第9章

Instrivingtomeetnewrequirementsourschoolshavetoocommonlyextendedtheirsystemratherthantheirvitalenergies;theyhaveperhapsgrownmorerapidlyinthenumberofstudents，thevarietyofsubjectstaught，andinothernumerableparticulars，thanintheinnerandspirituallife，theideals，thetraditionsandthepersonneloftheteachingforce。Inthisasinotherexpandinginstitutionslifeisspreadoutratherthin。

Inthecountrytheschoolsarelargelyinefficientbecauseofthefallingoffinattendance，thepoorpayandqualityoftheteachers，andthepersistenceofasystemofinstructionthatlacksvitalrelationtocountrylife，tendinginfacttodiscredititandturnchildrentowardthetowns。Incitiestheschoolsareovercrowded梠fteninsufficienteventocontainthechildrenwhoswarminthepoorerdistricts？andtheteachersoftenconfused，overworkedandstupefiedbyroutine。Verylittle，asyet，isdonetosupplythatrationaltrainingforindustrywhichistheurgentneedofmostchildren，andwhichindustryitselfnolongerfurnishes。Thediscipline，bothofpupilsbyteachersandofteachersbyofficials，iscommonlyofamechanicalsort，andpromisinginnovationsoftenfailbecausetheyarebadlycarriedoutOurcommonschoolsnodoubtcomparewellenough，onthewhole，withthoseofthepastorofothercountries;butwhenwethinkofwhattheymightandshoulddointhewayofbringingorderandreasonintooursociety，(388)andofthelifethatisgoingtowastebecausetheydonotnourishandguideit，thereisnocauseforcongratulation。

Inourhighereducationthereisasomewhatsimilarmixtureofnewmaterials，imperfectlyintegrated，withfragmentsofadecadentsystem。Theoldclassicaldisciplineisplainlygoing，andperhapsitisbestthatitshouldgo，butsurelynothingsatisfactoryhasarisentotakeitsplaceAmongthemanythingsthatmightbesaidinthisconnectionIwilltouchupononlyoneconsideration，generallyoverlooked，namelythevalueofacommontypeofculture，correspondinginthisrespecttowhatusedtobeknownas“theeducationofagentleman。”Sincethedecayoftheclassicaltypesetinourhighereducation，notwithstandingsomuchthatisexcellentinit，hashadpracticallynocommoncontenttoserveasamediumofcommunicationandspiritualunityamongtheeducatedclass。

Inthisconnectionasinsomanyothersthequestionariseswhetherevenaninadequatetypeofcultureisnotbetterthannotypeatall。

Notonlywastheclassicaltraditionthewidestandfullestcurrentofhigherthoughtwehad，butitwasalsoatreasuryofsymbolsandassociationstendingtobuildupacommonideallife。BeginningwithDanteallimaginativemodernliteratureappealstothemindthroughclassicalallusionandreverberation，which，minglingwithnewerelements，wenttomakeupacontinuingbodyofhigherfeelingandidea，uponwhichwasnourishedacontinuingfellowshipofthosecompetenttoreceiveandtransmitit。

Allthatwasbestinproductioncameoutofitandwasunconsciouslydisciplinedbyitsstandards。

Itwouldindeedbestupidtoimaginethatanyassort-

(389)-mentofspecialtiescantaketheplaceoftheculturestreamfromwhichallcivilizationhasbeenwatered：tolosethatwouldbebarbarism。And，infact，itisaquestionwhetherwearenot！insomedegreeandnodoubttemporarily，actuallyrelapsingintoakindofbarbarismthroughthesuddendecayofaculturetypeimperfectlysuitedtoourusebutmuchbetterthannone。

Ifonehasanassemblyofuniversitygraduatesbeforehim，what，inthewayoflike-mindedness，canhecountontheirhaving？CertainlynotLatin，muchlessGreek;hewouldberashindeedtoventureaquotationinthesetongues，unlessformystification：norwouldallusionstohistoryorliteraturebemuchsafer。Thetruthisthatfewofthegraduateswillhavedoneseriousworkoutsideoftheirspecialty;andthemainthingtheyhaveincommonisacollectivespiritanimatedbytherecollectionoffootballvictoriesandthelike。

Isuspectthatwemaybeparticipatingintheriseofanewtypeofculturewhichshallreviseratherthanabandontheoldtraditions，andwhosecentralcurrentwillperhapsbealargestudyoftheprinciplesofhumanlifeandoftheirexpressioninhistory，art，philanthropyandreligion。Andthebeliefthatthenewdisciplineofsociology(muchclarifiedandfreedfromwhatevercrudenessandpretensionmaynowimpairit)istohaveapartinthismaynotbeentirelyamatterofspecialpredilection。

Notverylongsinceacritic，wroteofcontemporaryartasfollows：

“Everyonewhoisacquaintedwithtechnicalmattersinthefineartsisawarethatthequietlyperfectartofoilpaintingisextinctor，(390)nearlyso，andthatinitsplacewehaveagreatvarietyofextremelycleveranddexteroussubstitutes，resultinginskillfulpartialexpressionsofartisticbeauty，butnotreachingthatcalmdivineharmonyofaimandmethodwhichwefindinTitianandGiorgione，andeveninsuchworkasthatofVelasquez。Thegreatestpaintingofpasttimeshadonequalitywhichnomodernonereallypossesses梚thadtranquillity。”[2]

Thistouchesuponsomethingwhich梐swehavealreadyhadoccasiontoobserve梚mpairsnearlyallinthewayofhigherspiritualachievementthatourtimeproduces梐certainbreathlessnessandlackofassuredandquietpower。Andthisisconnectedwiththatconfusionwhichdoesnotpermittheunquestionedascendancyofanyonetype，butkeepstheartistchoosingandexperimenting，intheefforttomakeawholewhichtraditiondoesnotsupplyready-made。

Intimesofauthoritativetraditionatypeofartgrowsupbyaccretion，richandpregnantafteritskind，whicheachartistunconsciouslyinheritsandeasilyexpresses。Hisforerunnershavedonetheheavywork，andallthatheneedstodoistoaddtheglamourofpersonalgenius。Thegrandeurofgreatliterature條iketheBible，orHomer，oreven，thoughlessobviously，Dante，ShakespeareandGoethe梚slargelythatoftraditionalaccumulationandconcentration。Thematterisold;ithasbeenworkedoverandoverandtheunessentialsqueezedout，leavingapregnantremainderwhichtheartistenlivenswithcreativeimagination。Andthesameistrueofpaintingandsculpture。

