitenversteht。Thattheincreaseofdivorcesisduechieflytotheinitiativeofthewifeisseeninthefactthatastheybecomemorenumerousanincreasingproportionisgrantedattheinstanceofthewoman。Undertheoldregimethedivorcingofahusbandwasalmostunknown，thefirsteaseinEnglandoeeurringin1801。(SeetheessayonMarriageandDivoreeinMr。Bryce’sStudiesinHistoryandJurisprudence。)IntheUnitedStatesagreatpreponderancearenowgrantedtowives，andthegreaterthetotalratethegreaterthispreponderance。InthosestateswheretherateishighesttheproportioniBfromtwo-thirdstothree-fourths。Itisnotfarwrongtosaythattheoldideaofdivorcewastoridthehusbandofanunfaithfulwife，thenewistoridthewifeofanuncongenialortroublesomehusband。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter32：Disorganization：TheChurch，CHAPTERXXXII

DISORGANIZATION：THECHURCH，THEPSYCHOLOGICALVIEWOFRELIGION——THENEEDOFSOCIAL

STRUCTURE——CREEDS——WHYSYMBOLSTENDTOBECOMEFORMAL——TRAITSOFA

GOODSYSTEMOFSYMBOLS——CONTEMPORARYNEEDOFRELIGION——NEWERTENDENCIES

INTHECHURCH

INreligion，too，ourdayisoneofconfusionininstitutionsandfallingbackuponhumannature。Themostnotablebooksofthedayinthisfieldare，firstofall，studiesinreligiouspsychology。Perceivingthatthequestionhascometobeoneoftheverybeingandfunctionofreligion，theyignorethediscussionofparticulardoctrines，politiesorsacraments，andseekafoundationinthenatureofthehumanmind。

Idonotwishtofollowtheseresearchesindetail：theirgeneraloutcomeisreassuring。Theyseemtoshowthatreligionisaneedofhumannature，centring，perhaps，inthecravingtomakelifeseemrationalandgood。Asthoughtitisbeliefregardingthepowerunderlyinglifeandourrelationtoit;ourconceptionsofGodandofotherdivineagentsservingassymbols梒hanginglikeothersymbolswiththegeneralstateofthought梠fthishiddenreality。Asfeelingitisavariousbodyofpassionandsentimentassociatedwiththisbelief;suchasthesenseofsinandofreconciliation;

dread，awe，reverence，loveand，(373)faith。Andreligiousactionissuchasexpresses，inonewayoranother，thissortofthoughtandfeeling。

Likeallourhigherlife，religionlivesonlybycommunicationandinfluence。Itssentimentsareplantedininstinct，butthesoilinwhichtheygrowissomesortoffosteringcommunitylife。Higherthought梒allitintellectual，spiritual，orwhatyouwill梔oesnotcometousbyanyshortandeasyroad，itsnaturebeingtorequirepreparationandoutlay，tobethedifficultandculminatingproductofhumangrowth。Andthisisquiteasmuchagrowthofthesocialorderasofindividuals，fortheindividualcutofffromthatscaffoldingofsuggestionthattheaspirationoftheracehasgraduallypreparedforhimissuretobelawlessandsensual：

hisspiritualimpulsecanhardlybemorethanafutileunrest，justastheuntaughtimpulseofspeechinadeafpersonproducesonlyinarticulatecries。Muchhasbeensaidofnaturalreligion;butifthismeansareligionachieveddenovobytheindividualmind，thereisnosuchthing，allreligionandreligioussentimentbeingmoreorlessdistinctlytraditional。

Wefind，then，thatthereligiouslifealwaysrestsuponasomewhatelaboratesocialstructure梟otnecessarilyachurch，butsomethingwhichdoesinfactwhatthechurchaimstodo。Thehighersentimentsnowpossibletousaresubtlyevokedandnourishedbylanguage，music，ritualandothertime-wroughtsymbols。Andevenmoreobviouslyareideas梠fGodandofthelargerbeing，ofreligiousobservance，governmentandduty梞attersofcommunalandseculargrowth。

