第7章

Thegreatmajorityofthepoor，however，havenoineradicablepersonalweaknessbutarecapableofrespondingtoinfluenceswhichmightraisethemtoanormalstandardofliving。Inotherwords，thenine-tenthsofthecommunitywhichisnotpoormightconceivablybringinfluencestobearwhichwould梚nahealthymannerandwithoutdemoralizingalms-giving梤emoveallbutasmallpartofthepovertyoftheothertenth。Itisonlyaquestionofputtingintothemattersufficientknowledgeandgoodwill。Astotheview，stillnotuncommon，thatthelaziness，shiftlessnessandviceofthepoorarethesourceoftheirdifficulties，itmaybesaidthatthesetraits，sofarastheyexist，arenowgenerallyregardedbycompetentstudentsasquiteasmuchtheeffectasthecauseofpoverty。Ifamanisundervitalizedhewilleitherappearlazyorwillexhausthimselfineffortswhicharebeyondhisstrength梩helatterbeingcommonwiththoseofanervoustemperament。

(293)Shiftlessness’also，isthenaturaloutcomeofaconfusedanddiscouragingexperience，especiallyifaddedtopoornutritionAndastodrinkandothersensualvices，itiswellunderstoodthattheyarethelogicalresourceofthosewhoselifedoesnotmeettheneedsofhumannatureinthewayofvariety，pleasantnessandhope。Thereareothercausesofvicebesidespoverty，asappearsfromitsprevalenceamongtheunresourcefulrich，buttherecanbenodoubtthatgoodnurture，moderatework，wholesomeamusementandahopefuloutlookwoulddoawaywithagreat，probablythegreater，partofit。Thereare，nodoubt，amongthepoor，asamongthewell-to-do，manycasesofincurableviciousnessandincompetence，butitwouldbenolessunjustandfoolishtoassumethatanyindividualisofthissortthantogiveupascarletfeverpatientbecausesomewilldieofthatdiseaseinspiteofthebesttreatment。

Ifindthattheablestandmostexperiencedworkershavegenerallythemostconfidenceastowhatmaybedoneevenniththeapparentlylazy，shiftlessorviciousbybringingfreshsuggestions，encouragementsandopportunitiestobearuponthem。Anditisonlyasmallportionofthepoorthatareevenapparentlylazy，shiftlessorvicious;themajoritycomparingnotunfavorablywiththewell-to-doclassesintheserespects。

Leavingasidegeneralconditionswhichmaydepresswholenationsorraces，themaincauseofpovertyinaprosperouscountryliketheUnitedStatesiswithoutdoubtsomesortofmaladjustmentbetweentheindividual，orthefamilyorneighborhoodgroup，andthewidercom-

(294)-munity，byreasonofwhichpotentialcapacitydoesnotyielditsproperfruitinefficiencyandcomfort。Thisisevidentlythecase，forexample，withthesortofpovertymostfamiliarinourAmericancities;

thatduetothebansplantingofvastnumbersofEuropeanstoasociety，nottoogoodforthemaswecarelesslyassume，butoutofconnectionwiththeirhabitsandtraditions。TheItalians，SlavsandRussianJewswhojustnowthrongourcitiesarebynomeansdeficient，onthewhole，eitherinintelligence，industryorthrift;andthosewhoknowthembestfindthemprolificinsomequalities，suchasartisticsensibilityofvariouskinds，inwhichAmericaisotherwiseratherdeficient。Buttheprocessofadaptationtoourindustrialconditionsistryingandleavesmanyinpovertyanddemoralization。

Amongthenativepopulationalso，povertyandthemoraldegradationwhichisoftenfoundwithitisduelargely，perhapschiefly，tovariouskindsofmaladjustmentbetweentheworkingclassesandtheindustrialsystem梩olossofemploymentfromperiodicaldepressionsorfromtheintroductionofnewmethods，tothelackofprovisionforindustrialeducation，totheperilsattendingmigrationfromcountrytocity，andsoon。

Whatshallwesayofthedoctrineverywidely，thoughperhapsnotveryclearly，heldthatthepoorarethe“unfit“incourseofelimination，andaresufferingthepainfulbutnecessaryconsequencesofaninferioritythatsocietymustgetridofatanycost？Anotionofthiskindmaybediscoveredinthemindsofmanymenoffairintelligence，andisduetoremote，obscureandforthemostpart，(295)mistakenimpressionsoftheteachingofMalthusandDarwin。

Theunfit，inthesenseofDarwinandofbiologyingeneral，arethosewhosehereditarytypeissounsuitedtotheconditionsoflifethatittendstodieout，oratleastsufferrelativediminutioninnumbers，undertheactionoftheseconditions梐swhitefamiliestendtodieoutinthetropics。Inotherwords，theyhaveaninferiorityduetoheredity，andthisinferiorityisofsuchacharacterthattheydonotleaveasmanychildrentocontinuetheirraceasdothoseofasuperiororfittertype。

Itisveryquestionablewhetheranygreatpartofthepooranswerthedescriptionineitheroftheserespects。Astothefirst，itistheprevailingopinionwiththosemostfamiliarwiththematterthattheirinferiority，exceptpossiblywhereadistinctraceisinquestion，aswiththeNegroes，isduechieflytodeficientnurture，trainingandopportunity，andnottoheredity。Thisviewissupportedbythefactthatundertheconditionswhichacountryofopportunity，liketheUnitedStates，affords，greatmassesofpeoplerisefrompovertytocomfort，andmanyofthemtoopulence，showingthatthestockwasascapableasany。SomethingofthissorthastakenplacewithGermanandIrishimmigrants，andislikelytotakeplacewithJews，SlavsandItalians。

Astoelimination，itiswellknownthatonlypovertyofthemostextremeanddestructivekindsavailstorestrictpropagation，andthatthemoderatelypoorhaveahigherrateofincreasethantheeducatedandwell-to-doclasses。

Itis，infact，farmorethelatterthatarethe“unfit“inabiologicalsensethantheformer。

(296)

Thetruthisthatpovertyisunfitness，butinasocialandnotabiologicalsense。Thatistosay，itmeansthat]feeding，housing，familylife，educationandopportunity！arebelowthestandardsthatthesocialtypecallsfor，andthattheirexistenceendangersthelatterinamanneranalogoustothatinwhichthepresenceofinferiorcattleinaherdendangersthebiologicaltype。Theythreaten，andtoagreaterorlessdegreeactuallybringabout，ageneraldegradationofthecommunity，throughignorance，inefficiency，disease，vice，badgovernment，classhatred(or，stillworse，classservilityandarrogance)andsoon。

Butsincetheunfitnessissocialratherthanbiological，themethodofeliminationmustalsobesocial，namely，thereformofhousingandneighborhoodconditions，improvementoftheschools，publicteachingoftrades，abolitionofchild-laborandthehumanizingofindustry。

Thattherearestrainsofbiologicalunfitnessamongthepoor梙ereditaryidiocy，ornervousinstabilitytendingtowardviceandcrime，forexample梚snottobedenied，andcertainlytheseshouldbeeliminated，butpoverty，farfromeffectingelimination，isperhapstheirmaincause。Thiswill，nodoubt，bedulyconsideredbystudentsofthenewscienceofeugenics，forwhichthoseofuswhoapproachsocialproblemsfromanotherpointofviewmayyethavethehighestregardandexpectation。Onlyashallowsortofmindwillsupposethereisanynecessaryconflictbetweenbiologicalandpsychologicalsociology。

Astothequestion，whoistoblameforpoverty，letusrememberthatthewholequestionofpraiseorblameisoneofpointofviewandexpediency。

Blamethepoorifit，(297)willdothemanygood，andsometimes，perhaps，itwill，butnotsooftenprobablyasthewell-to-doareapttoimagine。Itusedtobethoughtthatpeoplemustalwaysbeheldresponsiblefortheircondition，andthatthemainifnottheonlysourceofimprovementwastoprodtheirsenseofthisresponsibility;butmorethoughtfulobservationshowsthatitisnotalwaysagoodthingtourgethewill。“Worry，“saysanexperiencedworker，[1]“isoneofthedirectandall-pervadingcausesofeconomicdependence，“andheassertsthat“Takenothoughtforthemorrow“isoftenthemostpracticaladvice。Manyindications，amongthemthespreadof“mind-cure“

doctrinesandpractices，pointtoawidelyfeltneedtoescapefromthewasteandunrestofanover-stimulatedsenseofresponsibility。

Themainblameforpovertymustrestupontheprosperous，becausetheyhave，onthewhole，farmorepowerinthepremises。However，povertybeingduechieflytoconditionsofwhichsocietyisonlyjustbeginningtobecomeconscious，wemaysaythatinthepastnobodyhasbeentoblame。Itisanunintendedresultoftheeconomicstruggle，andis“donewiththeelbowsratherthanthefists。”Butconsciousnessisarising，andwithitcomesresponsibility。Wearebecomingawareofwhatmakespovertyandhowitcaningreatpartbedoneawaywith，andifaccomplishmentdoesnotkeeppacewithknowledgeweshallbetoblameindeed。