Soinarchitecture：amediaevalcathedralwastheculminationofalongsocialgrowth，notgreatlydependentupon，(391)individualgenius。“Notonlyistherebuiltintoit，“saysMr。FergusoninhisHistoryofModernArchitecture，“theaccumulatedthoughtofallthemenwhohadoccupiedthemselveswithbuildingduringtheprecedingcenturies……butyouhavethedreamandaspirationofthebishop，whodesignedit，ofallhisclergy，whotookaninterestinit，ofthemaster-mason，whowasskilledinconstruction;ofthecarver，thepainter，theglazier，ofthehostofmenwho，eachinhisowncraft，knewallthathadbeendonebeforethem，andhadspenttheirlivesinstrugglingtosurpasstheworkoftheirforefathers……Youmaywanderinsuchabuildingforweeksorformonthstogetherandneverknowitall。Athoughtoramotivepeepsoutthrougheveryjoint，andismanifestineverymoulding，andtheverystonesspeaktoyouwithavoiceasclearandaseasilyunderstoodasthewordsofthepoetortheteachingofthehistorian。Hence，infact，thelittleinterestwecanfeelineventhestateliestofmodernbuildings，andtheundying，neversatisfiedinterestwithwhichwestudyoverandoveragainthosewhichhavebeenproducedunderadifferentandtruersystemofart。”[3]

InthesamewaytheGreekarchitectofthetimeofPericles“hadbeforehimafixedandsacredstandardofform……Hehadnochoice;

hisstrengthwasnotwastedamongvariousideals;thatwhichhehadinheritedNomsareligiontohim……Undivertedbysideissuesastothegeneralformofhismonument，undisturbedbyanyofthecomplicatedconditionsofmodernlife，hewasabletoconcentratehisclearintellectupontheperfectionofhisdetails;hissensitivenesstoharmonyofproportionwas，(392)refinedtothelastlimits：hisfeelingforpurityoflinereachedthepointofareligion。”[4]

ThemodernartistmayhaveasmuchpersonalabilityastheGreekorthemediaeval’but’havingnocommunaltraditiontoshareinhiswork，hehastospreadhispersonalityoutverythintocoverthetoobroadtaskassignedtoit，andthisthinnessbecomesthegeneralfaultofcontemporaryaestheticproduction。Ifheseekstoavoiditbydeterminedconcentrationthereisapttobesomethingstrainedandover-consciousintheresult。

Endnotes，ThisillustrationisusedbyMissJaneAddams。PhilipGilbertHamerton，ThoughtsaboutArt，page99。Page24。VanBrunt，GreekLines，95ff。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter34：TheFunctionofPublicWill，CHAPTERXXXIV

THEFUNCTIONOFPUBLICWILL，PUBLICANDPRIVATEWILL——THELACKOFPUBLICWILL——SOCIAL

WRONGSCOMMONLYNOTWILLATALL

WHATIshallsayaboutPublicWill梬hichisonlyanotherphaseoftheDemocraticMind梞ightwellhavebeenintroducedunderPartIII;butIputitherebecauseinasenseitroundsoffourwholeinquiry，involvingsomegeneralconclusionsastothemethodandpossibilityofsocialbetterment。

Bypublicwillwemayunderstandthedeliberateselfdirectionofanysocialgroup。Thereis，ofcourse，nothingmysteriousaboutit，foritisofthesamenatureaspublicopinion，andissimplythatsoinformedandorganizedastobeaneffectiveguidetothelifeofthegroup。Norcanwesayjustwhenthisstateisreached梚tisamatterofdegree梑utwemayassumethatwhenagroupintelligentlypursuesasteadfastpolicysomemeasure，atleast，ofpublicwillhasbeenachieved。Manysavagetribeshaveitinasmallway;theJewsdevelopeditundertheleadershipofMosesandJoshua;themediaevalchurchandtheVenetianaristocracydisplayedit。Itiscapable，likeindividualwill，ofindefiniteimprovementininsight，stabilityandscope。

Justaspublicandprivateopinionaregeneraland，(396)particularphasesofthesamething，sowillisasinglecomplexactivitywithindividualandcollectiveaspects。Butthereisthisdifferencebetweenpublicandprivatewill梛ustasthereisbetweenotherindividualandcollectivephasesofmind梩hattheactivityusuallyappearsle~sconsciouswhenlookedatinitslargeraspectthanwhenconsideredindetail。Imeanthatwegenerallyknowagreatdealbetterwhatweareaboutasindividualsthanwedoasmembersoflargewholes：whenonesitsdowntodinnerheisconsciousofhungerandhasawilltoappeaseit;

butifhisactionhasanybearinguponthecommunity，asnodoubtithas，heisunawareofthefact。Inthesamewaytheactivitiesofbusinesshavemuchconsciousnessandpurposewhenlookedatindetail，butlittlewhentakencollectively。Athousandmenbuyandsellinthemarket，eachwithaverydefiniteintentionregardinghisowntransaction，butthemarketpricewhichresultsfromtheirbargainingisanalmostmechanicaloutcome，notamatterofconsciousintentionatall。Ontheotherhand，thereareconsciouswholesinwhichthegeneralresultmaybeasclearlypurposedastheparticular;aswhenanintelligentcrewisworkingavessel，eachattendingtohisownworkbutunderstandingperfectlywhatthegeneralpurposeisandhowheiscontributingtoit。

Soifwerestrictthewordwilltothatwhichshowsreflectiveconsciousnessandpurposethereisasenseinwhichacertainchoice(asofthepurchaserinthemarket)mayexpressindividualwillbutnotpublicwill：thereisapublicsidetoit，ofcourse，butofaninvoluntarysort。

Wemustremember，also，thatalthoughlargewholesare，asarule，muchinferiortoindividualsinexplicitcon-