Therootproblemofthechurch梐s，inasense，ofall，(374)organization梚stogettheuseofthesymbolwithouttheabuse。Wecannotholdourmindstothehigherlifewithoutaformofthought;andformsofthoughtcomebytraditionsandusageswhichareapttoenchainthespirit。“Woeuntotheethoustreamofhumancustom“;criesSt。Augustine，“Whoshallstaythycourse？Howlongshallitbebeforethouartdriedup？HowlongwiltthoucarrydownthesonsofEveintothathugeandformidableocean，whicheventhosewhoareembarkedontheTreecanscarcepassover？”[1]

Theiconoclasticfervoragainstformalismthatusefullybreaksoutfromtimetotimeshouldnotmakeusimaginethatreligioncandispensewithinstitutions。Thereisinreligiousthoughtatpresentmuchofakindofanarchismwhich，inthejustifiablerevoltagainstthepretensionsofauthority，isinclinedtooverlooktheimportanceoftraditionandstructure。

PerhapswemayciteEmersonasananarchistofthissort;hesawthenecessityofinstitutions，butwasinclinedbytemperamentandexperiencetodistrustthem，andtodwellalmostwhollyuponfreedom。

Isitnotthefact，however，thattheprogressofreligionhasbeenlessintheperceptionofnewtruththaninbringingithometothemanybyorganization？Thereisperhapslittleinreligiousthoughtthatwasnotadequatelyexpressedbyoccasionalthinkersmillenniumsago;

thegainhasbeeninworkingthisthoughtintothecorporatelife。Thegreatreligions桞uddhism，Judaism，Christianity，Mohammedanism梐renothingifnotsystems;thatistosay，althoughbasedonprimaryneedsofhumannature，theirverybeingaswidespreadreligionsconsists，(375)inasocialstructure，adaptedtothechangingstateofsociety，throughwhichtheseneedsaremetandfostered。ThustheappealofChristianitytothehumanmindmaybesaidtohaverested，inallperiodspartlyonthesymbolicpowerofapersonality梥oidealizedandinterpretedastobeineffectasystemaswellasaman梐ndpartlyonachangingbutalwayselaboratestructureofdoctrines，ritual，polity，preachingandthelike。Takeawaythesesymbolsandthereisnothingdistinctiveleft。

Andifthewholeistogoon，thesystemofsymbols，againrenewed，mustgoon，too。Nomoreinreligionthaninanyotherphaseoflifecanwehaveaninsidewithoutanoutside，essencewithoutform。

Theexistingcreeds，formulatedinapreviousstateofthought，havelostthatrelativetruththeyoncehadandarenow，formostofus，notcreedsatall，sincetheyareincredible;butcreedsofsomesortwemusthave。Acreedmay，perhaps，bedefinedasasettledwayofthinkingaboutmatterswhicharebeyondthereachofpositiveknowledge，butwhichthemindmustandwillthinkofinsomeway梟otably，ofcourse，aboutthelargerlifeandourrelationtoit。Forthemajority，whoarenotmetaphysicians，itismerewasteanddistractiontostruggleunaidedwiththeseproblems;weneedachartinthissea，apracticableformofthoughttoliveby。Thatcompetentmenshoulddevisesuchformsofthought，consistentwiththestateofknowledge，andthatothersymbolsshouldgrowupaboutthem，isasnaturalandusefulasanyotherkindofinvention。

Weneedtobelieve，andweshallbelievewhatwecan。JohnAddingtonSymondsdeclared，(376)that“healthofsoulresultsfrompossessingacreed，“

andhisownsufferingsintryingtomakeoneoutofthescatteredmaterialsofhistimearetypicalofthoseofagreatnumberofsensitiveminds，manyofwhomhavebeenharassedintodespairanddegradation。[2]Withoutsomeregularandcommonserviceoftheideal，somethinginthewayofprayerandworship，pessimismandselfishnessarealmostsuretoencroachuponus。

Thosewhoteachtruthinitsmereabstractnesscannevertakemuchholdofthegeneralmind，andsuccessawaitsateachingwhichisintellectuallysound(thatis，consistentwiththeclearerthoughtoftheday)，andatthesametimeable，byawealthoffitsymbols，tomakeitselfathomeinallsortsofplainminds。Anditisjustthisthatisapttobedestructivelywantinginatimeofintellectualandsocialchange。

