第3章

Evenlanguagesandnationalcharacteristics，ifthepeoplereallycareaboutthem，canbe，andinfactare，preservedinspiteofpoliticalabsorptionandtheassimilatingpowerofcommunication。Thereisnothingmorenotableinrecenthistorythanthepersistenceofnationality，evenwhen，asinPoland，ithaslostitspoliticalexpression;and，astolanguages，itissaidthatmany，suchasRoumanian，Bulgarian，Servian，Finnish，NorskandFlemish，haverevivedandcomeintoliteraryandpopularuseduringthenineteenthcentury。Mr。Lecky，inhis“DemocracyandLiberty“[4]declaredthat“therehasbeeninmanyformsamarkedtendencytoaccentuatedistinctnationalandlocaltypes。”

Toassumethatafreeconcourseofideaswillproduceuniformityistobegthewholequestion。Ifitbetruethatmenhaveanaturaldiversityofgifts，freeintercourseshouldfavoritsdevelopment，especiallywhenweconsiderthatstronginstinctwhichcausesmantotakepleasurein，(97)distinguishinghimself，andtoabhortobelostinthecrowd。And，asregardstheactualtendencyofmodernlife，onlyanobstinateapriorireasonerwillmaintainwithanyconfidencethedeclineofindividuality。

Thosewhochargethatwepossessitinextravagantexcesshaveatleastanequalshowofreason。

Nor，fromthestandpointofsentiment，doesthemodern’expansionoffeelingandlargersenseofunitytendnecessarilytoalossofindividuality。

Thereisnoprospectthatself-feelingandambitionwillbe“lostinlove’sgreatunity。”[5]Onthecontrarythesesentimentsarefosteredbyfreedom，andareratherguidedthanrepressedbysympathy。

Inatrulyorganiclifetheindividualisself-consciousanddevotedtohisownwork，butfeelshimselfandthatworkaspartofalargeandjoyouswhole。Heisself-assertive，justbecauseheisconsciousofbeingathreadinthegreatwebofevents，ofservingeffectuallyasamemberofafamily，astate，ofhumanity，andofwhatevergreaterwholehisfaithmaypicture。Ifwehavenotyetanorganicsocietyinthissense，wehaveatleastthemechanicalconditionsthatmustunderlyit。

Endnotes，IntroductiontoSocialPhilosophy，110。Nature’sWay，Harper’sMagazine，July，1904。ANewEnglandHillTown。TheAtlantieMonthly，April，1899。I，501。TheconcludinglineofE。W。Sill’spoem，DareYou？，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter10：ModernCommunication：

SuperficialityandStrain，CHAPTERX

MODERNCOMMUNICATION：

SUPERFICIALITYANDSTRAIN，STIMULATINGEFFECTOFMODERNLIFE——SUPERFICIALITY——

STRAIN——PATHOLOGICALEFFECTS

Theactionofthenewcommunicationisessentiallystimulating，andsomay，insomeofitsphases，beinjurious。Itcoststheindividualmoreinthewayofmentalfunctiontotakeanormalpartintheneworderofthingsthanitdidintheold。Notonlyishisoutlookbroader，sothatheisincitedtothinkandfeelaboutawiderrangeofmatters，butheisrequiredtobeamorethorough-goingspecialistinthemasteryofhisparticularfunction;bothextensionandintensionhavegrown。Generalcultureandtechnicaltrainingarealikemoreexigentthanthe：usedtobe，andtheirdemandsvisiblyincreasefromyeartoyear，notonlyintheschoolsbutinlifeatlarge。Themanwhodoesnotmeetthemfallsbehindtheprocession，andbecomesinsomesenseafailure：eitherunabletomakealiving，ornarrowandoutoftouchwithgenerousmovements。

Fortunately，fromthispointofview，ourmentalfunctionsareasarulerathersluggish，sothatthespurofmodernintercourseisforthemostpartwholesome，awakeningthemind，abatingsensuality，andgivingmenideaandpurpose。Suchilleffectasmaybeascribedtoit，(99)seemstofallchieflyunderthetwoheads，superficialityandstrain，whichthereaderwillperceivetobeanotherviewofthatenlargementandanimationdiscussedinthelastchapterbutone。