Allpartsofsocietybeinginterdependent，theevilsof，(298)povertyarenotconfinedtooneclass，butspreadthroughoutthewhole;andtheinfluenceofalowstandardoflivingisfeltinthecorruptionofpolitics，theprevalenceofviceandtheinefficiencyoflabor。Thecauseofthepooristhereforethecauseofall，andfromthispointofviewthoseofthemwhoinspiteofweakness，discouragementandneglectkeepupthefightforadecentlifeandshundependenceanddegradation，shouldberegardedasheroicdefendersofthegeneralwelfare，deservingpraiseasmuchasthesoldieratthefront。Ifwedonotsoregardthem，itisbecauseofourlackofintelligenceandsocialconsciousness。

Inatrulyorganicsocietythestrugglesandsufferingofapoorclasswouldarousethesameaffectionateandhelpingsolicitudeasisfeltwhenonememberofafamilyfallsill。Incontrasttothis，theindifferenceorsomewhatcontemptuouspityusuallyfelttowardpovertyindicatesalowstateofcommunitysentiment，adeficientwe-feeling。Respectandappreciationwouldseemtobeduetothosewhosustainthestrugglesuccessfully，andsympathetichelptothosewhoarebrokendownbyit。Especiallybrutal，stupidandinexpedient梬henwethinkofit？istheoldwayoflumpingthepoorwiththedegenerateas“thelowerclass，“andeitherleavingthemtobeartheirdiscreditedexistenceasbesttheymay，ordealingouttothemacontemptuousandunbrotherlyalms。Theconfusionwiththedegradedofthosewhoarekeepingupthesocialstandardinthefaceofexceptionaldifficultiesisasmeananddeadlyawrongascouldwellbe。

Insofarasthereisaneffective，self-consciousChristian，(299)spiritintheworld，thought，feelingandeffortmustconcentratewhereverthereisinjusticeoravoidablesuffering。Thatthistakesplacesoslowlyandimperfectlyinthematterofpovertyislargelyowingtoalackofclearperceptionofwllatougbttobedone。Isupposethereisnodoubtthatifmeregiftscouldwipeoutpovertyitwouldbewipedoutatonce。Butpeoplearenow，forthemostpart，justsufficientlyinformedtoseethefutilityofordinaryalms，withoutbeinginstructedinthepossibilitiesofrationalphilanthropy。Rationalphilanthropyiscoming，however，alongwithanexcellentliteratureandabodyofexpertpersonswhounitehumaneenthusiasmwithascientificspirit。[2]

Thefundamentalremedyforpovertyis，ofcourse，rationalorganizationhavingforitsaimthecontrolofthoseconditions，nearandremote，whichleadpeopleintoitandpreventtheirgettingout。Themostradicalmeasuresarethosewhichareeducationalandprotectiveinaverybroadandsearchingsenseofthewords梩hehumanizationoftheprimaryschoolsystem，industrialeducation，facilitiesforplay，physicaltrainingandhealthyamusement，goodhousing，therestrictionbylawofchildlaborandofallviciousandunwholesomeconditions，and，finally，thebiologicalprecautionofstoppingthepropagationofreallydegeneratetypesofmen。

Endnotes，AneditorialwriterinCharitiesandtheCommons，presumablyProfessorDevine，theauthorofPrinciplesofRelief，andotherworksonrationalcharity。”Ourchildren’schildrenmaylearnwithamazementhowwethoughtitanaturalsocialphenomenonthatmenshoulddieintheirprime，leavingwivesandchildreninterrorofwant，thataccidentsshouldmakeanarmyofmaimeddependents;thatthereshouldnotbeenoughhousesforworkers;andthatepidemicsshouldsweepawaymultitudesasautumnfrostsweepsawaysummerinsects“SimonN。Patten，TheNewBasisofCivilization，197，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter27：HostileFeelingbetween，Classes，CHAPTERXXVII

HOSTILEFEELINGBETWEENCLASSES，CONDITIONSPRODUCINGCLASSANIMOSITY——THESPIRITOFSERVICE

ALLAYSBITTERNESS——POSSIBLEDECREASEOFTHEPRESTIGEOFWEALTH——PROBABILITY

OFAMORECOMMUNALSPIRITINTHEUSEOFWEALTH——INFLUENCEOFSETTLED

RULESFORSOCIALOPPOSITION——IMPORTANCEOFFACE-TO-FACEDISCUSSION

CLASSanimositybynomeansincreasesinproportiontotheseparationofclasses。Onthecontrary，wherethereisadefiniteandrecognizedclasssystemwhichnoonethinksofbreakingdown，amaincauseofarroganceandjealousyisabsent。Everyonetakeshispositionforgrantedandisnotconcernedtoassertorimproveit。InSpain，itissaid，“youmaygivetheinchtoanypeasant;heissuretobeagentleman，andheneverthinksoftakingtheelf。”SoinanEnglishtale，writtenabout1875，Ifindthefollowing：“Thepeasantryandlittlepeopleincountryplacesliketofeelthegentryfarabovethem。Theydonotcaretobecaughtupintotheempyreanofanequalhumanity，butenjoythepoetryoftheirself-abasementinthebeliefthattheirsuperiorsareindeedtheirbetters。”SoattheSouththerewasakindoffellowshipbetweentheracesunderslaverywhichpresentconditionsmakemoredifficult。Asettledinequalityisthenextbestthing，forintercourse，toequality。

Butwheretheidealofequalityhasentered，evenslightdifferencesmayberesented，andclassfeelingismostbitter，probably，wherethisidealisstrongbuthasnoregu-

(302)-larandhopefulmethodsofassertingitself。Inthatcaseaspirationturnssourandgenerateshatefulpassions。Castecountriesaresafefromthisbylackingtheidealofequality，democraciesbypartlyrealizingit。ButinGermany，forinstance，wherethereisafiercedemocraticpropagandaontheonehand，andastonewallofmilitaryandaristocraticinstitutionsontheother，onemayfeelaclassbitternessthatwehardlyknowinAmerica。

AndinEnglandalso，atthepresenttime，whenclassesarestillrecognizedbutveryill-defined，thereseemstobemuchofanuneasypreoccupationaboutrank，andoftheelbowing，snubbingandsuspicionthatgowithit。

Peopleappeartobemoreconcernedwithtryingtogetintoasetabovethem，orrepressingotherswhoarepushingupfrombelow，thanwithus。

InAmericasocialpositionexists，but，havingnosuchdefinitesymbolsasinEngland，isforthemostparttoointangibletogiverisetosnobbery，whichisbasedontitlesandotherexternalitieswhichmenmaycovetorgloatoverinawayhardlypossiblewhenthelineismerelyoneofopinion，congenialityandcharacter。

Thfeelingbetweenclasseswillpotbeverybittersolongastheidealofserviceispresentinallandmutuallyrecognized。Anditisthetendencyofthedemocraticspirit梫eryimperfectlyworkedoutasyet梩oraisethisidealaboveallothersandmakeitacommonstandardofconduct。ThusMontesquieu，describinganidealdemocracy，saysthatambitionislimited“tothesoledesire，tothesolehappiness，ofdoinggreaterservicestoourcountrythantherestofourfellowcitizens。Theycannotallrenderherequalservices，buttheyalloughttoserveher，(303)withequalalacrity。”Hethinksalsothattheloveoffrugality，bywhichhemeanscompunctioninmaterialself-indulgence，“limitsthedesireofhavingtothestudyofprocuringnecessitiestoourfamilyandsuperfluitiestoourcountry。”[1]Ifitwereindeedsoillourownworld，therewouldbenodangerofaclassconflict。

Possiblyallstatesofopinionbywhichanyserviceisdespisedaresurvivalsfromacastesociety，andreminiscentofthedominationofoneorderoveranother梛ustasslaveryhasleftafeelingintheSouththathandlaborisdegrading。Sosoonasallkindsofworkerssharefreelyinthesocialandpoliticalorder，allworkmustberespected。Thesocialprestigeofidleness，of“conspicuousleisure，“thatstillexistsintheOldWorld，isevidentlyasurvivalofthissort，anditcanhardlyhappeninthedemocraticfuturethat“peoplewilllettheirnailsgrowthatallmayseetheydonotwork。”“Idonotcallonegreaterandonesmaller，“

saysWhitman，“thatwhichfillsitsperiodandplaceisequaltoany。”[2]Ithink，however，thattherewillalwaysbeespecialesteemforsomesortsofachievement，butthegroundsforthiswill，moreandmore，bedistinctioninthecommonservice。

Theexcessiveprestigeofwealth，alongwithmuchoftheillfeelingwhichitinvolves，isalso，inmyopinion，ratheralegacyfromcastesocietythanatraitcongenialtodemocracy。Ihavetriedtoshowthattheascendancyofrichesisreallygreaterintheolderandlessdemocraticsocieties;

anditsurvivesindemocracyasmuchasit，(304)doespartlybecauseofthetraditionthatassociateswealthwithanuppercaste，andpartlybecauseotheridealsareasyetcrudeandunorganized。

Arealdemocracyofsentimentandaction，arenewedChristianityandarenewedartmightmakelifebeautifulandhopefulforthosewhohavelittlemoneywithoutdiminishingthewholesomeoperationofthedesireforgain。