Whyisitthatthesymbolencroachesandpersistsbeyonditsfunction？Evidentlyjustbecauseitisexternal，capableofimitationandrepetitionwithoutfreshthoughtandlife，sothatallthatisinertandmechanicalclingstoit。Alldullandsensualpersons，alldullandsensualmoodsinanyperson，seetheformandnotthesubstance。Thespirit，theidea，thesentiment，isplainlyenoughtherealitywhenoneisawaketoseeit，buthoweasilyweloseourholduponitandcometothinkthattherealisthetangible。Thesymbolisalwaysatcommand：wecanalwaysattendchurch，gotomass，reciteprayers，contributemoney，andthelike;butkindness，hope，reverence，humility，courage，havenostringattachedtothem;theycomeandgoasthespiritmoves;thereisnoinsuranceonthem。

(377)Justasintheschoolsweteachfactsandformulasratherthanmeanings，becausetheformercanbereceivedbyallandreadilytested，soreligionbecomesexternalinseekingtnbecomeuniversalltisperhapshardlynecessarytorecalltheapplicationofthistoChristianity。Jesushimselfhadnosystem：hefeltandtaughtthehumansentimentsthatunderlyreligionandtheconductthatexpressesthem。TheSermonontheMountappearsparadoxicalonlytosluggish，sensual，formalstatesofmindandtheinstitutionsthatembodythem。Inourtimesofclearerinsightitisgoodsenseandgoodpsychology，expressingthatenlargementoftheindividualtoembracethelifeofotherswhichtakesplaceatsuchtimes。ThisnaturalChristianity，however，i;insecureinthebestpeople，andmostofushaveonlyafleetingexperienceofit;

sotheteacherswhowishedtomakeapopularsystem，validforallsortsofpersonsandmoods，wereledtovulgarizeitbygroundingitonmiraclesandmysticauthorityandenforcingitbysensualrewardsandpunishments。

TheperennialtruthofwhatChristtaughtcomespreciselyfromthefactthatitwasnotasystem，butanintuitionandexpressionofhighersentimentstheneedofwhichi~acentralandenduringelementinourbestexperience。Itisthisthathasmadeitpossible，ineveryage，togobacktohislifeandwordsandfindthemstillaliveandpotent，fittovitalizerenewedsystems。Thesystemmakersdidwell，too，buttheirworkwastransient。

Agoodsystemofsymbolsisonewhich，onthewhole，standstothegrouportotheindividualforahigherlife：

(378)meritinthismatterbeingrelativetotheparticularstateofmindthatthesymbolistoserve。Itisquitetruethat？

“EachagemustworshipitsownthoughtofGod，Moreorlessearthy，clarifyingstillWithsubsidencecontinuousofthedregs。”[3]

Crudemenmusthavecrudesymbols梕ven“rodorcandyforchild-mindedmen“[4]梑uttheseshouldbeeducational，leadingupfromlowerformsofthoughttohigher。Asystemthatkeepsmeninsensualismwhentheyarecapableofrisingaboveit，orindogmatismwhentheyarereadytothink，isasbadasonethatdoesnotreachtheirmindsatall。

Atthepresenttimeallfinalityinreligiousformulasisdiscreditedphilosophicallybytheideaofevolutionandoftheconsequentrelativityofallhighertruth，while，practically，freediscussionhassoaccustomedpeopletoconflictingviewsthattheexclusiveandintolerantadvocacyofdogmaisscarcelypossibletotheintelligent。Itistrue，ofcourse，thatphilosophicalbreadthandfreediscussionhaveflourishedbefore，onlytobesweptunderbytheforcesmakingforauthority;buttheywereneversorootedingeneralconditions梠fcommunicationandpersonalfreedom梐stheyarenow。Itseemsfairlycertainthattheformulasofreligionwillhenceforwardbeheldwithatleastasubconsciousnessoftheirprovisionalcharacter。

