第6章

ThefirstofthesehasbeenmuchbetterunderstoodinAmericathanthesecond。Thatitiswrongtokeepamandownwhomightriseisquitefamiliar，butthatthosewhocannotrise，ordonotcareto，havealsojustclaimsisalmostanovelidea，thoughtheyareevidentlythatmajorityforwhomourinstitutionsaresupposedtoexist。Owingtoatooexclusivepreoccupationwithidealsofenterpriseandambition，acertainneglect，andevenreproach，haveresteduponthosewhodoquietlytheplainworkoflife。

Ours，ifyouthinkofit，israthertoomuchsuccessonthetontineplan，whereoneputsallhehasintoapoolinthehopeofbeingoneofafewsurvivorstogetwhattherestlose;itwouldbebettertotaketoheartthatideaofEmerson’sthateachmaysucceedinhisownway，withoutputtingothersdown。ItisagreatthingthateveryAmericanboymayaspiretobepresidentoftheUnitedStates，oroftheStandardOilCompany，butitisequallyimportantthatheshouldhaveachanceforfullandwholesomelifeinthemoreprobableconditionofclerkormillhand。WhilewemustadmiretheheroesofSamuelSmiles，(247)wemayrememberthattheydoandshouldconstituteonlyasmallminorityofthehumanrace。

Andthemainguarantyforfreedomofthislattersortissomekindofclassorganizationwhichshallresisttheencroachmentandneglectofwhichtheweakerpartiesinsocietyareinconstantdanger。Thosewhohavewealth，positionknowledge，leisure，mayperhapsdispensewithformalorganization(thoughinfactitisthosewhoarestrongalreadywhomostreadilyextendtheirstrengthinthisway)，butthemultitudeswhohavenothingbuttheirhumannaturetogouponmustevidentlystandtogetherorgotothewall。

Endnotes，Imakefrequentuseofthiswordtomeananactivitywhichfurtherssomegeneralinterestofthesocialgroup。Itdiffersfrom“purpose“innotnecessarilyimplyingintention。DemocracyandSocialEthics，219。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter22：HowFarWealthistheBasis，ofOpenClasses，CHAPTERXXII

HOWFARWEALTHISTHEBASISOFOPENCLASSES，IMPERSONALCHARACTEROFOPENCLASSES——VARIOUSCLASSIFICATIONS——

CLASSES，ASCOMMONLYUNDERSTOOD，BASEDONOBVIOUSDISTINCTIONS——WEALTH

ASGENERALIZEDPOWER——ECONOMICBETTERMENTASANIDEALOFTHEILL-PAID

CLASSES——CONCLUSION

WHEREclassesdonotmeanseparatecurrentsofthought，asinthecaseofcaste，butaremerelydifferentiationsillacommonmentalwhole，therearelikelytobeseveralki~dsofclassesoverlappingoneanother，sothatmenwhofallinthesameclassfromonepointofviewareseparatedinanother。Thegroupsarelikecircleswhich，insteadofstandingapart，interlacewithoneanothersothatseveralofthemmaypassthroughthesameindividual。Classesbecomenumerousand，sotospeak，impersonal;

thatis，eachoneabsorbsonlyapartofthelifeoftheindividualanddoesnotsufficientlydominatehimtomouldhimtoaspecialtype。ThisisoneofthethingsthatdistinguishourAmericanorderfromthat，say，ofGermany，whencasteisstillsodominantastocarrymanyotherdifferenceswithitandcreateunmistakabletypesofmen]Asanewspaperwriterputsit，“Theonethingwemaybesureofeverydayisthatnotamanwhomweshallmeetinitwillbelongtohistype。Thepurse-proudaristocratturnsouttobeahumble-mindedyoungfellowanxiouslyenviousofourknowledgeofgolf;thecomicactorinprivatelifeisdullandshy，andreddenstothetipsofhis，(249)earswhenhespeaks;themurderertakenoutofthedockinaquiethob-and-nobturnsouttobealikableyoungchapwhoremindsyouofyourcousinBob。”

Andthisindependenceofparticularclassesshouldgiveonethemoreopportunitytoachieveatrulypersonalindividualitybycombiningavarietyofclassaffiliations，eachonesuitedtoaparticularphaseofhischaracter。

Itis，then，easytoseewhydifferentclassifiersdiscoverdifferentclassdivisionsinoursociety，accordingtotheirpointsofview;namely，becausethereareinfactanindefinitenumberofpossiblecollocations。

ThiswouldnothavebeenthecaseanywhereintheMiddleAges，norisitnearlyasmuchthecaseinEnglandatthepresenttimeasintheUnitedStates。

Wemight，totakethreeofthemostconspicuouslinesofdivision，classifythepeopleaboutusaccordingtotradeorprofession，accordingtoincome，andaccordingtoculture。Thefirstgivesuslawyers，grocers，plumbers，bankersandthelike，andalso，moregenerally，thehandlaboringclass，skilledandunskilled，themercantileclass，theprofessionalclassandthefarmingclass。Thedivisionbyincomeis，ofcourse，relatedtothis，thoughbynomeansidentical。Wemightreckonpaupers，thepoor，thecomfortable，thewell-to-doandtherich。Cultureandrefinementhavewithusnoverycloseoressentialconnectionwithoccupationorwealth，andaclassificationbasedupontheformerwouldshowaverygeneralrearrangement。TherearemanyscholarsandphilosophersamonguswholikeThoreau，followhumbletradesandliveupontheincomeofdaylabor。

(250)

Andvirtue，themostimportantdistinctionofall，isindependentalikeofwealth，callingandculture。Therealupperclass，thatwhichisdoingthemostfortheonwardmovementofhumanlife，isnottobediscernedhyanyvisiblesign。Themoreinwardorspiritualatraitis，thelessitisdependentuponwhatareordinarilyunderstoodasclassdistinctions。

Itis，however，uponthegrosserandmoreobviousdifferencesofwealthandrank，andnotuponintellectualormoraltraits，thatclasses，intheordinarymeaningoitheword，arebased。Thereasonsforthisare，first，thatsomethingobviousandunquestionableisrequisiteasasymbolandunfailingmarkofclass，and，second，thatthetangibledistinctionsaloneareusualmattersofcontroversy。Cultureandcharacterhavemoreintrinsicimportance，butaretoouncertaintomarkaclass，andeveniftheywerestampedupontheforeheadtheyarenotmattertoquarreloverlikewealthortitles;sincethosewhohavethemnotcannothopetogetthembydeprivingthosewhohave。

Income，forinstance，classifiespeoplethroughcreatingdifferentstandardsofliving，thosewhofallintothesameclassinthisrespectbeinglikelytoadoptaboutthesameexternalmodeoflife。Itusuallydecideswhethermenliveinonequarterofthecityoranother，whatsortofhousesorapartmentstheyinhabit，howtheydress，whetherthewife“doesallherownwork“oremployshouseholdhelp(and，ifthelatter，howmuchandofwhatsort)，whethertheykeepacarriage，whethertheygointothecountryforthesummer，whethertheytravelabroad。whethertheysendtheirsonstocollege，andsoon。And，(251)suchlikenessleadstolikenessofideas，especiallyinthatcommonplacesortofpeople梩hemostnumerousofcourse——whohavenotsufficientdefinitenessorenergyofcharactertoassociateonanyotherbasis。Notehowdifficultitisfortwopeople，congenialinotherrespects，toconversefreelywhenonehasanincomeof$5，000，theotherof$500。Fewtopicscanbetoucheduponwithoutaccentuatingthesuperficialbuttroublesomediscrepancy。

Amusements，householdandthelikearehardlypossible;theweathermaysupplyaremarkortwo，perhapsalsopolitics，thoughheretheeconomicpointofviewislikelytoappear。Religionorphilosophy，ifthepartiescouldsoarsohigh，wouldbebestofall。Ofcourse，seriousdiscussionshouldbeallthemorepracticableandfruitfulbecauseofdifferenceofviewpoint。WhatImean，however，islight，offhand，sociabletalkthatdoesnotstiranydepths。Asbetweentheirwivesthesituationwouldbeharderstill，andonlyanunusualtactandmagnanimitywouldmakeittolerable。

Theresultisthatweordinarilyfinditmostcomfortabletoassociateonabasisofincome，combinedwithandmodifiedbytheinfluenceofoccupation，cultureandspecialtastes。Andyettodothisisperhapsaconfessionoffailure，aconfessionthatwedonotknowhowtocastofftheadventitiousandmeetasmen。Themostsuperficialdifferences，beingthemostapparent，imposethemselvesuponourcommonlyindolentandsensuousstatesofmind。

Inproportiontotheirenergymenwillalwaysseekpower。Itis，perhaps，thedeepestofinstincts，restingdirectlyontheprimaryneedforself-expression。

Butthekindofpowersoughtwilltakemanyforms。

(252)

Wealthstands，inmodernsociety，fornearlyallthegrosserandmoretangibleforms;forpowerovermaterialgoods，primarily，andsecondarilyoverthemorepurchasablekindsofhumanactivity——handlabor，professionalservices，newspapercommendation，politicalassiduityandsoon。Theclassthathasitis，inallsuchmatters，thestrongclass，andnaturallyourcoarserthoughtC011cludesthatthisisthekindofpowermostworthconsideration。

Inalltheobviousdetailsoflife，inthatseekingforpettyadvantagesandimmunitiesinwhichmostofourtimeispassed，atthestoreortherailwaystation，wearemeasuredbymoneyandareapttomeasureothersso。Theascendancyofwealthistoonaturaltodisappear。Childrenprizepossessionsbeforetheycantalk，andreadilylearnthatmoneyispossessiongeneralized。Indeed，onlythetasteforfinerpossessionscanorshoulddriveoutthatforlower。