(397)-sciousnessandpurpose，theyarecapableofrationalstructureandactionofasomewhatmechanicalsortfartranscendingthatoftheindividualmind。Thisisbecauseofthevastscopeandindefinitedurationtheymayhave，whichenablesthemtostoreupandsystematizetheworkofinnumerablepersons，asanationdoes，orevenanindustrialcorporation。Alargewholemayandusuallydoesdisplayinitsactivityakindofrationalityoradaptationofmeanstoendswhich，asawhole，wasneverplannedorpurposedbyanybody，butistheinvoluntaryresultofinnumerablespecialendeavors。ThustheBritishcolonialempire，whichlooksliketheresultofdeliberateandfarsightedpolicy，isconcededtohavebeen，forthemostpart，theunforeseenoutcomeofpersonalenterprise。

Aninstitution，aswehaveseeninpreviouschapters，isnotfullyhuman，butmay，nevertheless，besuperhuman，inthesensethatitmayexpressawisdombeyondthegraspofanyoneman。Andeveninamoralaspectitisbynomeanssafetoassumethatthepersonalissuperiortothecollective。

Thismayormaynotbethecase，depending，amongotherthings，uponwhethertherehasbeenapastgrowthofcollectivemoraljudgmentuponthepointinquestion。Thecivillaw，forexample，whichistheresultofsuchagrowth，isforthemostpartamuchsaferguideregardingpropertyrightsthantheuntrainedjudgmentofanyindividual。

Butafterallpublicthoughtandwillhavethesamesuperiorityoverunconsciousadaptation(wonderfulastheresultsofthatoftenare)

asprivatethoughtandwillhaveovermereinstinctandhabit。Theyrepresentahigherprincipleofcoordinationandadaptation，onewhich，(398)properlyemployed，savesenergyandpreventsmistakes。

TheBritishmayhavesucceededoninstinct，butprobablytheywouldhavesucceededbetterifmorereasonhadbeenmixedwithit;andthelattermaysavethemfromthedecaywhichhasattackedothergreatempires。

Itisquiteplainthatthesocialdevelopmentofthepasthasbeenmostlyblindandwithouthumanintention。

Anypageofhistorywillshowthatmenhavebeenunabletoforesee，muchlesstocontrol，thelargermovementsoflife。Therehavebeenseers，buttheyhavehadonlyflashesoflight，andhavealmostneverbeenmenofimmediatesway。Evengreatstatesmenhavelivedinthepresent，feelingtheirway，andhavingcommonlynopurposebeyondtheaggrandizementoftheircountryortheirorder。SuchpartialexceptionsastheframingoftheAmericanconstitutionbythelightofhistoryandphilosophy，andwithsomeprevisionofitsactualworking，areconfinedtorecenttimesandexciteaspecialwonder。

Inparticularthedemocraticmovementofmoderntimeshasbeenchieflyunconscious。AsDeTocquevillesaysofitscourseinFrance，“……ithasalwaysadvancedwithoutguidance。Theheadsofthestatehavemadenopreparationforit，andithasadvancedwithouttheirconsentorwithouttheirknowledge。Themostpowerful，themostintelligentandthemostmoralclassesofthenationhaveneverattempted……toguideit。”[1]

Willhasbeenaliveonlyindetails，inthesmallercoursesoflife，inwhateachmanwasdoingforhimselfandhisneighbors，whilethelargerstructureandmovement，(399)havebeensubconscious，andforthatreasonerraticandwasteful。Foritisjustastrueoflargewholesasofindividualsthatiftheyblunderonwithoutknowingwhattheyaredoingmuchoftheirenergyislost。Nodoubtitisbettertogoaheadevenblindlythantostandstill，andremarkablethingshavebeenachievedinthisway，buttheyarelittletowhatmightbedoneifwecouldworkoutourhighesthumannatureintelligently，withassuranceandprevision，andonalargescale。Asocietywhichdidthiswouldhavethesamesortofsuperioritytopresentsocietyasmantohissub-humanprogenitors。

TheveryideaofProgress，oforderlyimprovementonagreatscale，iswellknowntobeofrecentorigin，oratleastrecentdiffusion，theprevalentviewinthepasthavingbeenthattheactualstateofthingswas，initsgeneralcharacter，unalterable。[2]

Evenatthepresentdaysocialphenomenaofalargesortareforthemostpartnotwilledatall，butaretheunforeseenresultofdiverseandpartialendeavors。Itisseldomthatanylargeplanofsocialactionisintelligentlydrawnupandfollowedout。Eachinterestworksalonginasomewhatblindandselfishmanner，grasping，fightingandgroping。

Asregardsgeneralendsmostoftheenergyiswasted;andyetasortofadvancetakesplace，morelikethesurgingofathrongthantheorderlymovementoftroops。WhocanpretendthattheAmericanpeople，forinstance，areguidedbyanyclearandrationalplanintheireconomic，politicalandreligiousdevelopment？They，(400)haveglimpsesandimpulses，buthardlyawill，exceptonafewmattersofnearandurgentinterest。

Inthesamewaythewrongsthatafflictsocietyareseldomwilledbyanyoneoranygroup，butareby-productsofactsofwillhavingotherobjects;theyaredone，assomeonehassaid，ratherwiththeelbowsthanthefists。Thereissurprisinglylittleill-intent，andthemoreonelooksintolifethelesshefindsofthatvividchiaroscuroofconsciousgoodnessandbadnesshischildishteachinghasledhimtoexpect。

Take，forinstance，aconspicuousevillikethesweatingsysteminthegarmenttradesofNewYorkorLondon。Herearepeople，largelywomenandchildren，forcedtoworktwelve，fourteen，sometimessixteenhoursaday，inthemidstofdirt，badairandcontagion，sufferingthedestructionofhomelifeanddecentnurture;andallforawagehardlysufficienttobuythebarenecessitiesoflife。Butifocelooksforsindarkenoughtocastsuchashadowhewillscarcelyfindit。“Neitherhaththismansinnednorhisparents。”The“sweater“orimmediateemployer，towhomhefirstturns，iscommonlyhimselfaworkman，notmuchraisedabovetherestandmakingbutlittleprofitonhistransactions。Beyondhimisthelargedealer，usuallyawell-intentionedman，quitewillingthatthingsshouldbebetteriftheycanbemadesowithouttoomuchtroubleorpecuniarylosstohimself。Heisonlydoingwhatothersdoandwhat，inhisview，theconditionsoftraderequire。Andsoon;thecloseronegetstothefactsthemoreevidentitisthatnowhereistheindubitablewickednessourfeelingshavepictured。Itisquitethe，(401)samewithpoliticalcorruptionandthevenalalliancebetweenwealthandpartymanagement。Themenwhocontrolwealthyinterestsareprobablynoworseintentionedthantherestofus;theyonlydowhattheythinktheyarcforcedtodoinordertoholdtheirown;andsowiththepolitician：hefindsthatothersaresellingtheirpower，andeasilycomestothinkofitasamatterofcourse。Intruththeconsciously，flagrantlywickedmanis，andperhapsalwayshasbeen，afiction，forthemostpart，ofdenunciation。Thepsychologistwillhardlyfindhim，butwillfeelthatmostsortsofbadnessareeasilyenoughcomprehensible，andwillperhapsagreewiththeviewascribedtoGoethe，thatheneverheardofacrimewhichhemightnothimselfhavecommitted。