Thecreedsofthefuturearelikely，also，tobesimple。

Inallinstitutionsthereisnowadaysatendencytoexchangeformulasforprinciples，asbeingmoreflexibleandso，(379)moreenduring。Theneareryoucangettouniversalhumannaturewithoutabandoningconcretenessthebetter。Thereiscomingtobeaclearerdistinctionoffunctionsbetweenmetaphysicsandworship，whichmayenableeachtobeenjoyedtotheutmostwithoutbeingunnecessarilymixedwiththeother。

Thelessintellectualareligioussymbolisthebetter，becauseitlessconfinesthemind。Personalityisthebestsymbolofall;

andafterthatmusic，art，poetry，festivityandceremonyaremoreenduringandlessperiloussymbolsthanformulasofbelief。Sentimentschangelikeideas，butnotsomuchandnotsoevidently;andtheessentialexercisesofreligionforthemassofmenarethosewhichawakenhighersentiment，especiallythosegoodworks，inwhich，chiefly，thefounderofChristianityandhisrealfollowershaveexpressedtheirreligiousimpulse。Thesealsoaresymbols，andthemostpotentandleastillusiveofall。

Itisindeedageneraltruththatsentimentisnearertothecoreoflifethandefinablethought。Astherimofawheelwhirlsaboutitscentre，soideasandinstitutionswhirlaboutthepivotalsentimentsofhumannature。Todefineathingistoinstitutionizeit，todrawitforthfromthepregnantobscurityofthesoulandshowjusthowitappearsinthetransientcolorofourparticularwayofthinking。Definitionsare，intheirnature，short-lived。

Weneedreligion，probably，asmuchasanyagecanhaveneededit。Theprevalentconfusion，“thetumultofthetimedisconsolate，“

isfeltineverymindnotwhollyinertasagreaterorlessdistractionofthought，feelingandwill;

(380)andweneedtobetaughthowtolivewithjoyandcalminthepresenceofinevitableperplexities。Acertainnaturalphlegmisagreatadvantageinthesedays，andbetterstill，ifwecouldgetit，wouldbereligiousassurance。NeverwasitmoreurgentormoredifficulttojustifythewaysofGodtomen。Ourmaterialbettermentisagreatthing，andourcomparativefreedomagreater，buttheseratherincreasethandiminishtheneedofahigherdisciplineinthemindthatistousethemprofitably：

themoreopportunitiesthemoreproblems。Socialbettermentisliketheadvanceofscienceinthateachachievementopensupnewrequirements。

Thereisnoprospectthattheworldwilleversatisfyus，andthestructureoflifeisforeverincompletewithoutsomethingtosatisfytheneedofthespiritforideasandsentimentsthattranscendandreconcileallparticularaimswhatsoever。Mediaevalreligionistoounworldly，nodoubt，forouruse，butallrealreligionhasitsunworldlyside，andThomasaKempisandtherestwererightinholdingthatnosortoftangibleachievementcanlongassuagethehumansoul。

Stillmoreevidentistheneedofreligionintheformof“socialsalvation，“ofthemoralawakeningandleadershipofthepublicmind。Societyisinwantofthis，andtheagencythatsuppliesthewantwillhavethepowerthatgoeswithfunction梚fnotthechurch，thensomesecularandperhapshostileagency，likesocialism，whichisalreadyarivaltothechurchfortheallegianceofthereligiousspirit。

Perhaps，also，therewasneveranageinwhichtherewas。morevital，hopefulreligiousaspirationandendeavor，(381)thanthepresent梟otwithstandingthatsomanyareastray。Itis，ofcourse，agreatadvantageofthedeclineofformsthatwhatsurvivesisthemorelikelytobereal。Thechurchisbeingtransformedinthepersonsofitsyoungerandmoreadaptivemembers，andtheoutcomecanbenothingelsethanagradualreadjustmentofthetraditiontotherealspiritualneedsofthetime。Itisnotablethattheseverestcriticsoftheinstitutionarereformerswithinitsownbody，andtheirzealoverlooksnothinginthewayofapathyordecadence。