Thereisarathergeneralagreementamongobserversthat，outsideofhisspecialty，themanofoursomewhathurriedcivilizationisapttohaveanimpatient，touchandgohabitofmindasregardsboththoughtandfeeling。

Wearetryingtodomanyandvariousthings，andaredriventoversatilityandshortcutsatsomeexpensetotruthanddepth。“Thehabitofinattention，“

saidDeTocquevilleabout1835，“mustbeconsideredasthegreatestdefectofthedemocraticcharacter“[1];andrecentlyhisjudgmenthasbeenconfirmedbyOstrogorski，whothinksthatdeliverancefromthebondsofspaceandtimehasmadetheAmericanamanofshortviews，weddedtothepresent，accustomedtogettingquickreturns，andwithnodeeprootanywhere。[2]Wehavereducedennuiconsiderably;butamoderateennuiisjustlyreckonedbyComteandothersasoneofthespringsofprogress，anditisnounmixedgoodthatwearetoobusytobeunhappy。

Inthismatter，asinsomanyothers，weshoulddiscriminate，sofaraswecan，betweenpermanentconditionsofmodernlifeandwhatisduemerelytochange，betweendemocracyandconfusion。Thereisnothinginthenatureofdemocracytopreventitsattaining，whentransitionhassomewhatabated，adiverseandstableorganizationofits，(100)ownsort，withgreatadvantagetoourspiritualcomposureandproductivity。

Inthemeanwhileitisbeyonddoubtthattheconstantandvariedstimulusofaconfusedtimemakessustainedattentiondifficult。Certainlyourpopularliteratureiswrittenforthosewhorunastheyread，andcarriestheprincipleofeconomyofattentionbeyondanythingpreviouslyimagined。Andinfeelingitseemstobetruethatwetendtowardasomewhatsuperficialkindlinessandadaptability，ratherthansustainedpassionofanykindGenerallyspeaking，mindisspreadoutverythinoverourcivilization;agoodsortofmind，nodoubt，butquitethin。

Allthismaybecounteractedinvariousways，especiallybythoroughnessineducation，andisperhapstoberegardedaslackofmaturityratherthanasincurabledefect。

Mentalstrain，inspiteofthealarmingopinionssometimesexpressed，isbynomeansageneralconditioninmodernsociety，norlikelytobecomeso;itisconfinedtoarelativelysmallnumber，inwhomindividualweakness，orunusualstress，orboth，hasrenderedlifetoomuchforthespirit。

Yetthisnumberincludesagreatpartofthosewhoperformthemoreexactingintellectualfunctionsinbusinessandtheprofessions，aswellaspeculiarlyweak，orsensitive，orunfortunateindividualsinallwalksoflife。Ingeneralthereisanincreaseofself-consciousnessandchoice;thereismoreopportunity，moreresponsibility，morecomplexity，agreaterburdenuponintelligence，willandcharacter。Theindividualnotonlycanbutmustdealwithafloodofurgentsuggestions，orbeswamped，(101)bythem。“Thisagethatblotsoutlifewithquestionmarks“[3]forcesustothinkandchoosewhetherwearereadyornot。

Worse，probably，thananythinginthewayofwork？thoughthatisoftendestructive——istheanxiousinsecurityinwhichourchanginglifekeepsalargepartofthepopulation，thewell-to-doaswellasthepoor。Andaneducatedandimaginativepeoplefeelssuchanxietiesmorethanonedeadenedbyignorance。“InAmerica，“saidDeTocqueville，“Isawthefreestandmostenlightenedmenplacedinthehappiestcircumstanceswhichtheworldaffords;itseemedtomeasifacloudhabituallyhungupontheirbrows，andIthoughtthemseriousandalmostsad，evenintheirpleasures。”[4]