Andyetallclearminds，orratherallmindsintheirclearermoments，mayseethatwealthisnotthechiefgoodthatthecommonplaceandsuperficialestimatemakesit。Itissimplyalowformofpower，importantinmeasuretothegroupandtotheindividual，buteasilypreoccupyingthemindbeyonditsjustclaim。Ifsocietygetsmaterialprosperitytoofast，itsspirituallifesuffers，asissomewhatthecaseinourday：andtheindividualisinperilofmoralisolationanddecayassoonasheseekstogetricherthanhisfellows。

Thefinestand，inthelongrun，themostinfluentialminds，haveforthemostpartnotcaredforriches，ornotcaredenoughtogooutoftheirwaytoseekthem，preferringtoliveonbarenecessitiesiftheymustratherthanspend，(253)

theirlivesinanuncongenialscramble。Andthedistinctivelyspiritualleadershavealwaysregardedthemasinconsistentwiththeiraims。“Provideneithergold，norsilver，norbrassinyourpurses，norscripforyourjourney！neithertwocoats，neithershoes，noryetstaves。”NotthatChristianityisopposedtoindustrialprosperity？thecontraryisthecase梑utthatChristianleadershiprequiredtheexplicitrenunciationofprosperity’sbesettingsin。InourdaythelifeofThoreau，amongothers，illustrateshowamanmayhavethefinerproductsofwealth梩hecultureofalltimes梬hilepreferringtoremainindividuallypoor。Heheldthatforanunmarriedstudent，wishingfirstofalltopreservetheindependenceofhismind，occasionaldaylabor，whichonecandoandhavedonewith，isthebestwayofgettingaliving。“Amanisrichinproportiontothenumberofthingswhichhecanaffordtoletalone。”“Itmakesbutlittledifferencewhetheryouarecommittedtoafarmorthecountyjail。”[1]ThethoroughgoingwayinwhichthisdoctrineisdevelopedinhisWaldenandotherbooksmakesthemavademecumfortheimpecuniousidealist。

ProfessorWilliamJamesassertsthattheprevalentfearofpovertyamongtheeducatedclassesistheworstmoraldiseasefromwhichcivilizationsuffers，paralyzingtheiridealforce。“Thinkofthestrengthwhichpersonalindifferencetopovertywouldgiveusifweweredevotedtounpopularcauses。

Weneednolongerholdourtonguesorfeartovotetherevolutionaryorreformatoryticket。Ourstocksmightfall，ourhopesofpromotionvanish，oursalariesstop，ourclubdoorscloseinourfaces;yet，(254)whilewelived，wewouldimperturbablybearwitnesstothespirit，andourexamplewouldhelptosetfreeourgeneration。”[2]

Iftheseconsiderationsdonotkeepusfromgreed，itisbecausemostofushaveonlyflashesoftilehigherambition。Wemaybelievethatwecouldreconcileourselvestopovertyifwehadto梕venthatitmightbegoodforus梑utwedoourbesttoavoidit。

Fortheill-paidclasses，certainly，thedesireformoneydoesnotmean“materialism“inanyreproachfulsense，butischieflythemeansbywhichtheyhopetorealize，first，healthanddecency，andthenabetterchanceatthehigherlife梑ooks，leisure，educationandrefinement。Theyarenecessarilymaterializedinacertainsensebythefactthattheirmoststrenuousthoughtmustbefixeduponworkandproductinrelationtomaterialneeds。Itisinthosewhoarealreadywell-to-dothatthepreoccupationwithmoneyismostdegrading梐snotjustifiedbyprimarywants。“Meatissweetestwhenitisnearestthebone，“anditisgoodtolongandstriveformoneywhenyouhaveanurgenthumanneedforit;buttodothisforaccumulation，luxury，oraremotesecurityisnotwholesome。Thiscold-bloodedstoringupinbanksandtinboxesisperiloustothesoul，oftenbecomingakindofsecretvice，adiseaseofnarrowminds，feebleimaginationsandcontractedliving[3]

Inmodernlife，then，andinacountrywithoutformalprivilege，thequestionofclassesispracticallyoneofwealth，andofoccupationconsideredinrelationtowealth;

(255)thereasonbeingnotthatthisdistinctionreallydominateslife，butthatitisthefocusofthemoredefiniteandurgentclasscontroversies。

Otheraimsarepursuedinpeace;wealth，becauseitismaterialandappropriable，involvesconflict。Wemaythenaccepttheeconomicstandpointforthispurposewithoutatallagreeingwiththosewhoregarditasmorefundamentalthanothers。[4]

Endnotes，Walden，89，91。TheVarietiesofReligiousExperience，368。Iwillnotherediscussthequestionjusthowfaritservesausefulpurposeintheeconomicsystem。Ifthereadercarestoknowmyopinionofthatdoctrine梥ometimescalledtheeconomicinterpretationofhistory梬hichteachesthateconomicconditionsareinapeculiarsensetheprimaryanddeterminingfactorinsociety，hewillfinditinthefollowingpassages：

“Theorganicviewofhistory[whichIhold]deniesthatanyfactororfactorsaremoreultimatethanothers。Indeeditdeniesthattheso-calledfactors梥uchasthemind，thevariousinstitutionsthephysicalenvironmentandsoon梙aveanyrealexistenceapartfromatotallifeinwhichallshareinthesamewaythatthemembersofthebodyshareinthelifeoftheanimalorganism。Itlooksuponmindandmatter，soil，climate，flora，fauna，thought，languageandinstitutionsasaspectsofasingleroundedwhole，onetotalgrowth。Wemayconcentrateattentionuponsomeoneofthesethings，butthisconcentrationshouldnevergosofarastooverlookthesubordinationofeachtothewhole，ortoeoneeiveoneasprecedenttoothers。”

“Icannotseethatthegettingoffood，orwhateverelsetheeconomicactivitiesmaybedefinedtobe，isanymorethelogicalbasisofexistencethantheidealactivities。Itistruethattherecouldbenoideasandinstitutionswithoutafoodsupply，butnomorecouldwegetfoodifwedidnothaveideasandinstitutions。Allworktogether，andeachoftheprincipalfunctionsisessentialtoeveryother。“

“Historyisnotlikeatangledskeinwhichyoumaystraightenoutbygettingholdoftherightendandfollowingitwithsufficientpersistence。

Ithasnostraightness，nomerelylinealcontinuity，initsnature。Itisalivingthing，tobeknownbysharingitslife，verymuchasyouknowaperson。Intheorganicworld梩hatistosayinreallife梕achfunctionisacentrefromwhichcausesradiateandtowhichtheyconverge;allisalikecauseandeffect;thereisnologicalprimacy，noindependentvariable，noplacewherethethreadbeginsAsinthefableofthebellyandthememberseachisdependentuponalltheothers。Youmustseethewholeoryoudonottrulyseeanything。”(PublicationsoftheAmericanEconomicAssociation，ThirdSeries，vol。v，426#。)，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter23：TheAscendancyofa，CapitalistClass，CHAPTERXXIII

ONTHEASCENDENCYOFACAPITALISTCLASS，THECAPITALISTCLASS——ITSLACKOFCASTESENTIMENT——IN

WHATSENSE“THEFITTEST“——MORALTRAITS——HOWFARBASEDONSERVICE——

AUTOCRATICANDDEMOCRATICPRINCIPLESINTHECONTROLOFINDUSTRY——REASONS

FOREXPECTINGANINCREASEOFTHEDEMOCRATICPRINCIPLE——SOCIALPOWERIN

GENERAL——ORGANIZINGCAPACITY——NATUREANDSOURCEOFCAPITALISTPOWER——

POWEROVERTHEPRESSANDOVERPUBLICSENTIMENT——UPPERCLASSATMOSPHERE

SINCEinouragecommerceandindustryabsorbmostofthepracticalenergyofthepeople，thementhatareforemostintheseactivitieshaveacertainascendancy，similartothatofwarriorsinamilitaryage。

Althoughthissortofmenisnotsharplymarkedoff，itiswellenoughindicatedbythetermcapitalistorcapitalist-managerclass;thelargeownerofcapitalbeingusuallymoreorlessofamanageralso，whilethelargesalariesandothergainsofsuccessfulmanagerssoonmakethemcapitalists。

Itisnotquiteaccuratetospeakofthegroupinquestionastherich，because，atagiventime，alargepartofitsmostvigorousmembershipisasyetwithoutwealth？thoughinawaytogetit梐nd，ontheotherhand，maneoftheactualpossessorsofwealtharepersonallyidleorineffective。

Theessentialthingisasocialtendencyorsystemofideasgeneratedintheaccumulationofwealthandhavingforitsnucleusthemoreactiveandsuccessfulleadersofcommerceandindustry。

(257)

Thattheseareaverysmallclassinproportiontotheirpowerisapparent，butnot，perhaps，initself，sofataladefectinthesystemthatpermitsitasmanyimagine。Insofarasconcentrationofcontrolmeansthatwealthisinthehandsofthosewhounderstandhowtouseitforthecommongood，anddoinfactsouseit，muchmaybesaidinitsfavor。Wearealleagertoentrustourpropertytothosewhowillmakeitprofitabletous;andsociety，underanysystemthatcouldbedevised，mustprobablydothesame。

Butwemaywellaskwhetherthereisnotsomemoreadequatemeansthanwenowhaveofgettingthistrustfaithfullyexecuted。