Naturallythemoremechanicalthesystemisthelessofwillandoflivehumannaturethereisinitsacts。SoinRussia，saysTolstoy，“Somemakethelaws，othersexecutethem;sometrainmenbydisciplinetoautocraticobedience;andtheselast，intheirturn，becometheinstrumentsofcoercion，andslaytheirkindwithoutknowingwhyortowhatend。”[3]Inourreadingandthinkingdemocracythereisatleastthefeelingthattheworkingofthewholeoughttobethefulfilmentofsomehumanepurpose，andacontinualprotestthatthisisnotmorethecase。

Icannotholdoutaprospectoftheearlyappearanceofanadequatepublicwill;itisamatterofgradualimprovement，butitseemsclearthatthereisatrendthisway，based，mechanically，onrecentadvancesincommunication，and，asregardstraining，onthemultiformdisciplinesinvoluntarycooperationwhichmodernlifeaffords。

Endnotes，DemocracyinAmerica，vol。i，Introduction。OfcoursetheGreekshadthephilosophicalconceptionofgeneralflux，butIdonotknowthattheyappliedittosocietywithsuchdistinctnessastogiveanythingworthcallinganideaofprogress。MyReligion，45。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter35：GovernmentasPublicWill，CHAPTERXXXV，GOVERNMENTASPUBLICWILL

GOVERNMENTNOTTHEONLYAGENTOFPUBLICWILL——THERELATIVE

POINTOFVIEW;ADVANTAGESOFGOVERNMENTASANAGENT——MECHANICALTENDENCY

OFGOVERNMENT——CHARACTERISTICSFAVORABLETOGOVERNMENTACTIVITY——MUNICIPAL

SOCIALISM——SELF-EXPRESSIONTHEFUNDAMENTALDEMANDOFTHEPEOPLE——ACTUAL

EXTENSIONOFSTATEFUNCTIONS

INthegrowthofpublicwillanyagencyamenabletopublicopinionmayserveasaninstrument;andthismeans，ofcourse，anysortofrationalactivity，personalaswellasinstitutional。Thustheworkofasecludedscientist，likePasteurorEdison，takentogetherwiththegeneralacceptanceandapplicationofhisresults，isasmuchanactofpublicwillastheproceedingsofalegislature，andoftenmore梑ecausetheymayshowamorepublicspiritandawiderknowledgeandforesight。

Whatisnecessaryisthatsomewherethereshallbeeffectualpurposeandendeavorbasedonalargegraspofthesituation。Inshort，publicwillissimplyamatterofthemoreefficientorganizationofthegeneralmind：

whateverinthewayofleadershipormechanismcontributestothelatterhasashareinit;andwemaynaturallyexpectittoprogressratherbythequickeningandcoordinationofmanyagenciesthanbytheaggrandizementofanyparticularone。[1]

Theviewwhichmanyholdthatpublicwillmustbechieflyifnotwhollyidentifiedwiththeinstitutionofgov-

(403)-ernmentisajustoneonlyinacertainnarrowsense。

Thatistosay，themechanismofgovernmentisindeedthemostdefiniteandauthoritativeexpressionofpublicchoice，andifpublicwillistobelimitedtowhatisdecidedbyacountofvoicesandcarriedout，ifnecessary，byforge，thenthegovernmentisitsonlyagent。Butonlyasmallpartofthewillofsocietyisofthissort。Inalargersenseitisadiversifiedwhole，embracingthethoughtandpurposeofallinstitutionsandassociations，formalandinformal，thathaveanybreadthofaim，andeven，asIhavesaid，ofsecludedindividuals。Surelythetruewillofhumanityneverhasbeenandisnotlikelytobeconcentratedinasingleagent，butworksitselfoutthroughmanyinstruments，andtheunityweneedissomethingmuchmoreintricateandflexiblethancouldbesecuredthroughthestatealone。Likeotherphasesoforganization，governmentismerelyonewayofdoingthings，fittedbyitscharacterfordoingsomethingsandunfittedfordoingothers。

Astowhatthesethingsare，wemust，ofcourse，taketherelativepointofviewandholdthatthesphereofgovernmentoperationsisnot，andshouldnotbe，fixed，butvarieswiththesocialconditionatlarge。Hard-and-fasttheoriesofwhatthestatemaybestbeanddo，whetherrestrictiveorexpansive，wemaywellregardwithdistrust。Itisbynomeansimpossiblethatthewholecharacterofthepoliticalstateandofitsrelationtotherestoflifeisundergoingchangeofanunforeseeablekindwhichwilleventuallymakeourpresentdogmasonthispointquiteobsolete。

Themostevidentadvantageofgovernmentasasocial，(404)instrument梩hatwhichmakesitthelogicalrecourseofthosewhoseekashortwaytoregeneration梚sitspowerandreach。Itisthestrongestandmostextensiveofourinstitutions，withelaboratemachineryreadytoundertakealmostanything，andposerlimited，inthelongrun，onlybypublicopinion。

Moreover，underademocraticsystem，itisdefinitelyresponsibletothepeople。Notthatitalwaysservesthem：weknowtoowellhowaptitistorespectparticularratherthangeneralinterests：

butthereisalwaysadefinitemeansofbringingitintolinewithpublicthought，alwaysreinswhichthepeoplemaygraspiftheywill。Thishasthemomentouseffectthatthereislessjealousyofademocraticgovernment，otherthingsequal，thanofanyotherformofpower。Feelingthatitispotentiallyatleasttheirown，thepeoplewillendurefromitwithpatienceabusesthatwouldbeintolerablefromanyothersource。Themaddeningthingabouttheoppressionofprivatemonopoliesisthepersonalsubjection，thehumiliationofbeingunabletoassertoneself，whileinpubliclifethefreecitizenhasalwaysawayofregularanddignifiedprotest。Heappealsnottoanalienbuttoalargerself。