NotlongagoMr。H。D。Sedgwickcontributedtoamagazineastudyofwhathecalled“TheNewAmericanType，[5]basedonanexhibitionofEnglishandAmericanportraits，somerecent，someacenturyold。Hefoundthattilemorerecentwereconspicuouslymarkedbythesignsofunrestandstrain。SpeakingofMr。Sargent’ssubjectshesays，“Theobviousqualitiesinhisportraitsaredisquiet，lackofequilibrium，absenceofprinciple，……amindunoccupiedbytherightfulheirs，asifthehomeofprincipleanddogmahadbeentransformedintoaninnforwayfarers。Sargent’swomenaremoremarkedthanhismen;women，asphysicallymoredelicate，arethefirsttorevealthestrainofphysicalandpsychicalmaladjustment。Thethinspiritoflifeshiverspatheticallyin，(102)its’fleshlydress’;intheintensityofitseagernessitisallunconsciousofitsspiritualfidgetingonfindingitselfastray梟opath，noblazings，theoldforgotten，thenewnotformed。”TheearlyAmericans，hesays，“werenotlimbermindedmen，notreadilyagnostic，notnicelysceptical;theywere……eighteenthcenturyEnglishmen。”OfReynolds’

womenheobserves，“Theseladiesledlivesunvexed;naturalaffections，afewbriefsaws，ahalf。dozenprinciples，kepttheirbrowssmooth，theircheeksripe，theirlipsmostwooable。”Peoplehad“astablephysiqueandawell-ordered，logical，dogmaticphilosophy，’Theolderportraits“chantachorusofpraisefornationalcharacter，forclassdistinctions，fordogmaandbelief，forcharacter，forgoodmanners，forhonor，forcontemplation，forvisiontolookuponlifeasawhole，forappreciationthattheworldistobeenjoyed，forfreedomfromdemocracy，forcapacityinlightermoodtotreatexistenceasacomedytoldbyGoldoni。”[6]

Thismayormaynotbedispassionatelyjust，butitsetsforthonesideofthecase梐sidethemorepertinentforbeingunpopular梐ndsuggestsaveryrealthoughintangibledifferencebetweenthepeopleofourtimeandthoseofacenturyago梠newhichallstudentsmusthavefelt。ItiswhatwefeelinliteraturewhenwecomparethepeopleofJaneAustenwiththose，letussay，oftheauthorofTheHouseofMirth。

Idonotproposetoinquirehowfartheeffectsofstrainmaybeseeninanincreaseofcertaindistinctlypathologicalphenomena，suchasneurasthenia，theuseofdrugs，(103)insanityandsuicide。Thatithasanimportantworkinginthisway梔ifficult，however，toseparatefromthatofOtherfactors梚sgenerallyconceded。Inthegrowthofsuicideweseemtohaveastatisticaldemonstrationofthedestructiveeffectofsocialstressatitsworst;andofgeneralparalysis，whichisrapidlyincreasingandhasbeencalledthediseaseofthecentury，wearetoldthat“itisthediseaseofexcess，ofvice，ofoverwork，ofprolongedworry;itisespeciallythediseaseofgreaturbancentres，anditsexistenceusuallyseemstoshowthattheorganismhasentereduponacompetitiveraceforwhichitisnotfullyequipped。”

Endnotes，DemocracyinAmerica，vol。ii，bookiii，chap。15。DemocracyandtheOrganizationofPoliticalParties，ii，J。R。Lowell，TheCathedral，DemoeracyinAmerica，volii，bookii，chap。13，Sincepublishedinabookhavingthistitle。101，TheAtlanticMonthly，April，1904。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter11：TheEnlargementof，Consciousness，CHAPTERXI

THEENLARGEMENTOFCONSCIOUSNESS，Narrownessofconsciousnessintribalsociety——Importanceofface-to-faceassembly——Individuality——Subconsciouscharacterofwiderrelations——Enlargementofconsciousness——Irregularityingrowth——Breadthofmodernconsciousness——DemocracyINalifelikethatoftheTeutonictribesbeforetheytookonRomancivilization，thesocialmediumwassmall，limitedformostpurposestothefamily，clanorvillagegroup。Withinthisnarrowcircletherewasavividinterchangeofthoughtandfeeling，asphereofmoralunity，ofsympathy，loyalty，honorandcongenialintercourse。Hereprecioustraditionswerecherished，andherealsowasthefieldforanactivepublicopinion，forsuggestionanddiscussion，forleadingandfollowing，forconformityanddissent“Inthiskindlysoilofthefamily，“saysProfessorGummerinhisGermanicOrigins，“flourishedsuchgrowthofsentimentasthatroughlifebroughtforth。Peace，good-will，thesenseofhonor，loyaltytofriendandkinsman，brotherlyaffection，allwereplantsthatfoundintheGermanichomethatcongenialwarmththeyneededfortheirearlieststagesofgrowth……