Forbetterorforworse，concentrationisprobablyinevitableinanysocietythathasavast，mobilewealthsubjecttocompetition;andtheactualinequalityisperhapsnotmuchgreaterthanthatofpoliticalpower，whichissupposedtobeequallydistributedbygeneralsuffrage。Thetruthisthatequalityofpowerorinfluence，inanysphereoflife，isinconsistentwiththefreeworkingofhumanforces，whichisevercreatingdifferences，someofwhichareusefultosocietyandsomeharmful。Atruefreedom，areasonableequality，aimstoconservetheformerandabolishorlimitthelatter。

Thesentimentoftheclassisnotaristocraticintheordinarysense。

Althoughitsmembersendeavortosecuretheirpossessionstotheirchildren，thereislittleofthespiritofhereditarycaste，which，indeed，isuncongenialtocommerce。FreedomofopportunityistheidealinthisasinotherpartsofAmericansociety，andeducationalorIotheropportunitiesdesignedtomaintainorincreaseitare，(258)sincerelyapprovedandsupported。Thereis，infact，analmostinevitabledualismwhichmakesitnaturalthatamanshouldstrivetoaggrandizehimself，hisfamilyandisdclasseventhoughhetrulywishesforgreaterequalityofprivilege。Hefloatsontwocurrents，andasamanandabrothermaybegladofrestraintsuponhisownclasswhichareintheinterestofjustice。

Theidealoffreedomprevalentinthemanagingclassis，however，somewhatnarrowandhardlyhospitabletothegroupself-assertionofthelessprivilegedclasses。Thelabormovementhasmadeitswaybyitsenergyandreasonablenessinthefaceofarathergeneralmistrustandopposition梥ometimesjustifiedbyitsaberrations梠nthepartofthemastersofindustry。Yeteveninthisregard，asitcomestobeseenthatorganizationisanelementoffairplay，andasexperienceshowsthatunionmaybecomeaninstrumentofstability，abroadersentimentmakesheadway。

Likeeverythingelsethathaspowerinhumanlife，themoney-strongrepresent，insomesense，thesurvivalofthefittest梟otnecessarilyofthebest。Thatis，theirsuccess，certainlynoguarantyofrighteousness，doesproveacertainadaptationtoconditions，thosewhogetrichbeingingeneraltheablest，forthispurpose，ofthemanywhodevotetheirenergiestoitwithaboutthesameopportunities。Theyarenotnecessarilytheablestinotherregards，sinceonlycertainkindsofabilitycountinmakingmoney;

otherkinds，andthoseoftenthehighestsuchasdevotiontointellectualormoralideals，beingevenahindrance。Menofgeniuswillseldomshineinthisway，(259)because，asarule，onlyasomewhatcommonplacemindwillgiveitselfwhole-heartedlytothecommercialideal。

Thereismuchlikenessinthepersonsandmethodsbywhich，inallages，thecrudersortofpowerisacquired。Whenthemilitarysystemisascendentovertheindustrialitisacquiredinoneway，whenpropertyissecurefromforceinanother，butthismakeslessdifferencethanmightbesupposed。

Ineithercaseitisnotmerepersonalprowess，withtheswordorwiththetool，thatgainslargesuccess，butpowerinorganization。Aggressiveness，single-mindeddevotiontotheendand，aboveall，organizingfaculty梩hesewerethemethodsofClovisandPepinandWilliamofNormandy，astheyareofourrulersoffinance。Andnow，asformerly，muchofthepowerthatisaliveinsuchmenfallsbyinheritanceintoweakerhands。

Astorighteousness，inthesenseofgoodintention，theyprobablydonot，onthewhole，differmuchfromtheaverage。Somemaybefoundofthehighestcharacter，someofgrossunscrupulousness。ThemajorityaredoubtlesswithoutmoraldistinctionandtakethecoloroftheirassociatesTheviewsometimessetforthonbehalfofmenofwealththatrichesgowithvirtue，andtheview，morepopularamongnon-possessors，thatitcomesbywickedness，areequallyuntrustworthy。Thegreatmassofwealthisaccumulatedbysolidqualities梕nergy，tenacity，shrewdnessandthelike梬hichmaycoexistwithgreatmoralrefinementorwiththeopposite。

Asagroup，however，theyareliabletomoraldeficienciesanalogoustothoseoftheconquerorsandorganizersofstatesjustreferredto。Thereis，especially，acertain，(260)moralirresponsibilitywhichisnaturaltothosewhohavebrokenawayfromcustomarylimitationsandrestraintsandarecoursingalmostatwilloveranunfencedterritoryImeanthatbusinessenterprise，likemilitaryenterprise，dealslargelywithrelationsastowhichtherearenosettledrulesofmorality，noconstraininglaworpublicopinionSuchconditionsbreedintheordinaryactoraMacchiavellianopportunism。Sinceitishardtosaywhatisjustandhonestinthevastandabstractoperationsoffinance，humannatureisapttoceaselookingforastandardandtoseizebootywhereverandhoweveritsafelycan。Hencethetrulypiraticalcharacterofmanyofourgreattransactions。Andinsmallermattersalso，asinescapingtaxation，itisoftenfatallyeasyfortherichtosteal。

Itmustbeallowedthatsuchascendancyasthecapitalistclasshasrests，inpartatleast，uponservice。Thatistosay，itsmembershavehadanimportantfunctiontoperform，andinperformingthatfunctionhavefoundthemselvesinapositiontograspwealth。Thegreatworkofthetimehasbeen，orhasseemedtobe，theextensionandreconstructionofindustry。

Inthisworkleadershipandorganizationhavebeenneededonagreatscale，andourcaptainsofindustryhavenoblymetthisdemand。Thattheirsomewhatautocraticcontrolofproductionwascalledforbythesituationseemstobeshownbytherathergeneralfailureofcooperativeenterprisesintendedtodispensewithit。WhyisitthatAmericaaboundsinopportunity，andthateverysortofindustrialcapacityiseagerlysoughtoutandrewarded？Ofcoursenaturaladvantagesplayagreatpart，butmuchmustalsobeascribedtotheenergy，(261)andimaginativedaringofourentrepreneurs，manyofwhomhavespentgreatfacultyandtirelesszealuponbusiness，inaspiritofadventureandachievementratherthanofgain。Wherethegeneralisaggressivethesoldierwillbekeptbusy。

Ihavenosympathywiththegeneralabuseofcommercialism，butholdwithMontesquieuthat“Thespiritofcommerceisnaturallyattendedwiththatoffrugality，economy，moderation，labor，prudence，tranquillity，orderandrule。Solongasthisspiritsubsiststherichesitproduceshavenoilleffect。Themischiefiswhenexcessivewealthdestroysthespiritofcommerce;thenitisthattheinconveniencesofinequalitybegintobefelt。”[1]

Theconceptionofkeenadaptationofmeanstoends，ofexactsocialworkmanship，inculcatedby“business“isofuntoldvaluetoourcivilizationandcapableofverygeneralapplication。Itisaveryproperdemandthatgovernment，educationandphilanthropyshould，inthissense，beconductedonbusinessprinciples。

Atthesametimeitisplainthatalargepartoftheaccumulationofwealth梙ardunfortunatelytodistinguishfromotherparts梚saccomplishednotbysocialservicebut，asjustintimated，bysomethingakintopiracy。

ThisISnotsomuchthepeculiarwickednessofapredatoryclassasatendencyinallofustoabusepowerwhennotunderdefinitelegalormoralcontrol。

Thevasttransactionsassociatedwithmodernindustryhavecomeverylittleundersuchcontrol，andofferafieldforfreebootingsuchastheworldhasneverseen。

Norneedweaffirmthateventhegainsofthegreat，(262)organizersareinthehighestsenseright，onlythattheyarenaturalanddonotnecessarilyinvolveconsciouswrongdoing。

Thequestionoftheratherarbitrarycontrolofindustrybythecapitalist-manager，whichnowprevails，andofthepossibilityofthiscontrolbeingdiminishedormodifiedinthefuture，callsforsomeanalysisofunderlyingforcesEvidentlythereisaconflictofprincipleshere梩hedemocraticorpopularandtheautocratic。Thelatter，nowascendant，hastheadvantagesofconcentration，secrecyandpromptness梩hesamewhichgiveitsuperiorityinwar。Ontheotherhand，thedemocraticprincipleshouldhavethesamemeritinindustryandcommercethatithasinpolitics;namelythatofenlistingtheprideandambitionoftheindividualandsogettinghimtoputhimselfintohiswork。Otherthingsbeingequal，afreesystemismorevitalandenergeticorganismthanoneinwhichtheinitiativeandchoicecomefromacentralauthority。

Anditisapparentthattheworkingoftheautocraticsysteminoureconomiclifeshowsjustthestrengthandweaknessthatwouldnaturallybeexpected。Thepromptundertakingandexecutionofvastschemesatafavorablemoment，andtheequallypromptrecessionwhenconditionsalter;

theinvestmentofgreatresourcesinenterpriseswhichyieldnoimmediatereturn;thedecisionandsecrecyimportantinovercomingcompetitors;theunhesitatingsacrificeofworkmenandtheirfamilieswhenthemarketcallsforashut-downofproduction-suchtraitsastheseareoftheutmostimportancetocommercialsuccess，andbelongtoarbitrarycontrolratherthanto，(263)anythingofamorepopularsort。Ontheotherhand，itwouldbeeasytoshowatanylengthdesiredthatsuchcontrolisaccompaniedbyawide-spreaddisaffectionofspiritonthepartoftheworkingclasses，which，expressedinunwillinglabor，strikesandagitation，isacommercialdisadvantage，endasocialproblemsourgentastounsettlethewholeeconomicsystem。