Themostgeneraldefectofgovernmentisthatwhichgoeswithitsgoodqualities。Justbecauseitisthemostancientandelaboratemachinewehave，itisapttobetoomechanical，toorigid，toocostlyandunhuman。Asthemostinstitutionalofinstitutionsithasacertaintendencytowardformalism，andisobjectionableongroundsofred-tape，lackofeconomyandremotenessfromthefresherneedsofthepeople。

(405)Itiseasy，however，foroneimpressedwiththisideatobetooindiscriminateinitsapplication。Muchdependsuponthekindofgovernmentactuallyinquestion，upontheinterestthepeopletakeinit，andmanyotherconditions。

IntheUnitedStates，forinstance，eachofuslivesunderthreesomewhatdistinctkindsofgovernment？federal，stateandlocal梕achofwhichhasalargemeasureofpracticalindependenceoftheothers，andmaybetreatedasaseparateagentofpublicwill。Moreover，itisoftenthecasethatthelargersystems梥aythefederalpost-office梐llowagreatdealoflocalautonomyintheiradministration，makingitflexibletolocalopinion。

Underthissystem，atownship，villageorsmallcityisnounwieldymachine，butprettymuchwhatthepeopleseefittomakeit，andthefactthatitisaphaseofgovernmentisnosufficientreasonwhyanyaffairsitmaychoosetoundertakemaynotbeashumanlyandflexiblyadministeredasthoseofanon-politicalassociationofequalextent。Theyoftenaresoadministered，andthesameistrueofgreatcitieswhereveravigorouscivicconsciousnessexistsandhashadtimetoworkoutitsinstruments。Thequestionisonlyoneoforganization，andthisconfrontsnon-politicalassociationsaswellaspolitical;largeprivateincorporationshavingnotoriouslyaboutthesameexperienceofformalism，extravaganceandmalfeasanceasthestate。

Therearecertaincharacteristicswhosepresenceinagivenfunctionisfavorabletostateactivity，thoughtheycannotbesaidtoindicateclearlywhereitshouldbeginorend。

(406)

Oneofthese，naturally，istheinadequacyorharmfulnessofotheragencies。Thefactthataworkisdeemednecessaryandthatthereisnootheradequatewayofdoingistherealbasisofmoststatefunctions;

notonlytheprimaryonesofwagingwarandkeepingorder，butofissuingmoney，buildingroads，bridgesandharbors，collectingstatistics，institutingfreeschools，controllingmonopoliesandsoon。

Anotheristhattheworkinquestionshouldbesusceptibleofcomparativelysimpleanduniformmethodssincethemorevariousandintricateafunctionis，themoredifficultywillbefoundingettingitproperlydonebythepowerfulbutusuallysomewhatclumsymechanismothestate。Thereasonsthatmayjustifyastatepostortelegraph，forinstance，donotnecessarilysufficefortheassumptionofthefarmorecomplicatedbusinessoftherailways。

Again，whateverthestateundertakesshouldbesomethinglikelytobewatchedbypublicopinion;notnecessarilybythewholepublic，butatleastbysomepowerfulgroupsteadfastlyinterestedinefficiencyandcapableofjudgingwhetheritisattained。IntheUnitedStates，certainlythesuccessesorfailuresofgovernmentarelargelyexplicableonthisground。Publiceducationworkswellinspiteofaconstantleaningtowardformalism，becausethepeopletakeacloseandjealousinterestinit，whilethemonetaryandfinancialfunctionsareinlikemannersafeguardedbythescrutinyofthecommercialworld。Butiithematteroftariffsthescrutinyofthelatter，inadequatelybalancedbythatofanyotherinterest，hasproducedwhatispracticallyclasslegislation;andsome-

(407)-thingsimilarmaybesaidofmanyphasesofgovernmentaction。[2]

Fromsuchconsiderationsitseemsthatlocalgovernment，becauseitisonasmallscaleandbecausethepeoplewillpresumablybemoreableandwillingtowatchthedetailsofitsoperation，shouldbethesphereinwhichextensionoffunctionshasthemostchanceofsuccess。

Themorethecitizenfeelsthatgovernmentisclosetohimandamenabletohiswill，themore，otherthingsequal，heshouldbeinclinedtotrustitandtoputhimselfintoit。Inspiteofmuchdisappointingexperience，itseemsreasonabletoexpectthatsmallunits，dealingwiththeevery-dayinterestsofthepeople，will，inthelongrun，enlistanampleshareoftheircapacityandintegrity。

Andyetthenearnessofthewholetothewillofthememberispsychical，notspatial，sothatifthecitizenforsomereasonfeelsclosertothecentralgovernmentandtrustsitmore，hemaybemorewillingtoaggrandizeit。IntheUnitedStatesthepeopleoftenhavemoreinterestandconfidenceinthefederalsystemthanintheirparticularstatesandcities;onereasonbeingthattheconstantenlargementofprivateorganization梐sinthecaseofrailwaysandtheso-calledtrusts梡utsitbeyondthepoweroflocalcontrol。Ofcoursethereisanaturalsphereofdevelopmentforeachofthevariousphasesofgovernment。

Municipalsocialismhasthegreatadvantageoverothersortsofstateextensionofbeingoptionalbysmallunits，andofpermittingallsortsofdiversity，experimentand，(408)comparison。Thereisnothinginitofthatdeadeninguniformityandobliterationofalternativesinvolvedintheblanketsocialismofthecentralstate。Theevilswesufferfromprivatemonopolies梐gainstwhichwemayalwaysinvokethestateifnotothercompetitors梐reasnothingcomparedwiththosetobefearedfromanall-embracingstate-monopoly;

andIfeelsurethatcommon-sense，ashrewdattachmenttotheprincipleof“checksandbalances，“andthespiritoflocalindividualitywillpreservetheEnglish-speakingnations，atleast，fromseriousdangerofthelatter。