Originallythefamilyorclanmadeadefinitesphereorsystemoflife;

Outsideofitthehomelessmanfeltindeedthatchaoshadcomeagain。”[1]

(108)

Whenwesaythatpublicopinionismodern，wemeanofcourse，thewiderandmoreelaborateformsofit。Onasmallerscaleithasalwaysexistedwherepeoplehavehadachancetodiscussandactuponmattersofcommoninterest。AmongourAmericanIndians，forexample，“Opinionwasamostpotentfactorinalltribes，andthiswouldbelargelydirectedbythosehavingpopularityandpower。Officers，infactallpersons，becameex。

tremelywellknowninthesmallcommunityofanAmerindtribe。Everypeculiarityoftemperamentwasunderstood，andtheindividualwasrespectedordespisedaccordingtohispredominatingcharacteristics。Thosewhowereboldandfierceandfullofstrategyweremadewar-chiefs，whilethosewhopossessedjudgmentanddecisionweremadecivilchiefsorgovernors。”[2]TheGermanictribeswereaccustomedtoassembleinthosevillagemootstowhichthehistorianrecurswithsuchreverence，where“themenfromwhomEnglishmenweretospringlearnedtheworthofpublicopinion，ofpublicdiscussion，theworthoftheagreement，the’common-sense’towhichdiscussionleads，asofthelawswhichderivetheirforcefrombeingexpressionsofthatgeneralconviction。”[3]

Discussionandpublicopinionofthissimplesort，aseveryoneknows，takesplacealsoamongchildrenwherevertheyminglefreely。Indeed，itspringssodirectlyfromhumannature，andissodifficulttosuppressevenbythemostinquisitorialmethods，thatwemayassumeittoexistlocallyinallformsofsocietyandatallperiodsofhistoryItgrowsbylooksandgestureswhere，(109)speechisforbidden，sothateveninaprisonthereispublicOpinionamongtheinmates。Butintriballifetheselocalgroupscontainedallthevividandconscioussocietytherewas，thelackofmeansofrecordandofquicktransmissionmakingawiderunityimpracticable。

Intheabsenceofindirectcommunicationpeoplehadtocomeintoface-to-facecontactinordertofeelsocialexcitementandrisetothehigherphasesofconsciousness。Hencegames，feastsandpublicassembliesofeverysortmeantmoretothegenerallifethantheydoinourday。Theyweretheoccasionsofexaltation，thetheatreforthedisplayofeloquenceeitherindiscussingquestionsofthemomentorrecountingdeedsofthepast梐ndforthepracticeofthoserhythmicexercisesthatcombineddancing，acting，poetryandmusicinonecomprehensiveandcommunalart。Suchassembliesarepossiblymoreancientthanhumannatureitself梥incehumannatureimpliesaprecedingevolutionofgrouplife梐ndinsomeprimitiveformofthemspeechitselfissupposedbysometohavebeenborn。Justaschildreninventwordsintheeagernessofplay，andslangarisesamonggangsofboysonthestreet，sotheearliestmenwereperhapsincitedtotheinventionoflanguagebyacertainecstasyandself-forgettingaudacity，likethatofthepoetsprungfromtheexcitementoffestalmeetings。[4]

SomethingofthespiritoftheseprimitiveassembliesIsperhapsreproducedinthesocialexaltationofthosefestaleveningsaroundthecamp-firewhichmanyofuscanrecall，withindividualandgroupsongs，chants，“stunts“

andthe，(110)like;whentherewerenotwantingoriginal，almostimpromptu，compositions梒elebratingnotabledeedsorsatanizingconspicuousindividuals梬hichthecommonexcitementgeneratedinthemindsofoneormoreingeniouspersons。

Itissometimessaidthattheindividualcountedfornothingintriballife，thatthefamilyortheclanwastheunitofsociety，inwhichallpersonalitiesweremerged’Fromthestandpointoforganizationthereismuchtruthinthis;thatisthegroupofkindredwasformanypunposes(political，economic，religious，etc。)acorporateunit，actingasawholeandresponsibleasawholetotherestofsociety;sothatpunishmentofwrong-doing，forex。ample，wouldbeexactedfromthegroupratherthanfromtheparticularoffender。Buttakenpsychologically，tomeanthattherewasalackofself-assertion，theideaiswith。outfoundation。Onthecontrary，thebarbaricmindexaltsanaggressiveandevenextravagantindividuality。