Theautocraticsystemhasevidentlyaspecialadvantageinatimeofrapidandconfuseddevelopment，whenconditionsarelittleunderstoodorregulated，andthestateofthingsisoneofsomewhatblindandruthlesswarfare;butitisquitepossiblethatasthenewindustriesbecomeestablishedandcomparativelystable，therewillbeacommercialaswellasasocialdemandforasystemthatshallinviteandutilizemoreofthegood-willandself-activityoftheworkman。“Thesystemwhichcomesnearesttocallingoutalltheself-interestsandusingallthefacultiesandsharingallthebenefitswilloutcompeteanysystemthatstrikesalowerlevelofmotivefacultyandprofit。”[2]Andthepenetratingthinkerwhowrotethissentencebelievedthatthefunctionoftheautocratic“captainofindustry“wasessentiallythatofanexplorerandconquerorofnewdomainsdestinedtocomelaterundertheruleofacommonwealth。Indeedtherise，onpurelycommercialgrounds，ofamorehumaneandindividualizingtendency’aiminginonewayoranothertopropitiatetheself-feelingoftheworkmanandgethimtoidentifyhimselfwithhiswork，iswellascertained。Amongthefamiliarphasesofthisarethenotablegrowthofcooperative，(264)productionandexchangeinBelgium，RussiaandotherEuropeancountries，theincreasingrespectforlaborunionsandthedevelopmentbylargeconcernsofdevicesforinsurance，forpensions，forprofit-sharingandforthematerialandsocialcomfortoftheiremployees。“Asabettergovernmenthascomeupfromthepeoplethancamedownfromthekings，soabetterindustryappearstobecomingupfromthepeoplethancamedownfromthecapitalists。”[3]

Insomeformorotherthedemocraticprincipleissuretomakeitswayintotheeconomicsystem。Cooperation，laborunions，publicregulation，publicownershipandtheinformalcontrolofopinionwillnodoubtallhaveapart;thegeneraloutcomebeingthatthecitizenbecomesamorevitalagentinthelifeofthewhole。

Beforediscussingfurtherthepowerofthecapitalistmanagerclass，weoughttothinkoutclearlyjustwhatwemeanbysocialpower，sincenowherearewemorelikelytogoastraythaninvaguenessregardingsuchnotions。

Evidentlytheessenceofitiscontroloverthehumanspirit，andthemostdirectphasesofpowerareimmediatelyspiritual，suchasonemindexercisesoveranotherbyvirtueofwhatitis，withoutanymeansbuttheordinarysymbolsofcommunication。Thisislive，humanpower，andthosewhohaveitingreatdegreearetheprimemoversofsociety，whethertheygainanymoreformalorconventionalsortornot。Such，forinstance，arethepoets，prophets，philosophers，inventorsandmenofscienceofallages，thegreatpolitical，militaryandreligiousorgan-

(265)isers，andeventherealcaptainsofindustryandcommerce。Allpowerinvolvesinitsoriginmentalorspiritualforceofsomesort;andsofarasitattachestopassiveattributes’likehereditarysocialposition，offices，bankaccountsandthelike，itdoessothroughtheaidofconventionsandhabitswhichregardthesethingsasrepositoriesofspiritualforceandallowthemtoexerciseitsfunction。

Initsimmediatespiritualphasepowerisatamaximumofvitalityandaminimumofestablishment。Onlyafewcanrecognizeit。Itspossessors，then，strivetoestablishandorganizeit，togiveitsocialexpressionandefficacy，togainposition，reputationorwealth。Sincepowerisnotapparenttothecommonminduntilittakesontheseforms，theyare，tosuperficialobservationandinalltheconventionalbusinessoflife，theonlyvalidevidenceofitAndyetbythetimethesesymbolsappear，thespiritualbasishasoftenpassedaway。Primarypowergoesforthemostpartunseen，muchofittakingonnopalpableformuntillateinlife，muchyieldingonlyposthumousreputation，andmuch，andthatperhapsthefinestsort，havingneveranyvulgarrecognitionwhatever。

Regardingmoney-valuewemaysay，ingeneral，thatitisoneexpressionoftheconventionalorinstitutionalphaseofsociety，andexhibitsallthatmixtureofgrandeurandconfusionwithwhichnatureusuallypresentsherselftoourunderstanding。Imeanthatitsappraisalofmenandthingsispartlyexpressiveofgreatprinciples，andpartly，sofaraswecansee，unjust，trivialoraccidental。Somegainsarevitalororganic，springingfromthevery~natureoflifeandjustifiedaswecometounderstandthat，~life;somearefanciful，springingfromthetastesorwhims，(266)oftherich，likethevalueofdiamondsorfirsteditions，ansomeparasitical，likethoseofthelegally-protectswindler。Ingeneralthevaluesofthemarketarethoofthehabitualworldinallitsgrossness;

spiritualvaluesexceptthosethathavebecomeconventional，beinglittlefeltinit。Theseappealtothefuture。Thedetailedworkingofmarketvaluehasnoascertainableconnectionwithmoralworth，andwemustnotexpectittohave。Ifaman’sworkismoral，inthehighersense，itisinitsnatureanattackuponthehabitualworldwhichthelatterismorelikelytoresentthanreward。Onecanonlytakeupthatusefulworkthatseemsbestsuitedtohim，tryingtobecontentifitsvalueissmall，and，iflarge，tofeelthatthepowerovermoneyitgiveshimisrightlyhisonlyinsofarasheusesitforthegeneralgood。

Themoretangiblekindofsocialpower梥ofarasintrinsictothemanandnotadventitiouslikeinheritedwealth梔ependschieflyuponorganizingcapacity，whichmaybedescribedastheabilitytobuildandoperatehumanmachinery。Ithasitsrootsintactandskillindealingwithmen，intenacity，andinacertaininstinctforconstruction。Onewhopossessesitseesanewpersonassocialmaterial，andislikelytoknowwhatcanbemadeofhimbetterthanheknowshimself。[4]

(267)

Ofallkindsofleadershipthishasthereadiestrecognitionandthehighestmarketvalue;andnaturallyso，sinceitisessentialtoeverysortofcooperativeachievement。Itspossessorsunderstandtheimmediatecontroloftheworld，whichtheywillexercisenomatterwhatthcapparentformsoforganizationmaybe。Inallagestheyhavegainedandheldthegrosserformsofpower，wheneverthesewereatallopentocompetition。

Thus，duringtheearlyMiddleAge，menofenergyandmanagement，moreorlessfavoredbysituation，builtupforthemselveslocalauthorityandestate，orperhapsexploitedtheopportunitiesforstillwiderorganization，likethefoundersofBurgundyandBrittanyandtheearlykingsofFrance;

verymuchinthesamemannerasmenofourowndaybuildupcommercialandindustrialsystemsandbecomesenatorsandrailwaypresidents。

Indeed，thistypeofabilitywasneverinsuchdemandasitnowis，fortheconductofthevastanddiversesocialstructuresrisingaboutus梚ndustrialenterprises，politicalparties，laborunions，newspapers，universitiesandphilanthropies。

Ithasitshighmoneyvaluepartlybecauseofitsrarityandpartlybecausethereisaregularmarketforit;theneedbeingsourgentandobviousastocreateasteadyandintelligentdemand。Inthislatterrespectitcontrastswithservices，likemoralleadership，whichpeopleneedbutwillseldompayfor。Athirdreasonisthatitspossessorsarealmostalwayscleverenoughtoknowtheirownvalueandsecureitsrecognition。

Indiscussingthepowerofthecapitalistclassthereisoquestionofthefinerandhigherformsofpower。We，(268)shallrarelyfindamongtherichanypregnantspiritualleadership，theirsbeingapedestriankindofauthoritywhichhasagreatdealtodowiththeevery-daycomfortoftheircontemporariesbutdoesnotattempttoswaytheprofounderdestiniesoftherace。Nordoestheworldoftenaccordthemenduringfame：lackingspiritualsignificancetheirnamesarewritinwater。Eveninindustrythecreativethought，theinventionswhicharethegermsofanewera，seldomcomefrommoney-winners，sincetheyrequireadifferentkindofinsight。

Thecapitalistrepresentspoweroverthosesocialvaluesthataretangibleandobviousenoughtohaveadefinitestandinginthemarket。Hismoneyandprestigewillcommandfood，houses，clothes，toolsandallconventionalandstandardsortsofpersonalservice，fromlawn-mowingtotheadministrationofarailroad，notgeniusorloveoranythingofthatnature。Thatwealthmeanssocialpowerofthiscoarsersortisapparentinageneralway，andyetmeritsasomewhatcloserexamination。

Wehave，first，itsimmediatepowerovergoodsandservices：themasterofrichesgoesattendedbyaninvisiblearmyofpotentialservitors，readytodoforhimanythingthatthelawallows，andoftenmore。Heisinthisway，asinsomanyothers，thesuccessorofthenoblemanofmediaevalandearlymodernhistory，whowentaboutwithabandofvisibleretainerseagertoworkhiswilluponallopposers。Heistherulerofasocialsystemwhereverhemaybe。