Atpresentthecommonmanisimpoverishednotmerelybyanabsolutewantofmoneybutbyacurrentwayofthinkingwhichmakespecuniarysuccessthestandardofmerit，andsomakeshimfeelthatfailuretogetmoneyisfailureoflife。Aswenolongerfeelmuchadmirationformerephysicalprowess，apartfromtheusethatismadeofit，soitseemsnaturalthatthesameshouldcometrueofmerepecuniarystrength。Themindofachild，orofanynaiveperson，basesconsiderationchieflyonfunction，onwhatamancandointhecommonlife，anditisinthelineofdemocraticdevelopmentthatweshouldreturntowardthissimpleandhumanview。

Itisinaccordwiththismovementthatchildrenofallclassesaremoreandmoretaughttheuseoftools，cookingandotherprimaryartsoflife。Thisnotonlymakesforeconomyandindependence，buteducatesthe“instinctofworkmanship，“leadingustofeelaninterestinallgoodworkandarespectforthosewhodoit。

Themainneedofmenislife，self-expression，notluxury，andifself-expressioncanbemadegeneralmaterialinequalitiesalonewillexcitebutlittleresentment。

Astotheuseofwealthwemayexpectagrowingsenseofsocialresponsibility，ofwhichtherearealreadycheerful，(305)indications。Sinceitisnolongerrespectabletobeidle，whymaywenothopethatitwillpresentlyceasetoberespectabletoindulgeone’slowerselfinotherways梚npecuniarygreed，inluxuriouseating，indisplay，richclothesandothercostlyandexclusivepleasures？

Wemustnot，however，besooptimisticastooverlooktheeasewithwhichnarroworselfishinterestsmayformspecialgroupsoftheirown，encouragingoneanotheringreedorluxurytotheneglectofthecommonlife。Suchassociationscannotaltogethershutoutgeneralsentiment，buttheycananddosofardeadenitsinfluencethatthemorehardenedorfrivolousarepracticallyunconsciousofit。Whiletherearesomecheerfulgiversonalargescaleamongus，andmanyonasmallone，Iamnotsurethattherewasever，onthewhole，acommercialsocietythatcontributedasmallerpartofitsgainstogeneralcauses。Wehavedonemuchinthisway;butthenweareenormouslyrich;andthemostthathasbeendonehasbeenbytaxation，whichfallsmostheavilyuponsmallproperty-owners。Themorecommunaluseofwealthisratheramatterofgeneralprobability，andoffaithindemocraticlsentiment，thanofdemonstrablefact。

Muchmightbesaidofthevariouswaysinwhichmorecommunitysentimentmightbeshownandclassresentmentalleviated。Inthematterofdress，forexample;shalloneexpresshiscommunityconsciousnessinitorhisclassconsciousness，assumingthateachisnaturalandcreditable？Itwouldseemthatwhenhegoesabroadamongmenthegooddemocratshouldprefertoappearaplaincitizen，withnothingabouthimtointerruptintercoursewithanyclass。Andinfact，itisawholesome，(306)featureofAmericanlife，innotablecontrastwith，say，Germany，thathighaswellaslowareaversetowearingmilitaryorotherdistinctivecostumeinpublic梕xceptattimesoffestivalordisplay，whenclassconsciousnessisinspecialfunction。Wefeelthatifamanwantstodistinguishhimselfingeneralintercourseheshoulddosoincourtesyorwisdom，notinmedalsorclothes。

Andwhyshouldnotthesameprinciple，ofdeferencetothecommunityinnon-essentials，applytoone’shouseandtoone’swayoflivingingeneral？

Ifhehasanythingworthytoexpressinthesethings，lethimexpressit，butnotprideorluxury。

Letusnot，however，formulizeuponthequestionwhatonemayrightlyspendmoneyfor，orimaginethatformulismispracticable。Theprinciplethatwealthisatrustheldforthegeneralgoodisnottobedisputed;

butlatitudemustbelefttoindividualconceptionsofwhatthegeneralgoodis。Thesearemattersnotforformulasorsumptuarylaws，butforconscience。Tosetupanyotherstandardwouldbetosuppressindividualityanddomoreharmthangood。

Someofuswouldbegladtoseealmostanyamountofwealthspentuponbeautifularchitecture，thoughwemightpreferthatthebuildingsbedevotedtosomepublicuse。Letushavebeauty，evenluxury，butletitbepublicandcommunicable。Itcertainlyseemsatfirstsightthatvastexpenditureuponprivateyachts，privatecars，costlyballs，displayofjewelry，sumptuouseatingandthelike，indicatesalowstateofculture;butperhapsthisisamistake;nodoubtthereissomebeneficenceinthesethingsnotgenerallyunderstood。

(307)

Wedonotwantuniformityinearningandspending，morethanelsewhere，onlyunityofspirit。Somewriterspraisetheemulationthatisdeterminedtohaveasfinethingsasothershave，butwhilethishasitsusesitisasocialimpulseofnohighkindallakeepsthemassofmenfeelingpoorandinferior。Ourdignityandhappinesswouldprofitmoreifeachofusweretoworkoutlifeinawayofhisownwithoutinvidiouscomparisons。

Weshallneverbecontentexceptaswedevelopandenjoyourindividualityandarewillingtoforegowhatdoesnotbelongtoit。IknowthatIwasnotborntogetortouseriches，butIamwillingtobelievethatothersare。

Anessentialconditionofbetterfeelingintheinevitablestrugglesoflifeisthatthereshouldbejustandaccepted“rulesofthegame“togivemoralunitytothewholeMuchmustbesuffered，butmenwillsufferwithoutbitternessiftheybelievethattheydosounderjustandnecessaryprinciples。

Asolidfoundationhasbeenlaidforthis，infreecountries，bytheestablishmentofinstitutionsunderwhichallclassconflictsarereferred，inthelastresort，tohumannatureitself。Throughfreespeechageneralwillmaybeorganizedonanymatterurgentenoughtoattractgeneralattention，andthroughdemocraticgovernmentthismaybetested，recordedandcarriedout。Thusisprovidedatribunalfreefromclassbiasbeforewhichcontroversiesmaybetriedandsettledinanorderlymanner。

Itwouldbehardtoexaggeratetheimportancetosocialpeaceofthisrecognitionoftheultimateauthorityofpublicopinion，actingslowlybutsurelythroughconstitutional，(308)methods。Itmeansamoralwholewhichprescribesrules，directssaneagitationintohealthyandmoderatechaneels，andtakesawayallrationalgroundforviolenceorrevolutionIfmen，forinstance，believethataparticularkindofsocialisticstateisthecurefortheevilsofsociety，letthemspeak，printandformtheirparty。Perhapstheyareright;

atleast，theygetmuchwholesomeself-expressionandakindofhappinessoutoftheiraspirationandlabors。Andiftheyarepartlywrong，yettheymaybothlearnandimpartmuchtothegeneraladvantage。

Butwehavemadeonlyabeginninginthis。Ourethicsisonlyavagueoutline，notamaturedsystem，andinthedetailsofsocialcontact梐sbetweenemployerandworkman，richandpoor，Negroandwhite，andsoon梩hereissuchalackofacceptedstandardsthatmenhavelittletogobybuttheircrudeimpulses。Allthismustbeworkedout，inasmuchpatienceandgoodwillaspossible，beforewecanexpecttohavepeace。

Wherethereisnoveryradicalconflictofessentialprinciples，illfeelingmaycommonlybealleviatedbyface-to-facediscussion，sincethemorewecometounderstandoneanotherthemorewegetbelowsuperficialunlikenessandfindessentialcommunity。Betweenfairlyreasonableandhonestmenitisalwayswholesometo“haveitout，“andmanycarefulstudiesoflabortroublesagreeregardingthelargepartplayedbymisunderstandingsandsuspicionthathavenocauseexceptlackofopportunityforexplanation。

“Theriotingwouldnothavetakenplace，“saysastudentofcertainn。iriingdisorders，“hadnottheignoranceandsuspicionoftheHungariansbeensupplementedbythe，(309)ignoranceandsuspicionoftheemployers;andtheperseveranceofthismutualattitudemayyetcreateanotherriot。”[3]Thereisastrongtemptationforthoseinauthority，especiallyiftheyareoverworkedorconsciousofbeingalittleweakorunreadyinconference，tofencethemselvesinwithformalityandthetype-writtenletter。Butamanofrealfitnessinanyadministrativecapacitymusthaveastomachforopenandface-to-facedealingwithmen。

Andademocraticsystemsoonerorlaterbringstopassface-to-facediscussionofallvitalquestions，becausethepeoplewillbesatisfiedwithnoother。Anappearanceofshirkingitwillarouseevenmoredistrustandhostilitythantheopenavowalofselfishmotives;andaccordinglyitismoreandmorethepracticeofaggressiveintereststoseektojustifythemselvesbyatleasttheappearanceoffrankappealtopopularjudgment。

Endnotes，TheSpiritofLaws，bookv，chap。3。LeavesofGrass，71。Spahr，America’sWorkingPeople，128。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter28：Institutionsandthe，Individual，CHAPTERXXVIII