Achillesisafairsampleofitsheroes，mightyinvalorandprowess，butvain，arrogantandresentful？whatweshouldbeapttocallanindividualist。[5]ThemenoftheNiebelungenlied，ofBeowulf，ofNorseandIrishtalesandofourIndianlegendsareverymuchlikehim。

Consider，also，thepersonalinitiativedisplayedinuheformationofawar-partyamongtheOmahas，asdescribedbyDorsey，andnotehowlittleitdiffersfromthewayinwhichcommercialandotherenterprisesarestartedatthepresentday。

(111)

“Itisgenerallyayoungmanwhodecidestoundertakeanexpeditionagainsttheenemy。Havingformedhisplanhespeaksthustohisfriend：

’Myfriend，asIwishtogoonthewarpath，letusgo。Letusboilthefoodasforafeast。’Thefriendhavingconsented，thetwoaretheleaders……iftheycaninduceotherstofollowthem。Sotheyfindtwoyoungmenwhomtheysendasmessengerstoinvitethosewhomtheyname……Whenallhaveassembledtheplanneroftheexpeditionaddressesthecompany。

’Ho！myfriends，myfriendandIhaveinvitedN’OUtoafeast，becausewewishtogoonthewarpath。’Theneachonewhoiswillingtogorepliesthus：’Yes，myfriend，Iamwilling。’Buthewhoisunwillingreplies，’Myfriend，Idonotwishtogo，Iamunwilling。’Sometimesthehostsays，’Letusgobysuchaday。Prepareyourselves。’“[6]

Thewholeproceedingremindsonealsoofthewaygamesareinitiatedamongboys，theonewho“getsitup“havingtherighttoclaimthebestposition。Nodoubtthestructureofsometribalsocietiespermittedoflessinitiativethanothers;butsuchdifferencesexistatallstagesofculture。

Self-feeling，self-assertionandthegeneralrelationoftheindividualtothegrouparemuchthesameatallepochs，andtherewasneveratimesincemanbecamehumanwhen，aswesometimesread，“personalityemerged“Changehastakenplacechieflyintheextentandcharacterofthegrouptowhichtheindividualappeals，andinthewaysinwhichhetriestodistinguish，(112)himself。TheGermanictribesman，themediaevalknight，theRenaissanceartistorscholarandthemoderncaptainofindustryarealikeambitious：

itistheobjectthatdiffers。Therehasindeedbeenadevelopmentofpersonalityinhistory，butithasbeencorrelativewiththatofthegenerallife，andhasbroughtnoessentialchangeintherelationbetweenthetwo。

Intriballife，then，sincetheconditionsdidnotadmitofwiderunification，publicconsciousnesscouldbeonlylocalinscope。Beyonditsnarrowrangethecordswhichheldlifetogetherwereofasubconsciouscharacter？heredity，ofcourse，withitsfreightofmentalandsocialtendency;oraltradition，oftenvagueanddevious，andamassofcustomthatwasreveredwithoutbeingunderstood。Thesewiderrelations，notbeingsurveyedanddiscussed，couldnotbetheobjectsofdeliberatethoughtandwill，butwereacceptedaspartofthenecessaryorderofthings，andusuallyascribedtosomedivinesource。Inthiswaylanguage，laws，religion，formsofgovernment，socialclasses，traditionalrelationstootherclansortribes梐llofwhichweknowtohavebeenbuiltupbythecumulativeworkingsofthehumanmind梬erethoughtofasbeyondthesphereofman’scontrol。

Thewiderunityexisted，thenasnow;humandevelopmentwascontinuousintimeand，afterablindfashion，cooperativeamongcontemporaries。Thetoolsoflifewereprogressivelyinventedandspreadbyimitationfromtribetotribe，thefittestalwaystendingtosurvive;butonlytheimmediatedetailsofsuchchangesweremattersofconsciousness：asprocessestheywerebeyondhuman，(113)cognizance。Amanmightadaptanancientcustomtoafreshemergency，buthewouldbeunawarethathewasshapingthegrowthofinstitutions。