Thepoliticalpowerofwealthisdueonlyinparttodirectcorruption，vastasthatis，butisevenmoreanindirtctandperfectlylegalpressureintheshapeofinducements，(269)whichitsadroitusecanalwaysbringtobear梩radetothebusinessman，practicetothelawyerandemploymenttothehandworker：everyonewhenhethinksofhisincomewishestoconciliatetherich。Influenceofthissortmakesalmosteveryrichmanapoliticalpower，evenwithouthisespeciallywishingtobe。Butwhenwealthisunitedtoashrewdandunscrupulouspoliticalambition，whenitsetsouttocontrollegislationortheadministrationofthelaws，itbecomestrulyperilous。Wecannotfailtoseethatalargepartofourhighofficesareheldbymenwhohavenomarkedqualificationbutwealth，andwouldbeinsignificantwithoutit;alsothatourlegislation梞unicipal，stateandnational梐ndmostofouradministrativemachinery，feelconstantlythegraspofpecuniarypower。Probablyitisnottoomuchtosaythatexceptwhenpublicopinionisunusuallyarousedwealthcangenerallyhaveitswayinourpoliticsifitmakesanefforttodoso。

Astotheinfluenceoftherichovertheprofessionalclasses條awyers，doctors，clergymen，teachers，civilandmechanicalengineersandthelike梬emaysayingeneralthatitispotentbutsomewhatindirect，implyingnotconscioussubserviencebutamoralascendancythroughhabitandsuggestion。

Theablermenofthissortaregenerallyeducatedandself-respecting，haveagooddealofprofessionalspiritandarenotwhollydependentuponanyoneemployer。Atthesametime，theygettheirlivinglargelythroughtherich，fromwhomthemostlucrativeemploymentcomes，andwhohavemanyindirectwaysofmakingandmarringcareers。Theablestmeninthelegalprofessionareincloserelationswiththerichandcommonly，(270)becomecapitaliststhemselves;physiciansaremoreindependent，becausetheirartisnotdirectlyconcernedwithproperty，yetlooktowealthypatientsfortheirmostprofitablepractice;clergymenareunderpressuretosatisfywealthyparishioners，andteachersmustwinthegoodwilloftheopulentcitizenswhocontroleducationalboards。

Nowthereisnothinginsocialpsychologysurerthanthatifthereisamanbywhosegoodwillwedesiretoprofit，wearelikelytoadaptourwayofthinkingtohis。Impelledtoimaginefrequentlyhisstateofmind，andtodesirethatitshouldbefavorabletoouraims，weareunconsciouslyswayedbyhisthought，themoresoifhetreatsuswithacourtesywhichdoesnotalarmourself-respect。Itisinthiswaythatwealthimposesuponintellect。Whocandenyit？

Newspapersaregenerallyownedbymenofwealth，whichhasnodoubtanimportantinfluenceuponthesentimentsexpressedinthem;butaweightierconsiderationisthefactthattheydependforprofitchieflyuponadvertisements，themostlucrativeofwhichcomefromrichmerchantswhonaturallyresentdoctrinesthatthreatentheirinterest。Ofcoursethepapersmustreachthepeople，inordertohaveavalueforadvertisingoranyotherpurpose，andthisrequiresadaptationtopublicopinion;butthepublicofwhatareknownasthebetterclassofpapersarechieflythecomparativelywell-to-do。

Andeventhatportionofthepresswhichaimstopleasethehand-workingclassisusuallymorewillingtocarryonaloudbutvagueagitation，notintendedtoaccomplishanythingbutincreasecirculation，thantopushrealanddefinitereform。

(271)

Allphasesofopinion，includingthemostearnestandhonestinquiryintosocialquestions，findssomevoiceinprint，but條eavingasidetimeswhenpublicopinionisgreatlyaroused梩hosephasesthatarebackedbywealthyinterestshaveagreatadvantageintheurgency，persistenceandclevernesswithwhichtheyarepresented。Atleast，thishasbeenthecaseinthepast。Itisageneralfeelingofthoughtfulmenamongthehand-workingclassthatitishardtogetareallyfairstatementoftheirviewofindustrialquestionsfromthatportionofthenewspaperandmagazinepressthatisreadbywell-to-dopeople。Thereasonseemstobemainlythatthewritersliveunconsciouslyinanatmosphereofupper-classideasfromwhichtheydonotfreethemselvesbythoroughinquiry。Besidesthis，thereisasenseofwhattheirreadersexpect，andalso，perhaps，avaguefeelingthatthesentimentsofthehand-workingclassmaythreatenpublicorder。

Sincethepublichassupplantedthepatron，amanoflettershasleastofalltohopeorfearfromtherich梚fheacceptstheopinionofMr。Howellsthatthelattercandonothingtowardmakingormarringanewbook。

Thepowerofwealthoverpublicsentimentisexercisedpartlythroughswayovertheeducatedclassesandthepress，butalsobythemoredirectchannelofprestige。Mindsofnogreatinsight，thatistosaythemajority，monldtheiridealsfromthespectacleofvisibleandtangiblesuccess。

Inacommercialepochthispertainstotherich;whoconsequentlyaddtotheothersourcesoftheirinfluencepowerovertheimagination。Millionsacceptthemoney-makingidealwhoareunsuitedtoattainit，andErunthemselvesoutofbreathandcourageinaracethey，(272)shouldneverhaveentered;itisasifthethin-leggedandflat-chestedpeopleofthelandshouldseekgloryinfootball。Themoney-gameismerefoolishnessandmortificationformostofus，andthereisamadnessofthecrowdinthewayweenterintoit。Eventhosewomustabusetherichcommonlyshowmentalsubservienceinthattheyassumethattherichhave，infact，gottenwhatisbestworthhaving。

Ashintedabove，thereissuchathingasanupper-classatmosphere，inthesenseofastateofmindregardingsocialquestions，initiatedbythemoresuccessfulmoney-winnersandconsciouslyorunconsciouslyimposeduponbusinessandprofessionalpeopleatlarge。Mostofusexistinthisatmosphereandaresopervadedbyitthatitisnoteasyforustounderstandorfairlyjudgethesentimentofthehand-workingclasses。Thespokesmenofradicaldoctrinesare，inthisregard，doinggoodservicetothepublicmindbysettinginmotioncounterbalancing，ifnotmoretrustworthy，currentsofopinion。

Ifanyoneofbusinessorprofessionalantecedentsdoubtsthathebreathesaclassatmosphere，lethimliveforatimeatasocialsettlementintheindustrialpartofoneofourcities梟otarealescapebutasnearitasmostofushavetheresolutiontoachieve梤eadingworking-classliterature(hewillbesurprisedtofindhowwellworthreadingitis)，talkingwithhand-workingpeople，attendingmeetings，andingeneralopeninghismindaswideaspossibletotheinfluencesabouthim。Hewillpresentlybecomeawareofbeinginanewmediumofthoughtandfeeling;whichmayIormaynotbecongenialbutcannotfailtobeinstructive。

Endnotes，TheSpiritofLaws，bookv，chap。6。HenryD。Lloyd，MantheSocialCreator，255。Idem，246。Lloydwasratheraprophetthanamanofscience，butthereisashrewdsenseoffactbackofhisvisions。Suchaone“Lasstjedenganzdasbleibenwaserist;

Erwaehtnurdruberdaser’simmerseiAmreehtenOrt，BOweisserallerMensehenVermogenzudemseinigenzumachen。”

“Heletseveryoneremainjustwhatheis，buttakescarethatheshallalwaysbeitintherightplace：thusheknowshowtomakeallmen’spowerhisown。”Schiller，Wallenstein’sLager，I，4。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter24：TheAscendancyofa，CapitalistClass——(continued)，CHAPTERXXIV

ONTHEASCENDENCYOFACAPITALISTCLASS——(CONTINUED)，THEINFLUENCEOFAMBITIOUSYOUNGMEN——SECURITYOFTHEDOMINANT

CLASSINANOPENSOCIETY——ISTHEREDANGEROFANARCHYANDSPOLIATION？——

WHETHERTHESWAYOFRICHESISGREATERNOWTHANFORMERLY——WHETHERGREATER

INAMERICATHANINENGLAND

INanysocietywherethereissomefreedomofopportunityambitiousyoungmenareanelementofextremeimportance。Theirnumbersareformidableandtheirintelligenceandaggressivenessmuchmoreso：inshort，theywantanopeningandareboundtogetit。

Asthemembersofthisclassaremainlyimpecunious，itmightbesupposedthattheywouldbeanotableoffsettothepowerofwealth;andinasensetheyare。Itistheirinteresttokeepopentheopportunitytorise，andtheyareaccordinglyinimicaltocasteandeverythingwhichtendstowardit。Butitbynomeansfollowsthattheyareopposedtotheascendancyofanupperclassbasedonwealthandposition。Thisbecomesevidentwhenoneremembersthattheiraimisnottoraisethelowerclass，buttogetoutofit。Therisingyoungmandoesnotidentifyhimselfwiththelowlystratumofsocietyinwhichheisborn，but，dissatisfiedwithhisantecedents，hestrikesoutforwealth，powerorfame。Indoingsohefixeshiseyesonthosewhohavethesethings，andfromwhoseexample，(274)hemaylearnhowtogainthem;thustendingtoaccepttheidealsandstandardsoftheactualupperclass。HegivesagreatdealofattentiontothepointsofviewofA，arailroadpresident，B，asenator，’andevenofC，headofalabororganization，buttoamerefarmerorlaborer，whosehandisonnolevers，heisindifferent。

Thestudentsofouruniversitiesaresubjecttoaconflictbetweenthehealthyidealismofyouth，whichprevailswiththemoregenerous，andtheinfluencesjustindicated，whichbecomestrongeraseducationdrawsclosertopracticalaffairs。Onthewhole，possessedofonegreatprivilegeandeagertogainothers，theyarenotsocloseinspirittotheunprivilegedclassesasmightbeimagined。

Thustheforceofambitiousyouthgoeslargelytosupporttheascendancyofthemoney-gettingclass;directly，inthatitacceptstheidealsofthisclassandlooksforwardtosharingitspower;indirectly，inthatitiswithdrawnfromtheresourcesofthehumblerclass。Howlongwilltherisinglawyerretainhiscollegeenthusiasmforsocialreformifthepowersthatbewelcomehimandpayhimsalaries？