INSTITUTIONSANDTHEINDIVIDUAL，THENATUREOFINSTITUTIONS——HEREDITARYANDSOCIALFACTORS——

THECHILDANDTHEWORLD——SOCIETYANDPERSONALITY——PERSONALITYversusTHEINSTITUTION——THEINSTITUTIONASABASISOFPERSONALITY——THE

MORALASPECT——CHOICEversusMECHANISM——PERSONALITYTHELIFE

OFINSTITUTIONS——INSTITUTIONSBECOMINGFREERINSTRUCTURE。

ANinstitutionissimplyadefiniteandestablishedphaseofthepublicmind，notdifferentinitsultimatenaturefrompublicopinion，thoughoftenseeming，onaccountofits;permanenceandthevisiblecustomsandsymbolsinwhichitisclothed，tohaveasomewhatdistinctandindependentexistence。Thusthepoliticalstateandthechurch，withtheirvenerableassociations，theirvastandancientpower，theirliterature，buildingsandoffices，hardlyappeareventoademocraticpeopleasthemereproductsofhumaninventionwhich，ofcourse，theyare。

Thegreatinstitutionsaretheoutcomeofthatorganizationwhichhumanthoughtnaturallytakesonwhenitisdirectedforageafterageuponaparticularsubject，andsograduallycrystallizesindefiniteforms梕nduringsentiments，beliefs，customsandsymbols。Andthisisthecasewhenthereissomedeepandabidinginteresttoholdtheattentionofmen。Language，government，thechurch，lawsandcustomsofpropertyandofthefamily，systems，(314)ofindustryandeducation，areinstitutionsbecausetheyaretheworkingoutofpermanentneedsofhumannature。

Thesevariousinstitutionsarenotseparableentities，butratherphasesofacommonandatleastpartlyhomogeneousbodyofthought，justasarethevarioustendenciesandconvictionsofanindividual：theyarethe“apperceptivesystems“ororganizedattitudesofthepublicmind，anditisonlybyabstractionthatwecanregardthemasthingsbythemselves。Wearetorememberthatthesocialsystemisaboveallawhole，nomatterhowtheconvenienceofstudymayleadustodivideit。

Intheindividualtheinstitutionexistsasahabitofmindandofaction，largelyunconsciousbecauselargelycommontoallthegroup：itisonlythedifferentialaspectofourselvesofwhichwearecommonlyaware。Butitisinmenandnowhereelsethattheinstitutionistobefound。TherealexistenceoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates，forexampleisinthetraditionalideasofthepeopleandtheactivitiesofjudges，legislatorsandadministrators;thewritteninstrumentbeingonlyameansofcommunication，anArkoftheCovenant，ensuringtheintegrityofthetradition。

Theindividualisalwayscauseaswellaseffectoftheinstitution：

hereceivestheimpressofthestatewhosetraditionshaveenvelopedhimfromchildhood，butatthesametimeimpresseshisowncharacter，formedbyotherforcesaswellasthis，uponthestate，whichthusinhimandotherslikehimundergoeschange。

Ifwethinkcarefullyaboutthismatter，however，weshallseethatthereareseveralsomewhatdifferentquestionswhichmightbeincludedinastudyoftherelationbetween，(315)theindividualandinstitutions;andtheseweoughttodistinguish。

Oneofthemisthatofthebabetotheworld，orofthehereditaryfactoroflife，existinginusatbirth，tothefactorofcommunicationandinfluence。

Anotherandquitedifferentoneisthatofsocietyandpersonality，oroftherelationbetweenthematureindividualandthewholeofwhichheisamember。

Athirdisthequestion梐gainadistinctone梠ftherelation，notbetweenthepersonandsocietyatlarge，butbetweenhimandparticularinstitutions。

Thislastistheonewithwhichwearemoreproperlyconcerned，butitmaynotbeamisstooffersomeobservationsontheothers。

Thechildatbirth，when，wemaysupposeforconvenience，societyhashadnodirectinfluenceuponhimrepresentstheracestockorhereditaryfactorinlifeinantithesistothefactoroftradition，communicationandsocialorganization。Healsorepresentsanundevelopedormerelybiologicalindividualityincontrasttothedevelopedsocialwholeintowhichhecomes。

Wethinkofthesocialworldasthemature，organized，institutionalfactorintheproblem;andyetwemaywellsaythatthechildalsoembodiesaninstitution(usingthewordlargely)andonemoreancientandstablethanchurchorstate，namelythebiologicaltype，littlechanged，probably，sincethedawnofhistory。ItcannotbeshowninanywaythatIknowofthatthechildrenbornto-dayofEnglishorAmericanparents條eavingasideanyquestionofracemixture梐regreatlydifferentinnaturaloutfitfrom，(316)theSaxonboysandgirls，theirancestors，whoplayeduponthebanksoftheElbefifteenhundredyearsago。Therootedinstinctsandtemperamentofracesappeartobeverymuchwhattheywere，andthechangesofhistory？

thedevelopmentofpoliticalinstitutions，theeconomicrevolutions，thesettlementofnewcountries，theReformation，theriseofscienceandthelike梐rechangesmainlyinthesocialfactoroflife，whichthusappearscomparativelyashiftingthing。

Inthedevelopmentofthechild，then，wehavetodowiththeinteractionoftwotypes，bothofwhichareancientandstable，thoughonemoresothantheother。Andthestirandgenerationofhumanlifeispreciselyintheminglingofthesetypesandinthemanyvariationsofeachone。

Thehereditaryoutfitofachildconsistsofvaguetendenciesoraptitudeswhichgetdefinitenessandmeaningonlythroughthecommunicativeinfluenceswhichenablethemtodevelop。Thusbabblingisinstinctive，whilespeechcomesbythisinstinctbeingdefinedandinstructedinsociety;curiositycomesbynature，knowledgebylife;fear，inavague，instinctiveform，issupposedtobefeltevenbythefoetus，butthefearsoflaterlifearechieflysocialfears;thereisaninstinctivesensibilitywhichdevelopsintosympathyandlove;andsoon。

Nothingismorefutilethangeneraldiscussionsoftherelativeimportanceofheredityandenvironment。Itismuchlikethecaseofmatterversusmind;bothareindispensabletoeveryphaseoflife，andneithercanexistapartfromtheother：theyarecoordinateinimportanceandincommensurableinnature。Onemightaswellaskwhetherthesoilortheseedpredominatesintheformation，(317)ofatree，aswhethernaturedoesmoreforusthannurture。Thefactthatmostwritershaveapredilectionforoneofthesefactorsattheexpenseoftheother(Mr。Galtonandthebiologicalschool，forexample，seeingheredityeverywhere，andnotmuchelse，whilepsychologistsandsociologistsputthestressoninfluence)meansonlythatsomearetrainedtoattendtooneclassoffactsandsometoanother。Onemaybemorerelevantforagivenpracticalpurposethantheother，buttomakeageneraloppositionisunintelligent。

Totheeyeofsentimentanew-bornchildoffersamovingcontrasttotheancientandgrimyworldintowhichitsoinnocentlyenters;theoneformed，apparently，forallthatispureandgood，“trailingcloudsofglory“assomethink，fromamorespiritualworldthanours，patheticallyunconsciousofanythingbutjoy;theothergrayandsaturnine，suretoproveinmanywaysaprison-house，perhapsafoulone。“Fullsoonthysoulshallhaveherearthlyfreight。”[1]Nodoubt，however，thepathosofthiscontrastarisesinpartfromsomewhatfallaciouspreconceptions。Theimaginationidealizesthechild，readingitsownvisionsintohisinnocenceasitdoesintotheinnocenceoftheseaandthemountains，andcontrastinghisfuturecareernotwithwhatheis，butwithanidealofwhathemightbecome。Intruththechildalreadyfeels，inhisownway，thepainfulsideoflife;hehastheseedsofdarknessinhimaswellasthoseoflight，andcannotinstrictnessbesaidtobeany，(318)betterthantheworld。Thegoodoflifetranscendshisimaginationasmuchasdoestheevil，andhecouldnotbecomeanythingatallexceptinasocialworld。Thepityofthematterwhichmaywellmoveeveryonewhothinksofittoworkforbetterhomes，schoolsandplaygrounds，issimplythatweareabouttomakesopoorauseofaplasticmaterial，thathemightbesomuchbetterandhappierifwewouldprepareabetterplaceforhim。

Itistrue，inasense，asBaconsays，thatyouthhasmoreofdivinity，butperhapswemightalsosaythatithasmoreofdeviltry;theyoungerlifeis，themoreunbounditis，notyetinharness，withmoredivineinsightandmorerecklesspassion，andadolescenceistheperiodofcriminalityaswellasofpoetry。