Therewasevenatribalornationalopinion，ofaslow？subconscioussortagrowthandIconsensusofideauponmattersofgeneralandenduringinterest，suchasreligion，marriageandgovernment。And，underunusualpressure，somemoreconsciousunityofspiritmightbearoused，asamongtheGermansorGaulsconfederatedagainstRome;butthiswaslikelytobetransient。

Thecentralfactofhistory，fromapsychologicalpointofview，maybesaidtobethegradualenlargementofsocialconsciousnessandrationalcooperation。Themindconstantly，thoughperhapsnotregularly，extendsthespherewithinwhichitmakesitshigherpowersvalid。Humannature，possessedofidealsmouldedinthefamilyandthecommune，iseverstriving，somewhatblindlyforthemostpart，withthosedifficultiesofcommunicationandorganizationwhichobstructtheirrealizationonalargerscale。Whetherprogressisgeneralornotweneednotnowinquire;itiscertainthatgreatgainshavebeenmadebythemorevigorousorfortunateraces，andthattheseareregardedwithemulationandhopebymanyoftheothers。

ThroughoutmodernEuropeanhistory，atleast，therehasbeenanevidentextensionofthelocalareaswithinwhichcommunicationandcooperationprevail，and，onthewhole，anadvanceinthequalityofcooperationasjudgedbyanidealmoralunity。Ithastendedtobecomemore，(114)freeandhuman，moreadequatelyexpressiveofcommunalfeeling。

Perhapsallapparentdeparturesfromthistendencymayplausiblybeexplainedascasesofirregulargrowth。Ifwefindthatvastsystemsofdiscipline，liketheRomanEmpire，havebrokendown，wefindalsothatthesesystemswereofalowtype，psychologically，thatthebestfeaturesofthemwereafterallpreserved，andthatthenewsystemsthatarose，thoughperhapslessinextent，wereonthewholeahigherandfullerexpressionofhumannature。

InthelaterEmpire，forexample，itseemsplainthatsocialmechanism(initsproperkindandmeasureoneoftheconditionsoffreedom)hadgrowninsuchawayastoshacklethehumanmind。Inordertoachieveandmaintainanimperialreachofcontrol，thestatehadgraduallybeenforcedtotakeonacentralizedbureaucraticstructure，whichlefttheindividualandthelocalgroupnosphereofself-reliantdevelopment。Publicspiritandpoliticalleadershipweresuppressed，andthehabitoforganizedself-expressiondiedout，leavingthepeoplewithoutgroupvitalityandashelplessaschildren。Theywerenot，ingeneral，cowardsorvoluptuaries梚tseemsthatthedeclineofcourageanddomesticmoralshasbeenexaggeratedbuttheyhadnotrainedandeffectivepubliccapacity。Society，asProfessorDillsays，hadbeenelaboratelyanddeliberatelystereotyped。

Thedeclineofvitalityandinitiativepervadedallspheresoflife。

Therewerenoinventionsandlittleindustrialoragriculturalprogressofanykind。Literaturede-

(115)-generatedintorhetoric：“Inthesamemanner，“saysLonginus，“assomechildrenalwaysremainpigmies，whoseinfantlimbshavebeentoocloselyconfined，thusourtenderminds，fetteredbytheprejudicesandhabitsofajustservitude，areunal~letoexpandthemselves，ortoattainthatwell-proportionedgreatnesswhichweadmireintheancients，who，livingunderapopulargovernment，wrotewiththesamefreedomastheyacted。”[7]

Thegrowingstatesoftheearlierworldwereconfronted，whethertheyknewitornot，withanirreconcilableoppositionbetweenfreedomandexpansion。

Theymightretaininsmallareasthosesimpleandpopularinstitutionswhichnearlyallthegreatpeoplesstartedwith，andtowhichtheyowedtheirvigor;ortheycouldorganizeonalargerscaleamoremechanicalunity。Inthefirstcasetheircareerswerebrief，becausetheylackedthemilitaryforcetoensurepermanenceinahostileworld。Inthelattertheyincurred，bythesuppressionofhumannature，thatdegeneracywhichsoonerorlaterovertookeverygreatstateofantiquity。