IncountrieslikeFrance，wherethereisagreattraditionalpreponderanceofthecentralauthority，itmaybeamongthepossibilities，thoughtheprobabledeclineofwar梩hemaincauseofmechanicalconsolidation梥houldworkintheoppositedirection。

Therearefewthingsthatwouldbemoresalutarytothelifeofourpeoplethanalivelyandeffectivecivicconsciousnessintowns，villagesandruralcommunities。Itrustthisisgrowingandfeelnodreadofanysocialismwhichitmayprovetoinvolve。OneofthebestthingsIhaveknownAnnArbortodowastoholdapublic-schoolcarnivalontheoccasionoftheopeningofanewhighschool。Therewereallsortsofperformancesbythechildren，largelyoftheirowndevising，andthepeoplewereinterestedandbroughttogetherasnever，perhaps，before。Itwascommunal，itwasours，andthesocialspirititevokedwasacommonjoy。Enterprisesofthesamenatureonalargerandmorepermanentscale，suchastherecreationcentresofChicago，arebeginningtoariseinvariouspartsofthecountry。

Itseemsprobablethattheplaincitizenmustlooklargely，(409)tothecommunallifetosupplythatchanceforself-expressionwhichtownresidenceandthespecializednatureofmodernindustryhavesolargelyrestricted。Urbanlifeisinevitable，andinsteadofregrettingthecountrythecity-dwellershadbettermakethemostofthenewsituation，throughplaygrounds，publicamusements，socializedschools，recreationcentres，and，ingeneral，amorevitalandhumancivicorganization。[3]

Thefundamentalneedofmenisforself-expression，formakingtheirwillfeltinwhatevertheyfeeltobeclosetotheirhearts;andtheywillusethestateinsofarandinsuchamannerastheyfindithelpfulingratifyingthisneed。

Themoreself-expression，therefore，thereisinotherspheresoflife，thelessneed，relatively，peoplewillfeelofactingthroughgovernment梐principlewhichshouldremindthosewhodreadthegrowthofthelatterthattheonlysurewaytorestrictitisbydevelopingareal，affirmativefreedominotherrelations。Politicaldemocracyplussocialandeconomicoppressionisprettysuretoequalstatesocialism，becausemenwilllooktopoliticalcontrolasarefuge。Butifgeneralconditionsarefreeandopen，menwillbethemoresensible，bycontrast，oftheunfreeaspectsofstateactivity。

Alackofeconomyingovernmentwillnotmuchcheckitsaggrandizementiftheneedofitisstronglyfeltonothergrounds，sincehumannature，onthewhole，caresverylittleforeconomyincomparisonwithfreedomandjustice。Onewillmorewillinglypayawater-taxoftwenty，(410)dollarstoacitygovernmentinwhichhehasavoicethanoftentoanalienandoverbearingcorporation。

Inourdaythereisatendencytowardextensionofstatefunctionswhichafterallisperhapsnomorethansymmetricalinviewofthegeneralexpansionoflargerstructuresineverysphere。Itdoesnotseemtooutstripthegrowth，forinstance，ofprivatecorporations，orlaborunions，orofindividualwealth。Itiseasytoseeatendencytostatesocialismifyoulookonlyatthenewfunctionsofthestate;easytoseeanoppositetendencyifyoufixyourattentiononprivateorganization。

Whetherornotthestateisrelativelyincreasingitssphereisnoteasytodecide。Thenewconditionsoflifebringmenclosertogether，creatingageneralneedofwiderorganization;and，sofarasnowappears，thisneedistobemetbythesimultaneousdevelopmentofvariousstructuresalreadywellbegun;suchaspopulargovernmentandeducation，privateindustrialandcommercialcorporations，laborunions，mutual-aidsocieties，philanthropicalassociations，andsoon。

Thespecialdemandforstateextensionseemstospringchieflyfromtwoconditions：theneedtocontroltheexorbitantpowerofprivateeconomicassociations，andtheneedofmeetingnovelproblemsarisingfromlifeingreatcities。Intheseandsimilardirectionsanintelligentandpracticeddemocracywillproceedtentatively，“withthefirmfootbelow，“

alwaysbalancingthelossagainstthegain。Experimentsinpoliticalsocialismaresuretobetried，whichwillproveinstructiveandperhapsbeneficial。

Howfartheywillbecarriednomancansay，butIseenospecialreasontofearthattheywillgotoanyperniciousextreme。

Endnotes，IfthereaderisnotelearastowhatImeanbypublicwill，Ibegtorefer。himtochaptersI，XIIandXXXIV。TheseprinciplesaremuchthesameasthoseputforthbyW。S。Jevons。SeehisMethodsofSocialReform，355。CompareSimonN。Patten，TheNewBasisofCivilization，124。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter36：SomePhasesoftheLarger，Will，CHAPTERXXXVI

SOMEPHASESOFTHELARGERWILL，GROWINGEFFICIENCYOFTHEINTELLECTUAL

PROCESSES——ORGANICIDEALISM——THELARGERMORALITY——INDIRECTSERVICE——

INCREASINGSIMPLICITYANDFLEXIBILITYINSOCIALSTRUCTURE——PUBLIC

WILLSAVESPARTOFTHECOSTOFCHANGE——HUMANNATURETHEGUIDINGFORCE

BEHINDPUBLICWILL。

THEmainsourceofamoreeffectivepublicwillistobesoughtnot，peculiarly，inthegreateractivityofgovernment，butinthegrowingefficiencyoftheintellectualandmoralprocessesasawhole。

Thisgeneralstrivingofthepublicmindtowardclearerconsciousnessistooevidenttoescapeanyobserver。Ineveryprovinceoflifeamultiformsocialknowledgeisarisingand，minglingwiththehigherimpulsesofhumannature，isformingasystemofrationalideals，whichthroughleadershipandemulationgraduallyworktheirwayintopractice。

Compare，forinstance，theplacenowtakeninouruniversitiesbyhistory，economics，politicalscience，sociologyandthelikewiththeattentiongiventhem，say，in1875，wheninfactsomeofthesestudieshadnoplaceatall。Orconsiderthemultiplicationsincethesamedateofgovernmentbureaus梖ederal，stateandlocal梬hosemainfunctionistocollect，arrangeanddisseminatesocialknowledge。Itisnottoomuchtosaythatgovernmentsarebecoming，moreandmore，vastlaboratoriesofsocialscience。Observe，also，thenumberofbooksandperiod-