Wehavethenthefact，ratherparadoxicalatfirstsight，thatthedominantclassinacompetitivesociety，althoughunstableastoitsindividualmembership，maywellbemoresecureasawholethanthecorrespondingclassunderanyothersystem梡reciselybecauseitcontinuallydrawsintoitselfmostofthenaturalabilityfromtheotherclasses。ThroughoutEnglishhistory，wearetold，thesalvationofthearistocracyhasbeenitscomparativeopenness，thefactthatabilitycouldpercolateintoit，instead，(275)ofrisingupbehinditlikewaterbehindadam，aswasthecaseinpre-revolutionaryFrance。Andthesameprincipleisworkingevenmoreeffectuallyinourowneconomicorder。Agreatweaknessofthetrades-unionmovement，asofallattemptsatself-assertiononthepartofthelessprivilegedclasses，isthatitisconstantlylosingableleaders。Assoonasamanshowsthatmarkedcapacitywhichwouldfithimtodosomethingforhisfellows，itistentoonethatheacceptsaremunerativeposition，andsopassesintotheupperclass。Itisincreasinglythepractice梡erhapsinsomedegreethedeliberatepolicy梠forganizedwealthtowinoverinthiswaythemorepromisingleadersfromthesideoflabor;andthisisonerespectinwhichagreaterclass-consciousnessandloyaltyonthepartofthelatterwouldaddtoitsstrength。

Thusitispossibletohavefreedomtoriseandyethaveatthesametimeamiserableandperhapsdegradedlowerclass梔egradedbecausethesocialsystemisadministeredwithlittleregardtoitsjustneeds。Thisismorethecasewithourownindustrialsystem，andwithmodernsocietyingeneral，thanourself-satisfactioncommonlyperceives。Ourone-sidedidealoffreedom，excellentsofarasitgoes，hassomewhatblindedustotheencroachmentsofslaveryonanunguardedflank。Imeansuchthingsasbadhousing，insecurity，excessiveanddeadeningwork，childlaborandthelackofanyeducationsuitedtotheindustrialmasses梩helastlikelytoberemediednowthatitisseentothreatenindustrialprosperity。

Itishardtosayhowmuchofthetimiditynoticeableinthediscussionofquestionsofthissortbythecomfortable，(276)classesisduetoavaguedreadofanarchyandspoliationbyanorganizedandself-consciouslowerclass;butprobablyagooddeal。Ifpower，underdemocracy，goeswithnumbers，andthemanyarepoor，itwouldseematfirstglancethattheywoulddespoilthefew。

Toconservativethinkersahundred，orevenfifty，yearsagothisseemedalmostanaxiom，butalesssuperficialphilosophyhascombinedwithexperiencetoshowthatanarchy，inMr。Bryce’swords，“isofalldangersorbugbearstheonewhichthemodernworldhasleastcausetofear。”[1]

Themostapparentreasonforthisistheonealreadydiscussed，namely，thatpowerdoesnotgowithmerenumbers，underademocracymorethanunderanyotherformofgovernment;ademocraticaristocracy，thatis，onewhosemembersmaintaintheirpositioninanopenstruggle，beingwithoutdoubtthestrongestthatcanexist。Weshallneverhavearevolutionuntilwehavecaste;which，asIhavetriedtoshow，isbutaremotepossibility。

Andasanallyofestablishedpowerwehavetoreckonwiththeinertiaofsocialstructure，somethingsomassiveandprofoundthattheloudestagitationisnomorethanabreezerufflingthesurfaceofdeepwaters。

Dominatedbythehabitswhichithasgenerated，weallofus，eventheagitators，upholdtheexistingorderwithoutknowingit。Theremay，ofcourse，besuddenchangesduetothefallofwhathaslongbeenrotten，butIseelittlecausetosupposethatthetimbersofoursystemareinthiscondition：theyareroughandunlovely，butfarfromweak。

Anotherconservativeconditionisthateconomicsolid-

(277)-aritywhichmakesthewelfareofallclasseshangtogether，sothatanygeneraldisturbancecausessufferingtoall，andmoretotheweakthantothestrong。Asuddenchange’howeverreasonableitsdirection，mustinthiswaydiscredititsauthorsandbringaboutreaction。Theehand-workingclassesmaygetmuchlessoftheeconomicproductthantheyoughtto;buttheyarenotsobadlyoffthattheycannotbeworse，and，unlesstheylosetheirheads，willalwaysunitewithotherclassestopreservethatstateoforderwhichistheguarantyofwhattheyhave。Anarchywouldbenefitnoone，unlesscriminals，andanythingresemblingageneralstrikeItaketobeachildishexpedientnotlikelytobecountenancedbythemoresoberandhardheadedleadersofthelabormovement。Allsolidbettermentoftheworkersmustbebasedonandgetitsnourishmentfromtheexistingsystemofproduction，whichmustonlygraduallybechanged，howeverdefectiveitmaybe。Thesuccessofstrikes，andofallsimilartactics，depends，inthenatureofthings，ontheirbeingpartial，anddrawingsupportfromtheundisturbedremainderoftheprocess。Itisthesameprincipleofminglingstabilitywithimprovementwhichgovernsprogresseverywhere。

And，finally，effectiveorganizationonthepartofthelessprivilegedclassesgoesalongwithintelligence，withtraininginorderlymethodsofself-assertion，andwitheducationinthenecessityofpatienceandcompromise。Themorerealpowertheyget，themoreconservatively，asarule，theyuseit。Wherefreespeechexiststherewillalwaysbeanoisypartyadvocatingprecipitatechange(andatimidpartywhoareafraidofthem)，butthemorethe，(278)peoplearetrainedinrealdemocracythelesswillbetheinfluenceofthiselement。

Whateverdivisionstheremaybeinoursociety，itisquiteenoughanorganicwholetouniteincastingouttendenciesthatareclearlyanarchic。

Anditisalsoevidentthatsuchtendenciesaretobelookedforatleastasmuchamongtherichasamongthepoor。Ifwehaveatoneextremeanarchistswhowouldliketodespoilotherpeople，wehave，attheother，monopolistsandfinancierswhoactuallydoso。

Itisacommonopinionthattheswayofrichesoverthehumanmindisgreaterinourtimethanpreviously，andgreaterinAmericathanelsewhere。

Howfaristhisreallythecase？

Tounderstandthismatterwemustnotforgetthattheardorofthechase梐sinafoxhunt梞ayhavelittletodowiththevalueofthequarry。Theformer，certainly，wasneversogreatinthepursuitofwealthashereandnow;

chieflybecausethecommercialtrendofthetimes，duetoavarietyofcauses，suppliesunequalledopportunitiesandincitementstoengageinthemoney-game。Inthis，therefore，thecompetitivezealofanenergeticpeoplefindsitsmainexpression。Buttosaythatwealthstandsformoreintheinnerthoughtofmen，thattohaveornottohaveitmakesagreaterintrinsicdifference，isanotherandaquestionableproposition，whichIaminclinedtothinkoppositetothetruth。Suchspiritualvalueaspersonalwealthhascomesfromitspoweroverthemeansofspiritualdevelopment。

Itis，therefore，diminishedbyeverythingwhichtendstomakethosemeanscommon，(279)property：andtheneworderhasthistendency。Whenmoneywastheonlywaytoeducation，tochoiceofoccupation，tobooks，leisureandvarietyofintercourse，itwasessentialtotheintellectuallife;therewasnobelongingtotheculturedclasswithoutit。Butwithfreeschoolsandlibraries，thediffusionofmagazinesandnewspapers，cheaptravel，lessstupefyinglaborandshorterhours，cultureopportunityismoreandmoreextended，andthebestgoodsoflifeareopened，ifnottoall，yettoanever-growingproportion。Menofthehumblestoccupationscananddobecomegentlemenandscholars。Indeed，peoplearecomingmoreandmoretothinkthatexclusiveadvantagesareuncongenialtorealculture，sincethedeepestinsightintohumanitycanbelongonlytothosewhoshareandreflectuponthecommonlife。

Theeffectisthatwealthisshornofmuchofthatprestigeofknowledge，breedingandopportunitywhichalwaysmeantmorethanitsmaterialpower。

Theintellectualandspiritualcentreofgravity，likethepolitical，sinksclownintothemassesofthepeople。Thoughourricharerichbeyondthedreamsofavarice，theymeanlesstotheinnerlifeofthetime，exerciselessspiritualauthority，perhaps，thanthecorrespondingclassinanyoldersociety。Theyaretheobjectsofpopularcuriosity，resentment，admirationorenvy，ratherthanthemoraldeferencegiventoarealaristocracy。Theyarenottakentooseriously。Indeed，therecouldbenobetterproofthatthericharenooverwhelmingpowerwithusthantheamountofgood-naturedridiculeexpendeduponthem。Weretheyreallyadominantorder，theridicule，ifventuredatall，wouldnotbegood-natured。Theirascendancyisgreat，(280)whencomparedwithatheoryofequality梐ndinthissensetheremarksinthelastchaptershouldbeunderstood梑utsmallcomparedwiththatoftherulingclassesoftheOldWorld。