Thereisanaturalaffinitybetweenchildhoodanddemocracy;thelatterimplying，indeed，thatwearetobecomemoreaslittlechildren，moresimple，frankandhuman。Anditisaveryproperpartofthedemocraticmovementthatmoreandmoreprestigeisattachingtochildhood，thatitismorestudied，cherishedandrespected。Probablynothingelsegivessuchcogencytotheideaofreformastothinkofwhatitmeanstochildren。Wewishtoknowthatallthechildrenofthelandarehappilyunfoldingtheirmindsandheartsathome，schoolandplay;andthatthereisagradualinductionintousefulwork，whichalsoproceedsregularlyandhappily。Thiscallsforbetterhomesandneighborhoods，andtheovercomingofconditionsthatdegradethem;itimpliesbetterschools，thesuppressionofchild-labor，regularindustrialeducation，wholesomeandfairlypaidwoarkandreasonablesecurityofposition。Whilethechildisnotexactlybetter，(319)thantheworld，hispossibilitiesmakeusfeelthattheworldoughttobebetterforhissake。Asfastasachildbecomesapersonhealsobecomesmemberoftheexistingsocialorder。’[’hisissimplyacaseofawholeandoneofitsdifferentiatedparts;havingsoofteninsistedthatsocietyandtheindividualareaspectsofthesamething，Ineednotenlargeuponithere。Eventhedegenerate，sofarastheyhavefacultyenoughtobehuman，liveinthesocialorderandareasmuchonewithitastherestofmankind。Wesimplycannotseparatetheindividualfromsocietyatlarge;

togetacontrastwemustpassontoconsiderhiminrelationtoparticularinstitutions，ortoinstitutionsingeneralasdistinguishedfrommoreplasticphasesoflife。

Aninstitutionisamature，specializedandcomparativelyrigidpartofthesocialstructure。Itismadeupofpersons，butnotofwholepersons;

eachoneentersintoitwithatrainedandspecializedpartofhimself。

Consider，forinstance，thelegalpartofalawyer，theecclesiasticalpartofachurchmemberorthebusinesspartofamerchant。Inantithesistotheinstitution，therefore，thepersonrepresentsthewholenessandhumannessoflife;heis，asProfessorAlfredLloydsays，[2]“acorrectorofpartiality，andatranslatoranddistributorofspecialdevelopment。”

Amanisnomanatallifheismerelyapieceofaninstitution;hemuststandalsoforhumannature，fortheinstinctive，theplasticandtheideal。

(320)Thesayingthatcorporationshavenosoulexpresseswellenoughthisdefectofalldefinitesocialstructures，whichgivesrisetoanirrepressibleconflictbetweenthemandthefreerandlargerimpulsesofhumannature。

Justinproportionastheyachieveaneffectivespecialmechanismforanarrowpurpose，theylosehumanness，breadthandadaptability。Aswehavetobespeciallyonourguardagainstcommercialcorporations，becauseoftheirunionofpowerandimpersonality，soweshouldbeagainstallinstitutions。

Theinstitutionrepresentsmight，andalso，perhaps，right，butrightorganized，mature，perhapsgonetoseed，neverfreshandunrecognized。

Newright，ormoralprogress，alwaysbeginsinarevoltagainstinstitutions。

Ihaveinmindapaintingwhichmaybesaidtosetforthtotheeyethisrelationbetweenthelivingsoulandtheinstitution。ItrepresentsSt。JamesbeforetheRomanEmperor。[3]Theformerispoorlyclad，beautiful，withrapt，upliftedface;thelattermajestic，dominant，assured，seatedhighonhisivorychairandsurroundedbysoldiers。

Ofcoursetheinstitutionalelementisequallyessentialwiththepersonal。

Themechanicalworkingoftraditionandconventionpoursintothemindthetriedwisdomoftherace，asystemofthoughteverypartofwhichhassurvivedbecauseitwas，insomesense，thefittest，becauseitapproveditselftothehumanspirit。Inthiswaytheindividualgetslanguage，sentiments，moralstandardsandallkindsofknowledge：getsthemwithanexertionofthe，(321)willbidingcomparedwithwhatthesethingsoriginallycost。Theyhavebecomeasocialatmospherewhichpervadesthemindmostlywithoutitsactiveparticipation。Oncethefocusofattentionandeffort，theyhavenowreceededintothedimnessofthematter-of-course，leavingenergyfreefornewconquests。Onthisinvoluntaryfoundationwebuild，anditneedsnoargumenttoshowthatwecouldaccomplishnothingwithoutit。

Thusallinnovationisbasedonconformity，allheterodoxyonorthodoxy，allindividualityonsolidarity。Withouttheorthodoxtraditioninbiology，forinstance，undertheguidanceofwhichastoreoforderedknowledgehadbeencollected，theheterodoxyofDarwin，basedonareinterpretationofthisknowledge，wouldhavebeenimpossible。Andsoinart，theinstitutionsuppliesabasistotheveryindividualwhorebelsagainstit。Mr。BrownellinhisworkonFrenchArt，pointsout，indiscussingtherelationofRodintheinnovatingsculptortothe[FrenchInstitute，thatheoweshisdevelopmentandtheinteresthisnon-conformityexciteslargelyto“theverysystemthathasbeenpowerfulenoughtopopularizeindefinitelythesubjectbothofsubscriptionandrevolt。”*InAmericaitisnothostilecriticismbutnocriticismatal1梥heerignoranceandindifference梩hatdiscouragestheartistandmanoflettersandmakesitdifficulttoformahighideal。

Wherethereisanorganizedtraditiontheremaybeintolerancebuttherewillalsobeintelligence。

Thuschoice，whichrepresentstherelativelyfreeactionofhumannatureinbuildinguplife，islikethecoralinsect，(322)alwaysworkingonamountainmadeupofthecrystallizedremainsofdeadpredecessors。

Itisamistaketosupposethatthepersonis，ingeneral，betterthantheinstitution。Morally，asinotherrespects，thereareadvantagesoneachside。Thepersonhasloveandaspirationandallsortsofwarm，fresh，plasticirnpulses，towhichtheinstitutionisseldomhospitable，butthelatterhasasoberandtriedgoodnessoftheages，thedeposit，littlebylittle，ofwhathasbeenfoundpracticableinthewaywardandtransientoutreachingsofhumanidealism。Thelaw，thestate，thetraditionalcodeofrightandwrong，thesearerelatedtopersonalityasagrayhairedfathertoachild。Howeverworld-wornandhardenedbyconflict，theyareyetstrongandwiseandkind，andwedowellinmostmatterstoobeythem。

Asimilarlineofreasoningappliestothepopularfallacythatanationisofnecessitylessmoralinitsdealingswithothernationsthananindividualwithotherindividuals。Internationalmoralityisonalowplanebecauseitisrecentandundeveloped，notfromanyinevitabledefectinitsnature。

Itisslowtogrow，likeanythingelseofaninstitutionalcharacter，butthereisnoreasonwhyitshouldnoteventuallyexpresstheutmostjusticeandgenerosityofwhichwearecapable。Alldependsupontheenergyandpersistencewithwhichpeopletrytoeffectuatetheiridealsinthissphere。

Theslownessofaninstitutioniscompensatedbyitscapacityforage-longcumulativegrowth，andinthiswayitmayoutstrip，evenmorally，theordinaryachievementofindividualsastheChristianChurch，forexample，standsforidealsbeyondtheattain-

(323)-mentofmostofitsmembers。Ifwesetourheartsonhavingarighteousstatewecanhaveonemorerighteousthananyindividual。

ThetreatmentofCubabytheUnitedStatesandthesuppressionoftheslave-tradebytheBritishareexamplesOfnationsactingupongenerousprincipleswhichwemayreasonablyexpecttoextendastimegoeson。Astheneedofinternationaljusticeandpeacebecomeskeenlyfelt，itsgrowthbecomesasnaturalastheanalogousprocessinanindividual。

Wheneverthequestionisraisedbetweenchoiceandmechanism，[5]theadvocatesofthelattermayjustlyclaimthatitsavesenergy，andmaydemandwhether，inagivencase，theresultsofchoicejustifyitscost。

Thuschoice，workingonalargescale，iscompetition，andtheonlyalternativeissomemechanicalprinciple，eithertireinheritedstatusofhistoryorsomenewruleofstabilitytobeworkedout，perhaps，bysocialism。Yetthepresentcompetitiveorderisnotunjustlycensuredaswasteful，harassing，unjustandhostiletotheartisticspirit。Choiceisworkingsomewhatriotously，withoutanadequatebasisofestablishedprinciplesandstandards，andsofarassocialismisseekingtheseitisdoingwell。

Carlyleandothershaveurgedwithmuchreasonthatthemediaevalworkman，hemmedinashewasbymechanicalandtousunreasonablerestrictions，wasinsomerespectsbetteroffthanhismodernsuccessor。Therewaslessfreedomofopportunity，butalsolessstrain，uglinessand，(324)despair;andthestandardsofthedaywereperhapsbettermaintainedthanoursarenow。

Weneedabetterdiscipline，amoreadequateorganization;thecompetentstudentcanhardlyfailtoseethis;butthesethingsdonotexistready-made，andourpresenttaskseemstobetoworkthemout，attheexpense，doubt。

less，ofotherobjectstowardwhich，inquietertimes，choicemightbedirected。

Thusitisfromtheinteractionofpersonalityandinstitutionsthatprogresscomes。Thepersonrepresentsmoredirectlythathumannaturewhichitistheendofallinstitutionstoserve，buttheinstitutionrepresentsthenetresultofadevelopmentfartranscendinganysinglepersonalconsciousness。