(412)-icalsseriouslydevotedtothesesubjects。Nodoubtmuchofthisworkisfeverishandshallow梐smustbeexpectedinatimeofchange梑utthereis，onthewhole，nothingmorecertainormorehopefulthantheadvanceinthelargerself-knowledgeofmankind。

Oneresultofthisclearerconsciousnessisthatidealismiscomingtobeorganic;thatistosayeachparticularidealiscomingtobeformedandpursuedinsubordinationtoasystemofidealsbasedonalargeperceptionoffact。Whileputtingaspecialenthusiasmintohisownwork，theidealistislearningthatheneedstohavealsoageneralunderstandingofeverygoodwork，andofthewholetowhichallcontribute。

Forhimtoimaginethathisistheonlyworkworthdoingisasunfortunateasforthecaptainofacompanytoimaginethatheisconductingthewholecampaign。Otherthingsequal，themosteffectiveidealistsarethosewhoaremostsane，andwhohaveasenseforthecomplication，interdependenceandinertiaofhumanconditions。

Astudyoftheidealsandprogrammesthathavehadmostacceptanceeveninrecentyearswouldmakeitapparentthatourstateofmindregardingsocietyhasbeenmuchlikethatwhichprevailedregardingthenaturalworldwhenmensoughtthephilosopher’sstoneandthefountainofperpetualyouth。Muchenergyhasbeenwasted，ornearlywasted，intheexclusiveandintolerantadvocacyofspecialschemes梥ingletax，prohibition，statesocialismandthelike梕achofwhichwasimaginedbyitsadherentstobethekeytomillennialconditions。Everyyear，however，makesconvertstothetruththatnoisolatedschemecanbe，(413)agoodscheme，andthatrealprogressmustbeanadvanceallalongtheline。Thosewhoseeonlyonethingcanneverseethattruly，andsomustwork，evenatthat，inasomewhatsuperficialanderraticmanner。

Forsimilarreasonsourmoralschemesandstandardsmustgrowlargerandmorecommensuratewiththelifewhichtheyaimtoregulate。[1]Thehigherwillcanneverworkoutunlessitisasintelligentlyconceivedandorganizedascommerceandpolitics。Evidentlyifwedonotseehowlifereallygoesandwhatgoodandillareunderactualconditions，wecanneitherinculcatenorfollowthebettercourses。Thereisnothingforitbuttolearntofeelandtoeffectuatekindsofrightinvolvingasenseofwiderandremoterresultsthanmenhavebeenusedtotakeintoaccount。Asfastasscienceenablesustotracetheoutcomeofagivensortofactionwemustgoontocreateacorrespondingsenseofresponsibilityforthatoutcome。

Thepopularsystemsofethicsarewhollyinadequate，andallthinkingpersonsarecomingtoseethatthosetraitsofdecencyintheobviousrelationsoflifethatwehavebeenaccustomedtoregardasmoralityareingreatpartofsecondaryimportance。ManyofthemareofsomewhatthesamecharacterasJohnWoolman’srefusaltoweardyedhats梬ewonderthatpeopledonotseesomethingmoreimportanttoexercisetheirconsciencesupon。WhenthelargermovementsoflifeweresubconsciousandthegoodandillBowingfromthemwere，(414)ascribedtoaninscrutableprovidence，moralitycouldnotbeconcernedwiththem;butthemoreweunderstandthemthemoretheymustappearthechieffieldforitsactivity。

Westillhavetodowithobviouswrong梩hedrunkard，thehousebreaker，themurderer，andthelike梑utthesesimpleoffencesareeasytodealwith，comparatively，asbeingevidentandindubitable，sothatallnormalpeoplecondemnthem。Nogreatabilityororganizationupholdsthem;theyareliketheoutbreaksofsavagesorchildreninthattheydonotconstituteaformidablemenacetosociety。And，moreover，wearecomingtoseethattheyaremosteffectuallydealtwithbyindirectandpreventivemethods。

Themoredangerousimmoralityis，ofcourse，thatwhichmakesuseofthelatestenginesofpoliticsorcommercetoinjurethecommunity。

Wrong-doersofthiskindareusuallydecentandkindlyindailywalkandconversation，aswellassupportersofthechurchandotherrespectableinstitutions。Forthemostparttheyarenotevenhypocrites，butmenofadeadandconventionalvirtue，notawaketotherealmeaningofwhattheyareanddo。Alargermoralityrequiresthattheyshouldbewakedup，thatapublicconscience，basedonknowledge，shouldjudgethingsbytheirtrueresults，andshouldknowhowtomakeitsjudgmentseffectual。

Moreover，thisisnotamattermerelyofthebadmenwhomwereadaboutinthenewspapers，butoneofpersonalguiltinallofus。

Itismyobservationthatthesamewrongswhicharehelduptoexecrationinthemagazinesarepresent，underappropriateforms，amongteachers，lawyers，ministers，reputabletradesmen，andotherswho，(415)comeundermyimmediatenotice。Weareallinit：

thenarrowprinciplesaremuchthesame，thedifferencesbeinglargelyinthescaleofoperations，inbeingornotbeingfoundout，inmoreorlesstimidityintakingrisks？andsoon。

Asomewhatsimilarproblemisthatofenergizingindirectservice。Thegroupsweserve？thenation，theeducationalinstitution，theoppressedclass，forinstance？havecometobesovast，andoftensoremotefromtheeye，thateventheingenuityofthenewspaperandmagazinepresscanhardlymakethemaliveforusanddrawourheartsandourmoneyintheirdirection。The“we“doesnotliveinface-to-facecontact，andthoughphoto-engravingsandstereopticonsandexhibitionsandvividwritingareamarveloussubstitute，theyareofteninadequate，sothatwedonotfeelthecogencyofthecommoninterestsoimmediatelyasdidthemenoftheclans。“Civilization，“saysProfessorSimonPatten，“sparesusmoreandmorethesightofanguish，andourimaginationsmustbecorrespondinglysharpenedtoseeinthecheck-bookanagentasspiritualandpoeticasthegrimeandblood-stainofministeringhands。”[2]Howfarthismaycometopassitishardtosay：formyself，Idonotfinditeasytowritechecksforobjectsthatarenotmaderealtomebysomesortofpersonalcontact。Nodoubt，however，ourgrowingsystemofvoluntaryinstitutions？churches，philanthropicsocieties，fraternalorders，laborunionsandthelike？aretrainingusinthehabitofexpressingourselvesthroughthecheck-bookandotherindirectagents。