Insomesuchwayasthiswemay，perhaps，disposeoftheienumerableinstanceswhichhistoryshowsofthefailureoffreeorganization梐sinthedecayofancientandmediaevalcityrepublics。Notonlywastheirfreedomofimperfectnatureatthebest，buttheyweretoosmalltoholdtheirowninaworldthatwasnecessarily，forthemostpart，autocraticorcustomary。

Freedom，thoughinitselfaprincipleofstrength，wasontoolittleascaletodefenditself。“Ifarepublicbesmall，“saidMontes-

(116)-quieu，“itisdestroyedbyaforeignforce;ifitbelargeitisruinedbyinternalimperfection。”[8]

Buthowsplendid，inliterature，inart，andevenin|arms，weremanyofthesefailures。HowwelldidAthens，FlorenceandahundredothercitiesillustratetheintrinsicIstrengthandfecundityofthatfreeprincipletowhichmodernconditionspermitanindefiniteexpansion。

Thepresentepoch，then，bringswithitalargerand，potentiallyatleast，ahigherandfreerconsciousness。Intheindividualaspectoflifethismeansthateachoneofushas，asarule，awidergraspofsituations，andisthusinapositiontogiveawiderapplicationtohisintelligence，sympathyandconscience。Inproportionashedoesthisheceasestobeablindagentandbecomesarationalmemberofthewhole。

Becauseofthismoreconsciousrelationtothelargerwholes梟ations，institutions，tendencies梙etakesamorevitalandpersonalpartinthem。

Hisself-feelingattachesitself，asitsnatureis，totheobjectofhisfreeactivity，andhetendstofeelthat“loveofthemakerforhiswork，“

thatspiritualidentificationofthememberwiththewhole，whichistheidealoforganization。

DeTocquevillefoundthatintheUnitedStatestherewasnoproletariat。

“Thatnumerousandturbulentmultitudedoesnotexist，whoregardingthelawastheirnaturalenemylookuponitwithfearanddistrust。Itisimpossible，onthecontrary，nottoperceivethatallclasses……areattachedtoitbyakindofparentalaffection。”[9]

(117)And，notwithstandingadeepandwell-grounded“socialunrest，“

thisremainsessentiallytrueatthepresentday，andshouldbetrueofallrealdemocracy。Wherethestateisdirectlyandobviouslyfoundeduponthethoughtofthepeopleitisimpossibletogetupmuchfundamentalantagonismtoit;theenergiesofdiscontentareabsorbedbymoderateagitation。

Theextensionofreachandchoicefavors，inthelongrun，notonlypoliticalbuteverykindofopportunityandfreedom。Itopenstotheindividualamorevital，self-determinedandenergeticpartinallphasesofthewhole。

Atthesametime，thelimitsofhumanfacultymakeitimpossiblethatanyoneofusshouldactuallyoccupyallthefieldofthoughtthusopentohim。Althoughstimulatedtogreateractivitythanbefore，onemustconstantlyselectandrenounce;andmostofhislifewillstillbeontheplaneofcustomandmechanism。Heisfreerchieflyinthathecansurveythelargerwholeandchooseinwhatrelationshewillexpresshimself。

Indeed，anever-presentdangeroftheneworderisthatonewillnotselectandrenounceenough，thathewillswallowmorethanhecanproperlydigest，andfailofthebenefitsofathoroughsubconsciousassimilation。

Themoreonestudiescurrentlife，themoreheisinclinedtolookuponsuperficialityasitsleasttractabledefect。

Thenewconditionsdemandalsoathorough，yetdiversifiedandadaptable，systemoftrainingfortheindividualwhoistoshareinthisfreerandmoreexigentsocietyWhiledemocracyasaspiritisspontaneous，onlythefullestdevelopmentofpersonalfacultycanmakethisspiriteffectualonagreatscale。Ourconfidenceinour，(118)instinctsneednotbeshaken，butourapplicationofthemmustbeenlargedandenlightened。Wemustbetaughttodosomeonethingwell，andyetneverallowedtoloseoursenseoftherelationofthatonethingtothegeneralendeavor。

ThegeneralorpublicphaseoflargerconsciousnessiswhatwecallDemocracy。Imeanbythisprimarilytheorganizedswayofpublicopinion。