Asamatterofhistoricalcomparisontheirreligionofourtimeisoftenexaggerated。Anyreaderofhistorymayperceivethatformalism，materialismandinfidelityhaveflourishedinallepochs，andasregardsAmericaweareassuredbyMr。BrycethatChristianityinfluencesconductmoreherethaninanyothermoderncountry，andfarmorethanintheso-calledagesoffaith。[5]InfactitisjustbecausethisageisChristianinitsaspirationsthatwehearsomuchoftheinadequacyofthechurch。Peoplearetakingreligionseriouslyanddemandingtruefunctioninitsinstruments。

Thechurchispossiblymovingtowardadifferentiatedunity，inwhichthecommonelementwillbemainlysentiment梥uchsentimentsasjustice，kindness，libertyandservice。Thesearesufficientforgood-willandcooperation，andleaveroomforallthedifferentiationofideasandmethodsthatthediversityofliferequires。

Withwhateverfaultsthechurchisoneofthegreatachievementsofcivilization。Likethebodyofscienceoroursystemoftransportationandmanufacture，itis，(382)thecumulativeoutcomeofhumaninventionandendeavor，andisprobablyinnomoredangerofperishingthantheseare。Ifcertainpartsofitbreakupweshallnodoubtfindthattheirsoundmaterialsareincorporatedintonewstructures。

Endnotes，Confessions，booki，chap。16。SeehislifebyH。F。Brown，passim。J。R。Lowell，TheCathedral。Ibid，TheAmericanCommonwealth，chap。80。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter33：Disorganization：Other，Traditions，CHAPTERXXXIII

DISORGANIZATION：OTHERTRADITIONS，DISORDERINTHEECONOMICSYSTEM——INEDUCATION——

INHIGHERCULTURE——INTHEFINEARTS

Thissameidea，ofconfusionandinefficiencyinsocialactionsarisingfromthebreakingupofoldstructures，mightfindillustrationinalmostanyphaseoflifewhichonemightchoosetoinvestigate。Theeconomicsystem，forexample，isinastatesomewhatanalogoustothatofthefamilyandthechurch，andindeedthe“industrialrevolution“isthechiefseatofthosephasesofdecayandreconstructionwhichmostaffectthedailylifeofthepeople。

Locationitself梩obeginwithman’sattachmenttothesoil梙asbeensowidelydisturbedthatpossiblyamajorityofthepeopleofthecivilizedworldareofrecentmigratoryorigin;theythemselvesortheirparentshavingmovedfromonelandtoanotherorfromcountrytocity。Withthisgoesaseveringoftraditionsandamixtureofideasandraces。

Stillmoresubversive，perhaps，isthechangeinoccupations，whichispracticallyuniversal，sothatscarcelyanywherewillyoufindpeopledoingthethingswhichtheirgrandparentsdid。Thequiettransmissionofhandicraftsinfamiliesandneighborhoods，nevermuchinterruptedbefore，isnowcutoff，andtheyoungaredriventolookfornewtrades。Noristhismerelyonechange，to，(384)whichtheworldmayadaptitselfonceforall，butaseries，aslide，towhichthereisnoapparentterm。Seldomistheskilllearnedinyouthavailableinage，andthousandsofmenhaveseenonetradeafteranotherknockedoutoftheirhandsbytheunforeseenmovementofinvention。Eventheagriculturist，heretoforethesymbolfortraditionalism，hashadtosupplehismindtonewdevices。

Ineednotpointoutindetailhowtheoldlegalandethicalrelations梩hewholesocialstructureindeed梠findustryhavemostlybrokendown;howthecraftsmanhaslostcontrolofhistoolsandisstrugglingtoregainitthroughassociations;howvastandnovelformsofcombinationhaveappeared;howmenofallclassesaredemoralizedbythelackofstandardsofeconomicjustice;thesearefamiliarmatterswhichImentiononlytoshowtheirrelationtotheprincipleunderdiscussion。

Ingeneral，modernindustry，progressingchieflyinamechanicalsense，hasattainedamarvellousorganizationinthatsense;

whilethesocialandmoralsideofitremainsinconfusion。Wehaveapromisingplantbuthavenotyetlearnedhowtomakeitturnoutthedesiredproductofrighteousnessandhappiness。