Thepersonwillcriticise，andbemostlyinthewrong，butnotaltogether。

Hewillattack，andmostlyfail，butfrommanyattackschangewillensue。

Itisalsotruethat-althoughinstitutionsstand，inageneralway，forthemoremechanicalphaseoflife，theyyetrequire，withinthemselves，anelementofpersonalfreedom。Individuality，provideditbeinharness，isthelifeofinstitutions，allvigorandadaptabilitydependinguponit。

Anarmyisthetypeofamechanicalinstitution;andyet，eveninanarmy，individualchoice，confinedofcoursewithinspecialchannels，isvitaltothemachine。IntheGermanarmy，accordingtoacompetentobserver，thereisasystematiccultureofself-reliance，a“developmentoftheindividualpowersbyaccordinglibertytotheutmostextentpossiblewiththemaintenanceofthenecessarysystemanddiscipline。”“Tothecommandantofthecompanyislefttheentireresponsibilityfortheinstruction，(325)ofhismen，inwhatmodeandatwhathourhemayseefit，“and“alikefreedomisaccordedtoeveryofficerchargedwitheverybranchwhatsoeverofinstruction，“while“theintelligenceandself-relianceofthesoldierisconstantlyappealedto。”[6]InAmericanarmiestheself-reliantspiritOfthesoldierandthecommon-senseandadaptabilitydevelopedbyourrough-and-readycivilizationhavealwaysbeenoftheutmostvalue。Noraretheyunfavorabletodiscipline，that“truedisciplineofthesoldiersoffreedom，adisciplinewhichmustarisefromindividualconvictionofdutyandisverydifferentfromthecompulsorydisciplineofthesoldierofdespotism。”[7]Thus，inthebattleofGettysburg，whenPickett’schargebroketheFederalline，andwhenforthemoment，owingtothedeathofmanyofficers，thesuccessionofcommandwaslost，itissaidthatthemenwithoutorderstookupapositionwhichenabledthemtocrushtheinvadingcolumn。

Asthegeneralcharacteroforganizationbecomesfreerandmorehuman，boththemechanicalandthechoosingelementsoftheinstitutionrisetoahigherplane。Theformerceasestobeanarbitraryandintolerantlaw，upheldbyfear，bysupernaturalsanctionsandthesuppressionoffreespeech;

andtendstobecomesimplyasettledhabitofthought，settlednotbecausediscussionisstifledbutbecauseitissuperfluous，becausethehabitofthoughthassoproveditsfitnesstoexistingconditionsthatthereisnoprospectofshakingit。

Thusinafreemodernstate，thepoliticalsystem，funda-

(326)-mentalpropertyrightsandthelikearesettled，sofarastheyaresettled，notbecausetheyaresacredorauthoritative，butbecausethepublicmindisconvincedoftheirsoundness。Thoughwemaynotreasonaboutthemtheyare，sotospeak，potentiallyrational，inasmuchastheyarebelievedtorestuponreasonandmayatanytimebetestedbyit。

Theadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthissortofinstitutionsarewellunderstood。Theydonotaffordquitethesharpanddefinitedisciplineofamorearbitrarysystem，buttheyaremoreflexible，morecloselyexpressiveofthepublicmind，andso，iftheycanbemadetoworkatall，morestable。

Thefreeelementininstitutionsalsotendstobecomebetterinformed，bettertrained，betterorganized，moretrulyrational。Wehavesomanyoccasionstonotethisthatitisunnecessarytodwelluponithere。

Endnotes，Wordsworth，OdeontheIntimationsofImmortality，etc。InapaperonThePersonalandtheFactionalintheLifeofSociety。TheJournalofPhilosophy，PsychologyandScientificMethods，1905，p。337，ByMantegna。Page30。Seealsothelastchapter。Imeanbymechanismanythinginthewayofhabit，authorityorformulathattendstodispensewithchoice。Baring-Gould，Germany，i，350ff，Garibaldi’sAutobiography，i，105。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter29：Institutionsandthe，Individual(continued)，CHAPTERXXIX

INSTITUTIONSANDTHEINDIVIDUAL——(CONTINUED)，INNOVATIONASAPERSONALTENDENCY——INNOVATIONANDCONSERVATISM

ASPUBLICHABIT——SOLIDARITY——FRENCHANDANGLO-SAXONSOLIDARITY——TRADITION

ANDCONVENTION——NOTSOOPPOSITEASTHEYAPPEAR——REALDIFFERENCE，INTHIS

REGARD，BETWEENMODERNANDMEDIAEVALSOCIETY——TRADITIONALISMANDCONVENTIONALISM

INMODERNLIFE

THEtime-wornquestionofconservatismasagainstchangehasevidentlymuchincommonwiththatofpersonalityasagainstinstitutions。Innovation，thatis，isboundupwiththeassertionoffreshpersonalityagainstmechanism;

andtheargumentsforandagainstitarethesameasIhavealreadysuggested。

Whereverthereisvigorandconstructivepowerintheindividualthereislikelytobediscontentwiththeestablishment。Theyoungnotoriouslytendtoinnovation，andsodothoseofaboldandrestlesstemperamentatanyage;theold，onthecontrary，thequiet，thetimid，areconservative。

Andsowithwholepeoples;insofarastheyareenfeebledbyclimateorothercausestheybecomeinertandincapableofconstructivechange。

Whatmaynotbequitesoobvious，atleasttothosewhohavenotreadM。Tarde’sworkontheLawsofImitation，[1]

(328)

isthatinnovationortheoppositemaybeapublichabit，independentlyofdifferencesinageorvigor。Theattitudetowardchangeissubjecttothesamesortofalterationaspublicopinion，oranyotherphaseofthepublicmind。Thatanationhasmovedforcenturiesinthedeepestrutsofconservatism，likeChinaorIndia，isnoproofofalackofnaturalvigor，butmaymeanonlythatthesocialtypehasmaturedandhardenedinisolation，notencounteringanyinfluencepungentenoughtopierceitsshellandstartacycleofchange。Thusitisnowapparentthatlackofincitement，notlackofcapacity，wasthecauseofthebackwardnessofJapan，andthereislittledoubtthatthesameistrueofChina。

Energyandsuggestionareequallyindispensabletoallhumanachievement。

Intheabsenceofthelatterthemindeasilyspendsitselfinminoractivities，andthereisnoreasonwhythisshouldnotbetrueofawholepeopleandcontinueforcenturies。Then，again，asparkmaysetitonfireandproduceinafewyearspregnantchangesinthestructureofsociety。Thephysicallawofthepersistenceofenergyinuniformquantityisamostillusiveonetoapplytohumanlife。Thereisalwaysagreatdealmorementalenergythanisutilized，andtheamountthatisreallyproductivedependschieflyontheurgencyofsuggestion。Indeed，thehigheractivitiesofthehumanmindare，ingeneral，morelikeaseriesofsomewhatfortuitousexplosionsthanliketheworkofauniformforce。

Theremayalsobeahabitofchangethatismererestlessnessandhasnoconstructivesignificance。IntheearlyhistoryofAmericaaconspicuouscharacteronthefrontierwasthemanwhohadthehabitofmovingon，(329)Hewouldsettlefortwoorthreeyearsinonelocalityandthen，gettingrestless，selloutandgoontoanother。Soatpresent，thosewhomambitionandcircumstance，inearlymanhood，havedrivenrapidlyfromonethingtoanother，oftencontinueintooldagethehabitsoacquired，makingtheirfamiliesandfriendsmostuncomfortable。Ihavenoticedthatthereareover-strenuouspeoplewhohavecometohaveanidealofthemselvesasmakinganeffort，andaremostuneasywhenthisisnotthecase。To“beinglatentfeelthemselvesnoless“isquiteimpossibletothem。

Inourcommercialandindustriallifethesomewhatfeverishprogresshasgeneratedahabit，awholesystemofhabits，basedontheexpectationofchange。Enterpriseandadaptabilityarecultivatedattheexpenseofwhateverconflictswiththem;eachone，feelingthattheprocessionismovingonandthathemustkeepupwithit，hurriesalongattheexpense，perhaps，ofhealth，cultureandsanity。

Thisunrestisduerathertotransitionthantodemocracy;theancientviewthatthelatterisinitsnatureunstablebeing，asIhavesaid，quitediscredited。EvenDeTocqueville，about1835，sawthatthepoliticalunrestofAmericawasinminoraffairs，andthatademocraticpolitymightconceivably“rendersocietymorestationarythanithaseverbeeninourwesternpartoftheworld。”[2]Tardehasexpoundedthematteratlengthandtomuchthesameeffect。Apolicyisstablewhenitissuitedtoprevailingconditions;andeveryyearmakesitmoreapparentthatforpeoplesofEuropeanstock，atleast，a，(330)polityessentiallydemocraticistheonlyonethatcanpermanentlymeetthistest。

Asocialgroupinwhichthereisafundamentalharmonyofforcesresultingineffectivecooperationmaybesaid，Isuppose，tobesolidaire，toadoptaFrenchwordmuchusedinthisconnection。ThusFrancewithitscomparetivelyhomogeneouspeoplehasnodoubtmoresolidarity梟otwithstandingitsdissensions梩hanAustria;EnglandmorethanRussia，andJapanmorethanChina。