Overaclassoffrenziedgold-seekers，richorpoor，chieflyinthetowns，themoney-ideaisnodoubtascendant;butifyouapproachtheordinaryfarmer，mechanicorsobertradesmanyouarelikelytofindthathesetsnohighrateonwealthbeyondwhatisnecessaryforthefrugalsupportofafamily，andthatheneitheradmiresnorenviestherich，butlooksatthemillionaireandthinks：“Afterall，itisn’tlife。Whatdoeshegetoutofitmorethantherestofus？”ThetypicalAmericanisanidealist，andthepeoplehelooksuptoarethosewhostandinsomewayfortheideallife梠rwhomhesupposestodoso梞ostcommonlystatesmen，butoftenwriters，scientistsorteachers。Educationandculture，asMr。Bryceandothershavenoticed，ischerishedbyplainpeopleallovertheland，oftentoadegreethatputstoshameitsprofessedrepresentatives。

Wefind，then，thatagitatorswhostrivetoincitethepeopleagainsttherichencounterwithdisgustanidealismwhichrefusestobelievethattheiradvantagesareextravagantlygreat;andoneofthemaingrievancesofsuchmeniswhattheylookuponasthefollyorlackofspiritofthepoorinthisregard。

Neverbefore，probably，wastheresolargeaclassofpeoplewho，havingriches，feelthattheyareadoubtfulblessing，especiallyinrelationtothenurtureofchildren。Manyasuccessfulmanisathiswits’endtogivehischildrenthoseadvantagesofenforcedindustry，frugalityandself-con-

(281)-trolwhichhehimselfenjoyed。OneoftherichestmenOfthedayholdsthataccumulationsaregenerallybadforthechildren，aswellasforsociety，andfavorsalmostunlimitedgraduatedtaxationofinheritances。[2]Accordingtothephilosophywhichhesupportsbypracticeaswellastheory，themanwhofindshimselfrichistolivemodestlyandusehissurplusasatrustfundforthebenefitofthepublic。

Whatwouldamanwishforhisownson，ifhecouldchoose？First，nodoubt，somehighandengrossingpurpose，whichshouldfillhislifewiththesenseofworthystrivingandaspiration。Afterthishewouldwishforhealth，friends，peaceofmind，theenjoymentofbooks，ahappyfamilylifeandmaterialcomfort。Butthelast，beyondthatdegreewhichevenunskilledlaborshouldbring，hewouldregardasofsecondaryimportance。

Notastraitenedhouseandtablebutastraitenedsoulistherealevil，andthetwoaremoreseparablenowthanformerly。Themorearealdemocracyprevails，thelessisthespiritualascendancyofriches。

Thereis，forinstance，nosuchsettledandinstitutionaldeferencetowealthintheUnitedStatesasthereseemstobeinEngland;thereasonbeing，inpart，thatwherethereareinheritedclassestherearealsoclassstandardsofliving，costlyintheupperclass，towhichthosewhowouldliveingoodcompanyareunderpressuretoconform。InEnglandthereisactuallyarulingorder，howeverilldefined，whichisgenerallylookeduptoandmembershipinwhichisapparentlytheambitionofalargemajority，(282)ofallaspiringmenwhodonotbelongtoitbybirth。Itshabitsandstandardsaresuchthatonlythecomparativelyrichcanbeathomeinit。Thereisnothingcorrespondingtothiswithus。Wehaverichermenandthepursuitofrichesisanevenliveliergame，butthereisnosuchascendencyinwealth，nosuchfeelingthatonemustberichtoberespectable。

Withus，ifpeoplehavemoneytheyenjoyit;ifnot，theymanagewithwhattheyhave，neitherregardingthemselvesnorregardedbyothersasessentiallyinferior。

Itisalsoageneralfeelingherethatwealthshouldnotbeacontrollingfactorinmarriage，anditisnotcommonforAmericanparentstoobjectseriouslytoaproposedson-in-law(muchlessadaughter-in-law)onthemeregroundoflackofmeans，apartfromhiscapacitytoearnaliving。

Thematter-of-factmercenarinessinthisregardwhich，asweareledtobelievebythenovelists，prevailsintheuppercirclesofEngland，isasyetsomewhatshockingtotheAmericanmind。

Hereditarytitles，sometimesimaginedtobeacounterpoisetotheascendancyofwealth，arereally，inourtimeatleast，asupportandsanctiontoit，givingitanofficialstandingandpermanenceitcannothaveindemocracy。

WeunderstandthatinEnglandwealth梬ithtact，patienceandmaybepoliticalservices梬illprocureatitle，which，unlikeanythingonecangetformoneyinAmerica，isindestructiblebyviceandfolly，andcanbeusedoverandovertobuywealthinmarriage。“NothingworksbetterinAmericathanthepromptnesswithwhichthedegeneratescionsofhonoredparentsdropoutofsight。”[3]Rankisnotanoffsetbutarewardandbribeto，(283)wealth;perhapstheonlymeritthatcanbeclaimedforitinthisconnectionbeingthatthedesireanddeferenceforitimposesacertaindisciplineonthearroganceofnewlyacquiredriches。

TheEnglishideathatthoseinhighofficesshouldhaveamagnificentstyleofliving，“becomingtotheirstation，“isalsoonethatgoeswithcastefeeling。Itmakesithardlydecentforthepoortoholdsuchoffices，andisalmostabsenthere，where，ifrichesareimportanttopoliticalsuccess，theconditionisoneofwhichthepeopledonotapproveandwouldgladlydispensewith。

Idoubtwhetherthewholeconceptionwhichimputesmerittowealthandseeksatleasttheappearanceofthelatterinmodesofdress，attendanceandthelike，isnotstrongereverywhereinEuropethanintheUnitedStates。

Endnotes，TheAmericanCommonwealth，Chapter94。AndrewCarnegie。T。W。Higginson，BookandHeart，145。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter25：TheOrganizationofthe，Ill-PaidClasses，CHAPTERXXV

THEORGANIZATIONOFTHEILL-PAIDCLASSES，THENEEDOFCLASSORGANIZATION——USESANDDANGERSOFUNIONS——

GENERALDISPOSITIONOFTHEHAND-WORKINGCLASSES

ITisnotthepurposeofthisbooktoaddanythingtothemerelycontroversialliteratureofthetime;andintreatingthepresenttopicIintendnomorethantostateafewsimpleandperhapsobviousprinciplesdesignedtoconnectitwithourgenerallineofthought。

Itisquiteapparentthatanorganizedandintelligentclass-consciousnessinthehand-workingpeopleisoneoftheprimaryneedsofademocraticsociety。Insofarasthispartofthepeopleislackinginaknowledgeofitssituationandinthepracticeoforderlyself-assertion，arealfreedomwillalsobelacking，andweshallhavesomekindofsubjectioninitsplace;freedombeingimpossiblewithoutgrouporganization。Thatindustrialclassesexist梚nthesensealreadyexplained[1]梒annotwellbedenied，andexistingtheyoughttobeconsciousandself-directing。

Themostobviousneedofclass-consciousnessisforself-assertionagainstthepressureofotherclasses，andthisisbothmostnecessaryandmostdifficultwiththosewholackwealthandthecommandoverorganizedforceswhichitimplies。Inafreesociety，especially，theLordhelpsthosewhohelpthemselves;andthosewhoareweak，(285)inmoneymustbestronginunion，andmustalsoexertthemselvestomakegoodanydeficiencyinleadershipthatcomesfromabilitydesertingtomorefavoredclasses。

Thatthedominantpowerofwealthhasanoppressiveactionforthemostpartinvoluntary，uponthepeoplebelow，willhardlybedeniedbyanycompetentstudent。Theindustrialprogressofourtimeisaccompaniedbysufferingsthatareinvolvedwiththeprogress。Thesesufferings梐tleastintheirmoretangibleforms梖allalmostwhollyuponthepoorerclasses，whiletherichergetalargershareoftheincreasedproductwhichtheprogressbrings。

BysufferingsImeannotonlythephysicalhardshipandliabilitytodisease，earlydecay，andmutilationordeathbyaccident，whichfalltothehand-worker;

butalsothedebasementofchildrenbyprematureandstuntinglabor，thecomparativelackofintellectualandsocialopportunities，theuglyanddiscouragingsurroundings，andtheinsecurityofemployment，towhichheandhisaresubject。Thereisnopurposetoinflictthesethings;buttheyareinflicted，andtheonlyremedyisapublicconsciousness，especiallyintheclasseswhosufferfromthem，oftheircausesandthemeansbywhichtheycanbedoneawaywith。

Theprincipalexpressionsofclass-consciousnessinthehand-workingclassesinourdayarelaborunionsandthatwider，vaguer，morephilosophicalorreligiousmovement，toovariousfordefinition，whichisknownassocialism。

RegardingthelatterIwillonlysayatpresentthatitincludesmuchofwhatismostvitalinthecontemporaryworkingofthedemocraticspirit;

thelargeproblemswith，(286)whichitsdoctrinesdealIprefertodiscussinmyownway。

Laborunionsareasimplermatter。Theyhavearisenoutoftheurgentneedofselfdefencenotsomuchagainstdeliberateaggressionasagainstbrutalconfusionandneglect。Theindustrialpopulationhasbeentossedaboutontheswirlofeconomicchangelikesomuchsawdustonariver，sometimesprosperous，sometimesmiserable，neversecure，andlivinglargelyunderdegrading，inhumanconditions。Againstthisstateofthingsthehigherclassofartisans梐smeasuredbyskill，wagesandgeneralintelligence梙avemadeapartlysuccessfulstrugglethroughcooperationinassociations，which，however，includemuchlessthanhalfofthosewhomightbeexpectedtotakeadvantageofthem。[2]Thattheyareaneffectivemeansofclassself-assertionisevidentfromtheantagonismtheyhavearoused。