Iexpect，however，thatthebestresultswillflownot，(416)merelyfromanintelligentgeneralbenevolencethatwriteschecksforallsortsofgoodcauses，butfromakindofspecializationinwell-doing，thatwillenableonebyfamiliaritytoseethroughthetangleofrelationsataparticularpointandactintheviewoftruth。Inphilanthropy，forinstance，anincreasingnumberofmenandwomenofwealthandabilitywilldevotenotonlytheirchecksbuttrainedthoughtandpersonalexertiontosomeparticularsortofworkwhichtakesholdoftheirinterest？tothewelfareofdependentchildren，oftheblind，andsoon梞akingthistheirbusiness，givingitthesamecloseandeagerattentiontheywouldanyotherbusiness，andsocomingtounderstanditthroughandthrough。

These，alongwithsalariedworkers，willbetheleadersineachspecialline，andwilldrawafterthemthelesspersonalsupportofthosewhohaveconfidenceinthem;butpeoplewillneversendmuchoftheirtreasurewheretheirheartdoesnotgofirst。Everycityandneighborhoodhasitsurgentsocialneedswhichtheresidentmaystudyanddevotehimselftowithmuchbetterresultstotheworldandtohisowncharacterthanifhelimitshimselftothewritingofchecks。Andforthatmattereveryoccupation梐slaw，medicine，teachingandthevarioussortsofbusinessandhand-labor梙asitsownphilanthropiesandreformsintowhichonemayputallthedevotionheiscapableof。Ifeachofuschoosessomedisinterestedformofpublicserviceandputshimselfthoroughlyintoit，thingswillgoverywell。

Anothertendencyinvolvedintheriseofpublicwillisthattowardagreatersimplicityandflexibilityofstructure，(417)ineveryprovinceoflife：principlesaretakingtheplaceofformulas。

Intheearlyhistoryofasciencethebodyofknowledgeconsistsofamassofill-understoodandill-relatedobservations，speculationsandfancies，whichthediscipletakesontheauthorityofthemaster：butasprinciplesarediscoveredthisincoherentstructurefallstopieces，andisreplacedbyacourseofstudybasedonexperimentandinference。

Sointheearlygrowthofeveryinstitutionthetruththatitembodiesisnotperceivedorexpressedinsimplicity，butobscurelyincarnatedincustomandformula。Theperceptionofprinciplesdoesnotdoawaywiththemechanism，buttendstomakeitsimple，flexible，human，definitelyservingaconsciouspurposeandquicktostandorfallaccordingtoitssuccess。Undertheoldsystemeverythingispreserved，becausemendonotknowjustwherethevirtueresides;underthenewtheessentialiskeptandtherestthrownaway。

Orwemaysaythatthechangeislikethesubstitutionofanalphabetforpicturewriting，withtheresultthatlanguagebecomesatthesametimemorecomplexinitsstructureandsimplerinitselements。

Whenonceitisdiscoveredthatallspeechmaybereducedtoafewelementarysoundsthesymbolsofthese，beingsufficienttoexpressallpossiblewords，aremoreefficientandlesscumbersomethanthemanycharactersthatwereusedbefore。

Themethodofthischangeisthatstruggleforexistenceamongideaswhichisimpliedinthewideandfreeintercourseofmodernlife。Inthisonlythevital，humanandindispensablecansurvive，andtruthisevercastingoffsuperfluityandworkingitselfdowntofirstprinciples。

(418)Wehaveremarkedthisinthecaseofreligion，anditwouldbeeasytofindthesameprocessatworkinothertraditions。

Themodernworld，then，inspiteofitscomplexity，maybecomefundamentallysimpler，moreconsistentandreasonable。Apparentlyformalismcannevermorebeanacceptedandjustifiedcondition，anymorethanreasoncanbeexchangedfortheblindinstinctoftheloweranimals。

Itwillexistwhereverthoughtandfeelingareinadequatetocreateawill梐sismuchthecaseatpresent？butpeoplewillnotbecontentwithitasinthepast。Therewillbecreeds，buttheywillaffirmnomorethanisreallyhelpfultobelieve，ritual，butonlywhatisbeautifuloredifying;

everythingmustjustifyitselfbyfunction。

Publicwill，likeindividualwill，hasthepurposeofeffectinganadaptationtoconditionsthatisrationalandeconomicalinsteadofhaphazardandwasteful。Ingeneralitshouldgreatlydiminish，thoughitcanhardlyobviate，thecostofsocialchange。Incommerce，forinstance，ithasalreadyrenderedcriseslesssuddenanddestructive梚nspiteoftheenormousscaleofmoderntransactions梐ndthetimeshouldnotbeveryfarawaywhentroubleofthissortwillbesoforeseenanddiscountedandsoprovidedagainstbyvarioussortsofinsuranceastodobutlittledamage。

Inthesamewaythevastproblemofpoverty，andofthedegeneracythatspringsfromit，canbemetandingreatpartconqueredbyalong-sightedphilanthropyandeducation。Inreligionthereisapparentlynomoreneedofthatcalamitousoverthrowofthefoundationsofbelieffromwhichmanysufferedinthepassinggeneration。Inthestateviolentrevolutionseemslikely，(419)todisappearasfastasdemocracyisorganized;

whileininternationalrelationsitwillbestrangeifwedonotseearapiddiminutionofwar。Inallthesematters，andinmanyothers，socialcostsarecapableofbeingforeseenandprovidedagainstbyrationalmeasuresexpressinganenlightenedpublicwill。

Theguidingforcebackofpublicwill，nowasever，isofcoursehumannatureitselfinitsmoreenduringcharacteristics，thosewhichfindexpressioninprimarygroupsandarelittleaffectedbyinstitutionalchanges。Thisnature，familiaryetinscrutable，isapparentlyinapositiontoworkitselfoutmoreadequatelythanatanytimeinthepast。

Endnotes，ThislineofthoughtiedevelopedbyProfessorE。A。Rossinhisbook，SinandSociety。TheNewBasisofCivilization，61。，