Whereverthereispowerwhichhasoutstrippedthegrowthofmoralandlegalstandardsthereissuretobesomekindofanarchy;

andsoitiswithourcommerceandfinance。Ontheseseaspiracyflourishesalongsideofhonesttrade;and，indeed，asintheseventeenthcentury，manymerchantspracticebothoftheseoccupations。Andtherichesthusgainedoftengotocorruptthestate。

Intheinferiorstrataofthecommercialorderwefindthathumannaturehasbeenhustledandtroddenunder，(385)foot：“Thingsareinthesaddleandricemankind。”

Thehand-worker，theclerkandthesmalltradesman，generallyinsecureinthetenureoftheiroccupationsandhomes，tareanxiousandrestless，whilemanyclassessufferspecialandgrievouswrongssuchasexhaustionandprematureoldage，duetothenervousstrainofcertainkindsofwork，deathandmutilationfrommachinery，lifeinsqualidtenements，andthedebasementofchildrenbybadsurroundingsandprematurework。

Althoughtheindividual，inamerelymechanicalsense，ispartofawiderwholethaneverbefore，hehasoftenlostthatconsciousmembershipinthewholeuponwhichhishumanbreadthdepends：unlessthelargerlifeisamorallife，hegainsnothinginthisregard，andmaylose。

Whenchildrensawthegraingrowinginthefield，watchedthereapingandthreshingandgrindingofit，andthenhelpedtheirmothertomakeitintobread，theirmindshadavitalmembershipintheeconomicprocess;butnowthatthisprocess，byitsveryenlargement，hasbecomeinvisible，mostpersonshavelostthesenseofit。[1]Andthisisatypeofmodernindustryatlarge：theworkman，themanofbusiness，thefarmerandthelawyerarecontributorstothewholebutbeingmorallyisolatedbytheverymagnitudeofthesystem，thewholedoesnotcommonlyliveintheirthought。

Isitnotauniversalexperiencethatwecannotdoanythingwithspiritorsatisfactionunlessweknowwhatitisfor？Noonewhoremembersthetasksofchildhoodwilldoubtthis;anditisstillmyobservationthatsosoonasIloseasenseofthebearingofwhatIamdoingupongen-

(386)-eralaimsandthecommonlife，Igetstaleanddiscouragedandneedafreshview。Yetagreatpartnotonlyofhandlaborbutofprofessionalworkandbusinessisofthischaracter。Theworldhasbecomesocomplicatedthatweknownotwhatwedo，andthussuffernotonlyinourhappinessbutinourmoralsteadfastnessandreligiousfaith。Thereisnoremedyshortofmakinglifeamoralandspiritualaswellasamechanicalwhole。

Educationisanothermatterthatmightbediscussedatmuchlengthfromthispointofview。Thatradicalchangesaretakingplaceinitishardlymoreobviousthanthatthesechangesarenotaltogetherbeneficent。Wemaysayofthisdepartmentasofothersthatthereisaspiritoffreedomandvigorabroad，butthatitsimmediateresultsaresomewhatanarchical。

Theunderlyingreasonforthespecialgrowthofeducationalinstitutionsinourtimeisthefreeandconsciouscharacterofoursystem，whichdemandsacorrespondingindividualtoworkit。Thusdemocracyrequiresliteracy，thatthevotermaylearnwhatheisvotingabout，andthismeansschools。Undertheplanoffreecompetitionthesonneednotfollowhisfather’soccupation，butmaytaketheopenseaoflifeandfindwhateverworksuitshim;andthisrendersobsoletehouseholdinstructionintrades。

Indeed，ourwholelifeissospecializedandsosubjecttochangethatthereisnothingforitbutspecialschools。

Wemayprobablylearnalso，astimegoeson，thattheenlargedsphereofchoiceandthecomplexityoftherelationswithwhichitdealscallforasocialandmoraleducationmorerationalandexplicitthanwehavehadinthe，(387)past。Thereareurgentproblemswithwhichnopowercandealbutaninstructedandorganizedpublicconscience，forthesourceofwhichwemustlook，inpart，topubliceducation。