ButifonethinkscloselyaboutthequestionhewillfinditnoeasymattertosayinjustwhatsolidarityconsistsNotinmerelikeness，certainly，sincethedifferenceofindividualsandpartsisnotonlyconsistentwithbutessentialtoaharmoniouswhole梐stheharmonyofmusicisproducedbydifferingbutcorrelatedsounds。WewantwhatBurkedescribedas“thatactionandcounteraction，whichinthenaturalandinthepoliticalworld，fromthereciprocalstruggleofdiscordantpowersdrawsouttheharmonyoftheuniverse。”[3]

Sofaraslikenessisnecessaryitisapparentlyalikenessofessentialideasand，stillmore，ofsentiments，appropriatetotheactivityinquestion。

ThusaJapanesewriterexplainsthepatrioticunityofhiscountrymenbytheircommondevotiontotheMikadoandtheimperialfamily。

“WhenaJapanesesays’Ilovemycountry，’agreatoreventhegreaterpartofhisideaofhis’country’istakenupbytheemperorandtheimperialfamily……hisforefathersanddescendantsarealsotakenintoaccount。”

“Injoyandinsorrowhebelievesthatthey(hisownancestors)arewithhim。Heservesthemasiftheywereliving。Andtheseancestorswhomhelovesandrevereswere，(331)allloyaltotheiremperorsintheirdays;sohefeelshemustbeloyaltohisemperor。

“Nothingissorealtohimaswhathefeels;andhefeelsthatwithhimareunitedthepast，thepresentandthefuturegenerationsofhiscountrymen。”“Thusfullyconsciousoftheintensesympathy`ofhiscompatriots，bothdeadandliving，andswelledwithloftyanticipationsofhisgloriousdestiny，nodangercanappallandnotoilcantiretherealJapanesesoldier。”[4]

InAmericaunityofspiritisintense，andyetsingularlyheadlessandformless。Thereisnocapitalcity，noguidingupperclass，nomonarch，nocreed，scarcelyevenadominatingtradition。Itseemstobeamatterofcommonallegiancetovaguesentimentsoffreedom，kindlinessandhope。

Andthisverycircumstance，thattheAmericanspiritissolittlespecializedandsomuchatonewiththegeneralspiritofhumannature，doesmorethananythingelsetomakeitinfluential，andpotentintheassimilationofstrangeelements。

Theonlyadequateproofofalackofsolidarityisinefficiencyintotalaction。Theremaybeintensestrifeofpartiesandclasseswhichhasnothingreallydisintegratinginit;butwhenwesee，aswasapparentlythecaseinRussianotlongago，thatthehourofconflictwithanexternalenemydoesnotuniteinternalforcesbutincreasestheirdivergence，itisclearthatsomethingiswrong。

ItissometimessaidthatFrancehasmoresolidaritythanGreatBritainortheUnitedStates，thegroundbeingthatwehavealessfluentunityofthesocialmind，amorevigorousself-assertionoftheindividual。Butthisisas，(332)dubiousastosaythatthecontentionofathletesamongthemselveswillpreventtheirunitingtoformastrongteam。Yettheredoesseemtobeaninterestingdifferenceinkindbetweenthesortofunity，ofcommondisciplineandsentimentwhichexistsamongtheFrenchandthatofEnglishorAmericans梩heselatter，howeverdifferent，beingfarmorelikeeachotherinthisrespectthaneithertotheFrench。Thecontrastseemstomesoilluminating，asastudyofsocialtypes，thatIwillspendafewpagesinattemptingtoexpoundit。

Frenchthought梐stothisIfollowlargelyMr。Brownell’spenetratingstudy*梥eemstobenotonlymorecentralizedinplace，thatis，moredominatedbythecapital，butalso，leavingasidecertainnotoriousdivisions，moreuniform，moreauthoritative，moreintolerant，moreobviouslysolidaire。Thereislessinitiative，lessaggressivenon-conformity。Frenchsentimentemphasizesequalitymuchmorethanindividualfreedomandissomewhatintolerantofanymarkeddeparturefromthedominanttypesofthought。Thereismorejealousyofpersonalpower，especiallyinpolitics，andlessofthateageryetself-poisedsympathywithtriumphantpersonalitywhichwefindinEnglandorAmerica。Thereis，infact，moreneedtobejealousofapersonalascendancy，because，whenitoncegainssway，thereislesstocheckit。AndwithallthisgoestheFrenchsystemofpubliceducation，whosewell-knownuniformity，strictnessofdisciplineandclassicalconservatismisbothcauseandeffectofthetrendtowardformalsolidarity。

(333)

Thereisalsoanintoleranceoftheun-Frenchandaninabilitytounderstanditevengreater，perhaps，thanthecorrespondingphenomenoninothernations。

TheFrenchareself-absorbedandcarelittleforthehistoryofotherpeoples。

Norarethesympathieswithcontemporaries“InParis，certainly，“saysMr。Brownell，“theforeigner，hospitablyasheisinvariablytreated，isinvariablytreatedastheforeignerthatheis。”[6]

TherelativeweaknessofindividualityinFranceisdue，ofcourse，nottoanylackofself-feeling，buttothefactthattheFrenchmanidentifieshimselfmorewiththesocialwhole，and，mergedinthat，doesnottakehismoreparticularselfsoseriously。Itisratherawe-feelingthananI-feeling，anddifferentiatesFrancemoresharplyfromothernationsthanitdoestheindividualFrenchmanfromhiscompatriots。“HedoesnotadmireFrancebecausesheishiscountry。HiscomplacencewithhimselfproceedsfromthecircumstancethatheisaFrenchman;whichisdistinctlywhatheisfirst，beingamanafterward。”[7]“OneneverhearstheFrenchmanboastofthecharacterandqualityofhiscompatriotsasEnglishmenandourselvesdo。HeisthinkingaboutFrance，aboutherdifferentgloires，aboutherpositionattheheadofcivilization。”[8]

Asthereislessindividualityingeneral，sothereisahappylackofwhimsicalandoffensiveoddity，ofsharpcornersandbadtaste。Mr。

BrownellfindsnothingmoresignificantthantheabsenceinFranceofprigs。

“Oneinfersatonceinsuchasocietyafreeandeffortlessplayofthefaculties，alarge，humorousandtolerantviewof，(334)oneselfandothers，leisure，calm，healthfulandrationalvivacity，atranquilconfidenceinone’sownperceptionsandintheintelligenceofone’sneighbors。”[9]

Withthispartialirresponsibility，thistendencynottotakeone’sprivateselftooseriously，goesalackofmoralextremesofallkinds。

Theirgoodnessisnotsogood，theirvicenotsoviciousasours。Botharemorederivedfromimmediateintercourse。“WhatwouldbeviceamongusremainsinFrancesocialirregularityinducedbysentiment。[10]“

ThesetraitshaveanobviousconnectionwiththatmoreeagerandfacilecommunicativenessthatstrikesussointheFrench：theyhaveasarulelessintrospection，livemoreimmediatelyandcongeniallyinasocialstreamfromwhich，accordingly，theyarelessdisposedtodifferentiatethemselves。

Franceis，nodoubt，astrulydemocraticinitswayastheUnitedStates;

indeed，innoothercountry，perhaps，istheprevalentsentimentofthepeopleinagivengroupsocratic，soimmediatelyauthoritative。Suchformalismasprevailsthereisofasortwithwhichthepeoplethemselvesareinintelligentsympathy，notoneimposedfromabovelikethatofRussia，oreventhatofGermany。Butitisademocracyofatypequiteotherthanours，lessdifferentiatedindividuallyandmoreso，perhaps，bygroups，moreconsolidatedandinstitutional。Thesourceofthisdivergenceliespartlyinthecourseofhistoryandpartly，nodoubt，inracepsychology。

Rooteddissensions，likethatbetweentheRepublicandtheChurch，andtheneedofkeepingthepeopleinreadinessforsuddenwar，are，(335)amongtheinfluenceswhichmakeformalunitymorenecessaryandtolerableinFrancethaninEngland。

TheFrenchkindofsolidarityhasbothadvantagesanddisadvantagesascomparedwiththeAnglo-Saxon。ltcertainlyfacilitatestheformationofwell-knitsocialgroups;such，forinstance，astheartistic“schools“

whosevigorhasdonesomuchtowardgivingFranceitsleadin“estheticproduction。Ontheotherhand，wheretheAnglo-Saxontypeofstructuresucceedsincombininggreatervigorofindividualitywithanequallyeffectiveunityofsentiment，itwouldseemtobe，insofar，superiortoatypewhosesolidarityissecuredatmoreexpenseofvariation。Itistheself-dependence，theso-calledindividualism，oftheTeutonicpeopleswhichhasgiventhemsodecidedaleadintheindustrialandpoliticalstrugglesofrecenttimes。

Perhapsthemostsearchingtestofsolidarityisthatloyaltyoftheindividualtothewholewhichensuresthat，howeverisolated，asasoldier，apioneer，amechanic，astudent，hewillcherishthatwholeinhisheartanddohisdutytoitincontemptofterrororbribes。AnditispreciselyinthisthattheAnglo-Saxonpeoplesarestrong。TheEnglishman，thoughaloneinthewildsofAfrica，isseldomotherthananEnglishman，settinghisconsciencebyEnglishstandardsandmakingthemgoodinaction。Thismoralwhole，possessingtheindividualandmakingeveryoneaheroafterhisownprivatefashion，isthesolidaritywewant。