Besidestheirprimaryfunctionofgroup-bargaining，whichhascometobegenerallyrecognizedasessential，unionsareperformingavarietyofserviceshardlylessimportanttotheirmembers，andserviceabletosocietyatlarge。Inthewayofinfluencinglegislationtheyhaveprobablydonemorethanallotheragenciestogethertocombatchild-labor，excessivehours，andotherinhumananddegradingkindsofwork;alsotoprovideforsafeguardsagainstaccident，forpropersanitationoffactories，andthelike。Inthisfieldtheirworkisasmuchdefensiveasaggressive，sinceemployinginterests，ontheotherside，(287)areconstantlyinfluencinglegislationandadministrationtotheirownadvantage。

Theirfunctionasspheresoffellowshipandself-developmentisequallyvitalandlessunderstood。Tohaveawe-feelingtoliveshouldertoshoulderwithone’sfellows，istheonlyhumanlife;weallneedittokeepusfromselfishness，sensualityanddespair，andthehand-workerneedsitevenmorethantherestofus。Usuallywithoutpecuniaryresourceandinsecureofhisjobandhishome，heis，inisolation，miserablyweakandinawaytobecowedandunmannedbymisfortuneormereapprehension。Driftingaboutinaconfusedsociety，unimportant，apparently，totherestoftheworld，itisnowonderifhefeels“IamnolinkofThygreatchain，“[3]andlosesfaithinhimself，inlifeandinGod。Theunionmakeshimfeelthatheispartofawhole，oneofafellowship，thattherearethosewhowillstandbyhimintrouble，thathecountsforsomethinginthegreatlife。Hegetsfromitthatthrillofbroadersentiment，thesameinkindthatmengetinfightingfortheircountry;hisselfisenlargedandenrichedandhisimaginationfedwithobjects，comparatively，“immenseandeternal。”

Moreover，thelifeoflaborunionsandotherclassassociations，throughthetrainingwhichitgivesindemocraticorganizationanddiscipline，isperhapsthechiefguarantyofthehealthypoliticaldevelopmentofthehand-workingclass梕speciallythoseimportedfromnon-democraticcivilizations梐ndthesurestbarrieragainstrecklessnessanddisorder。Thattheirmembersgetthistrainingwill，(288)beevidenttoanyonewhostudiestheirworking，anditisnotapparentthattheywouldgetitinanyotherway。Menlearnmostinactingforpurposeswhichtheyunderstandandareinterestedin，andthisismorecertaintobethecasewitheconomicaimsthanwithanyother。

Thus，ifunionsshouldneverraisewagesorshortenhours，theywouldyetbeinvaluabletothemanhoodoftheirmembers。Atworst，theyensurethejoyofanopenfightandofcompanionshipindefeat。Self-assertionthroughvoluntaryorganizationisoftheessenceofdemocracy，andifanypartofthepeopleprovesincapableofititisabadsignforthecountry。

Onthisgroundaloneitwouldseemthatpatriotsshoulddesiretoseeorganizationofthissortextendthroughouttheindustrialpopulation。

Thedangeroftheseassociationsisthatwhichbesetshumannatureeverywhere梩heselfishuseofpower。Itisfearedwithreasonthatiftheyhavetoomuchtheirownwaytheywillmonopolizeopportunitybyrestrictingapprenticeshipandlimitingthenumberoftheirmembers;thattheywillseektheirendsthroughintimidationandviolence;thattheywillbemadetheinstrumentsofcorruptleaders。Theseandsimilarwrongshavefromtimetotimebeenbroughthometothem，and，unlesstheirmembersaresuperiortothecommonrunofmen，theyaresuchasmustbeexpected。Butitwouldbeamistaketoregardtheseoranyotherkindsofinjusticeasapartoftheessentialpolicyofunions。Theyarefeelingtheirwayinahuman，falliblemanner，andtheireventualpolicywillbedeterminedbywhat，inthewayofclassadvancement，theyfindbyexperiencetobepracticable。Inso，(289)farastheyattemptthingsthatareunjustwemayexpectthem，inthelongrun，tofail，throughtheresistanceofothersandthroughtheawakeningoftheirownconsciences。Itisthepartofotherpeopletochecktheirexcessesandcherishtheirbenefits。

Ingeneralnosortofpersonsmeanbetterthanhand-laboringmen。Theyaresimple，honestpeople，asarule，withthatbenttowardintegritywhichisfosteredbyworkinginwoodandironandoftenlostinthesubtletiesofbusiness。Moreover，theirexperienceissuchastodevelopasenseofthebrotherhoodofmanandadesiretorealizeitininstitutions。Nothavingenjoyedtheartificialsupportofaccumulatedproperty，theyhavethemorereasontoknowthedependenceofeachonhisfellows。Norhavetheyanygreathopesofpersonalaggrandizementtoisolatethemandpampertheirself-consciousness。

Tothesewemayaddthatoffencesfromthisquarterarelikelytobemoreshockingandlessdangerousthanthoseofamoresophisticatedsortofpeople。Occasionaloutbreaksofviolencealarmusandcallforpromptenforcementoflaw，butarenotaseriousmenacetosociety，becausegeneralsentimentandallestablishedinterestsareagainstthem;whilethesubtle，respectable，systematiccorruptionbytherichandpowerfulthreatenstheverybeingofdemocracy。

Themostdeplorablefactaboutlaborunionsisthattheyembracesosmallaproportionofthosethatneedtheirbenefits。Howfarintotheshiftingmassesofunskilledlaboreffectiveorganizationcanextendonlytimewillshow。

Endnotes，Seechapter21。ProfessorJohnR。Commons(PublicationsoftheAmericanSociologicalSociety，vol。ii，p。141)estimates2，000，000membersofunionsoutof6，000，000

wage-earners“availableforclassconflict。”，GeorgeHerbert。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter26：Poverty，CHAPTERXXVI

POVERTY，THEMEANINGOFPOVERTY——PERSONALANDGENERALCAUSES——

POVERTYINAPROSPEROUSSOCIETYDUECHIEFLYTOMALADJUSTMENT——ARETHE

POORTHE“UNFIT“？——WHOISTOBLAMEFORPOVERTY？——ATTITUDEOFSOCIETY

TOWARDTHEPOOR——FUNDAMENTALREMEDIES

THEmostpracticaldefinitionofpovertyisthatnowwidelyadoptedwhichrelatesittofunction，andcallsthosethepoorwhoseincomeisnotsufficienttokeepuptheirhealthandworkingefficiency。Thismaybevaguebutisnottoomuchsotobeuseful，andiscapableofbecomingquitedefinitethroughexactinquiry。Atleastitindicatesroughlyaconsiderableportionofthepeoplewhoarepoorinanobviousandmomentoussenseoftheword。

Beingundernourished，thepoorlackenergy，physical，intellectualandmoral。Whatevertheoriginalcauseoftheirpoverty，theycannot，beingpoor，worksohard，thinksoclearly，plansohopefully，orresisttemptationwithsomuchsteadfastnessasthosewhohavetheprimarymeansofkeepingthemselvesinsoundcondition。

Moreover，thelackofadequatefood，clothingandhousingcommonlyimpliesotherlacks，amongwhicharepoorearlytrainingandeducation，theabsenceofcontactwithelevatingandinspiringpersonalities，anarrowoutlookupontheworld，and，inshort，agenerallackofsocialopportunity。

(291)

Thepoorarenotaclassinthesenseofhavingadistinctpsychicalorganization。Absorbedinadiscouragingmaterialstruggle，orperhapsinthesensualityandapathytowhichadiscouragingoutlookisapttolead，theyhavenospiritorsurplusenergyadequatetoeffectualcooperativeendeavorontheirowninitiative，oreventograspingthebenefitsofexistingorganization。Asaruletheygetfarlessfromthelawanditsadministration，fromthechurch，theschools，thepubliclibrariesandthelike，thantheclassesmorecapableofself-assertion，andthisisparticularlytrueinalaissez-fairedemocracy，suchasours，whichgivesrightsprettymuchinproportiontothevigorwithwhichtheyaredemanded。Itisthislackofcommonconsciousnessandpurposethatexplainstheeasewithwhich，inallages，thepoorhavebeengoverned，nottosayexploited，fromabove。

Andiftheyaregettingsomeconsciousnessandpurposeatthepresenttime，itislargelyfortheveryreasonthattheyarelessinveteratelyandhopelesslypoornowthaninthepast。

Thefamiliarquestionwhetherpovertyisduetopersonalorsocialcausesisinitselfsomewhatfallacious，assmackingofaphilosophythatdoesnotseethatthepersonalandsocialareinseparable。Everythinginpersonalityhasrootsinsocialconditions，pastorpresent。Sopersonalpovertyispartofanorganicwhole，theeffectinonewayoranother，byheredityorinfluence，ofthegenerallife。Thequestionhassignificance，however，whenweunderstandiasaskingwhetherornotthecauseissofixedinpersonalitythatitcannotbecounteractedbysocialinfluences。Wefindthatinacommunitygenerallyprosper-

(292)-ousapartofthepeople梥aytenpercent。梐repoorintheurgentsenseindicatedabove。Thepracticalquestionis，Arethesepeoplepoorfromcausessoestablishedintheircharacters(howeveroriginating)thattherestofthecommunitycandonothingeffectualforthem，oraretheyplastictoforceswhichmightraisethemtoanormalstandardofliving？

Astothis條eavingoutthevariousextremeopinionswhichattendallsuchquestions梩hereisafairmeasureofagreementamongcompetentobserverssomewhattothefollowingeffect：Thereisaconsiderablenumberofindividualsandfamilieshavingintrinsicdefectsofcharacterwhichmustalwayskeepthempoorsolongastheyareleftintheordinarydegreeofself-dependence。