Traditioncomesdownfromthepast，whileconventionarrives，sidewiseasitwere，fromourcontemporaries;the，(336)firesidetalesandmaximsofourgrandparentsillustratetheone，thefashionsofthedaytheother。Bothindicatecontinuityofmind，buttraditionhasalongextensionintimeandverylittle，perhaps，inplace，whileconventionextendsinplacebutmayendureonlyforaday。

Thisseemsacleardistinction，andagreatdealhasbeenmadeofitbysomewriters，whoregard“customimitation“and“fashionimitation，“[11]tousethetermsofTarde，thebrilliantFrenchsociologist，asamongtheprimarytraitsthatdifferentiatesocieties。

Thusmediaevalsociety，itissaid，wastraditional：peoplelivedinsomewhatisolatedgroupsandweredominatedbytheideasoftheirancestors，thesebeingmoreaccessiblethanthoseoftheircontemporaries。Ontheotherhand，modernsociety，withitstelegraphs，newspapersandmigrations，isconventional。Thoughtistransmittedovervastareasandcountlessmultitudes;

ancestralcontinuityisbrokenup;peoplegetthehabitoflookingsidewiseratherthanbackward，andtherecomestobeaninstinctivepreferenceoffashionovercustom。InthetimeofDante，ifyoutravelledoverEuropeyouwouldfindthateachtown，eachdistrict，haditsindividualdress，dialectandlocalcustom，handeddownfromthefathers。Therewasmuchchangewithplace，littlewithtime。Ifyoudidthesameto-day，youwouldfindthepeopleeverywheredressedverymuchalike，dialectspassingoutofuseandmeneagertoidentifythemselveswiththecommonstirofcontemporarylife。Andyouwouldalsofindthatthedress，behaviorandobjectsofcurrentinterest，thoughmuchthesameforwholenationsandhavingagreatdealincommonthe，(337)worldover，weresomewhattransientincharacter，changingmuchwithtime，littlewithplace。

Thereis，truly，amomentousdifferenceinthisregardbetweenmodernandmediaevallife，bultocalliltachangefromtraditiontoconventiondoesnot，Ithink，indicateitsrealcharacter。Indeed，traditionandconventionarebynomeanstheseparateandoppositethingstheymayappeartobewhenwelookatthemintheirmostcontrastedphases。Itwouldbestrangeiftherewereanyrealseparationbetweenideascomingfromthepastandthosecomingfromcontemporaries，sincetheyexistinthesamepublicmind。

Atraditionalusageisalsoaconventionwithinthegroupwhereitprevails。

Onelearnsitfromotherpeopleandconformstoitbyimitationandthedesirenottobesingular，justashedoestoanyotherconvention。Thequaintlocalcostumethatstillprevailsinout-of-thewaycornersofEuropeiswornforthesamereasons，nodoubt，thattheequallypeculiardress-suitandsilkhatarewornbysophisticatedpeopletheworldover;oneconventionissimplymoreextendedthantheother。Inoldtimestheconforminggroup，owingtothedifficultyofintercourse，wassmall。Peoplewereeagertobeinthefashion，astheyarenow，buttheyknewnothingoffashionsbeyondtheirownlocality。Moderntraditionsareconventionalonalargerscale。

TheMonroeDoctrine，totakeadignifiedexample，isatradition，regardedhistorically，butaconventionastothemannerinwhichitentersintocontemporaryopinion。

Inasimilarmannerwemayseethatconventionsmustalsobetraditions。

Thenewfashionsareadaptationsof，(338)oldones，andtherearenoreallynewideasofanysort，onlyagradualtransformationofthosethathavecomedownfromthepast。

Inalargeview，then，traditionandconventionaremerelyaspectsofthetransmissionofthoughtandoftheunityoisocialgroupsthatresultsfromit。Ifourmindisfixeduponthehistoricalphaseofthematterweseetradition，ifuponthecontemporaryphaseweseeconvention。Buttheprocessisreallyone，andtheoppositiononlyparticularandapparent。

Allinfluencesarecontemporaryintheirimmediateorigin，allarerootedinthepast。

Whatisit，then，thatmakesthedifferencebetweenanapparentlytraditionalsociety，suchasthatofmediaevalEurope，andanapparentlyconventionalsociety，likethatofourtime？Simplythattheconditionsaresuchastomakeoneofthesephasesmoreobviousthantheother。Inacomparativelysmallandstablegroup，continuousinthesamelocalityandhavinglittleintercoursewiththeworldoutside，thefactthatideascomefromtraditionisevident;theypassdownfromparentstochildrenasvisiblyasphysicaltraits。Convention，however，ortheactionofcontemporaryintercourse，isonsosmallascaleastobelessapparent;thelengthandnotthebreadthofthemovementattractstheeye。

Ontheotherhand，inthecaseofawide-reachinggroupboundintoconsciousunitybyfacilecommunication，peoplenolongerlookchieflytotheirfathersforideas;thepaternalinfluencehastocompetewithmanyothers，andisfurtherweakenedbythebreakingupoffamilyassociationswhichgoeswitheaseofmovement。Yetmenare，(339)notlessdependentuponthepastthanbefore;itisonlythattraditionissointricateandsospreadoutoverthefaceofthingsthatitscharacterastraditionishardlytobediscovered。Theobviousthingnowisthelateralmovement;influencesseemtocomeinsidewiseandfashionrulesovercustom。Thedifferenceissomethinglikethatbetweenamultitudeofdisconnectedstreamletsandasinglewideriver，inwhichthegeneraldownwardmovementisobscuredbynumerouscross-currentsandeddies。

Intruth，facilecommunicationextendsthescopeoftraditionasmuchasitdoesthatoffashion。Alltheknownpastbecomesaccessibleanywhere，andinsteadofthecultofimmediateancestorswehavealong-armed，selectiveappropriationofwhatevertraditionalideassuitourtastes。ForpaintingthewholeworldgoestoRenaissanceItaly，forsculpturetoancientGreece，andsoon。Conventionhasnotgainedasagainsttradition，butbothhavebeentransformed。

Inmuchthesamewaywemaydistinguishbetweentraditionalismandconventionalism;

theonemeaningadominanttypeofthoughtevidentlyhandeddownfromthepast，theotheratypeformedbycontemporaryinfluence梑utweshouldnotexpectthedistinctiontobeanymorefundamentalthanbefore。

Traditionalismmaybelookedforwherevertherearelong-establishedgroupssomewhatshutoutfromlateralinfluence，eitherbyexternalconditionsorbythecharacteroftheirownsystemofideas梚nisolatedruralcommunities，forexample，inoldandclose-knitorganizationslikethe，(340)church，orinintrovertednationssuchasChinausedtobe。Conventionalismappliestowell-knittypesnotevidentlytraditional，anddescribesagreatpartofmodernlife。

Thefactthatsomephasesofsocietyaremoredominatedbysettledtypes，whethertraditionalorconventional，thanothers，indicates，ofcourse，acertainequilibriumofinfluencesinthem，andacomparativeabsenceofcompetingideas。This，inturn，isfavoredbyavarietyofcauses。Oneisalackofindividualityandself-assertivenessonthepartofthepeople梐stheFrencharesaidtoconformtotypesmorereadilythantheEnglishorAmericans。Anotherrequisiteisthelapseofsufficienttimeforthetypetoestablishitselfandmouldmen’sactionsintoconformity;evenfashioncannotbemadeinaminute。Athirdisthatthereshouldbeenoughinterestinthematterthatnon-conformitymaybenoticedanddisapproved;andyetnotenoughinteresttofosteroriginality。Wearemostimitativewhenwenoticebutdonotgreatlycare。Stillanotherfavoringconditionisthehabitofdeferencetosomeauthority，whichmayimposethetypebyexample。

ThustheeducatedclassesofEnglandare，perhaps，moreconventionalindressandmannerthanthecorrespondingclassesintheUnitedStates。

Ifso，theexplanationisprobablynotinanyintrinsicdifferenceofindividuality，butinconditionsmoreorlessfavorabletotheripeningoftypes;suchasthecomparativenewnessandconfusionofAmericancivilization，theabsenceofanacknowledgedupperclasstosetanauthoritativeexample，andacertainlackofinterestintheexternalsoflifewhich，(341)ourrestlessnessseemstofoster。[12]Ontheotherhand，itmustbesaidthattheinsecurityofpositionandmoreimmediatedependenceupontheopinionofone’sfellows，whichexistinAmerica，haveatendencytowardconventionalism，becausetheymaketheindividualmoreeagerloappearwellintheeyesofothers。Itisacuriousfact，whichmayillustratethisprinciple，thattheHouseofCommons，themoredemocraticbranchoftheBritishlegislature’isdescribedasmoreconventionalthantheHouseofLords。ProbablyifstandardsweresufficientlydevelopedinAmericatherewouldbenomoredifficultyinenforcingthemthaninEngland。

PerhapsweshouldhitnearestthetruthifwesaidthatAmericanlifehadconventionsofitsown，vaguerthantheBritishandputtinglessweightonformsandmoreonfellow-feeling，butnotnecessarilylesscogent。