Itworksoutalsoinatendencytohumanizethecollectivelife，tomakeinstitutionsexpressthehigherimpulsesofhumannature，insteadofbrutalormechanicalconditions。Thatwhichmostinwardlydistinguishesmodernlifefromancientormediaevalistheconsciouspowerofthecommonpeopletryingtoeffectuatetheirinstincts。Allsystemsrest，inasense，uponpublicopinion;butthepeculiarityofourtimeisthatthisopinionismoreandmorerationalandself-determining。Itisnot，asinthepast，amerereflectionofconditionsbelievedtobeinevitable，butseeksprineiples，findstheseprinciplesinhumannature，andisdeterminedtoconformlifetothemorknowwhynot。Inthisallearnestpeople，intheirdiverseways，aretakingpart。

Wefind，ofcourse，thatbutlittlecanbecarriedoutonthehighestmoralplane;themindcannotattendtomanythingswiththatconcentrationwhichachievesadequateexpression，andtheprincipleofcompensationiseveratwork。Ifonethingiswelldone，othersareoverlooked，sothatweareconstantlybeingcaughtandgroundinourownneglectedmechanism。

Onthewhole，however，thelargermindinvolvesa，(119)democraticandhumanistictrendineveryphaseoflife。Arightdemocracyissimplytheapplicationonalargescaleofprincipleswhichareuniversallyfelttoberightasappliedtoasmallgroup梡rinciplesoffreecooperationmotivedbyacommonspiritwhicheachservesaccordingtohiscapacity。Mostofwhatischaracteristicofthetimeisevidentlyofthisnature;as，forinstance，oursentimentoffairplay，ourgrowingkindliness，ourcultofwomanhood，ourrespectforhandlabor，andourendeavortoorganizesocietyeconomicallyoron“businessprinciples。”

Anditisperhapsequallyevidentthattheideaswhichthesereplace梠fcaste，ofdomination，ofmilitaryglory，of“conspicuousleisure“[10]andthelike梥prangfromasecondaryandartificialsystem，basedonconditionswhichforbadealargerealizationofprimaryideals。

Maywenotsay，speakinglargely，thattherehasalwaysbeenademocratictendency，whoseadvancehasbeenconditionedbythepossibility，underactualconditions，oforganizingpopularthoughtandwillonawidescale？

Freecooperationisnaturalandhuman;ittakesplacespontaneouslyamongchildrenontheplayground，amongsettlersinnewcountries，andamongthemostprimitivesortsofmen梕verywhere，inshort，wherethesecondaryandartificialdisciplinehasnotsupplantedit。Thelatter，includingeverysortofcoerciveormechanicalcontrolisofcourse，naturalinthelargersense，andfunctionalinhumandevelopment;buttheremusteverbesomeresistancetoit，whichwilltendtobecomeeffectivewhenthecontrolceasestobemaintainedbythepressureofex-

(120)-pediency。Accordinglyweseethatthroughoutmodernhistory，andespeciallyduringthepastcentury，therehasbeenaprogressivehumanism，astrivingtoclearawaylowerformsofcooperationnolongeressential，andtosubstitutesomethingcongenialtonaturalimpulse。

Discussionregardingthecomparativemeritsofmonarchy，aristocracyanddemocracyhascometobelookeduponasscholastic。Theworldisclearlydemocratizing;itisonlyaquestionofhowfastthemovementcantakeplace，andwhat，undervariousconditions，itreallyinvolves。Democracy，insteadofbeingasingleanddefinitepoliticaltype，provestobemerelyaprincipleofbreadthinorganization，naturallyprevalentwherevermenhavelearnedhowtoworkit，underwhichlifewillbeatleastasvariousinitsformsasitwasbefore。

Itinvolvesachangeinthecharacterofsocialdisciplinenotconfinedtopolitics，butasmuchathomeinonesphereasanother。Withfacilityofcommunicationasitsmechanicalbasis，itproceedsinevitablytodiscussandexperimentwithfreermodesofactioninreligion，industry，education，philanthropyandthefamily。Thelawofthesurvivalofthefittestwillprevailinregardtosocialinstitutions，asithasinthepast，buttheconditionsoffitnesshaveundergoneachangetheimplicationsofwhichwecanbutdimlyforesee。

Endnotes，Pages169，171。F。S。Dellenbaugh，TheNorthAmericansofYesterday，416。J。R。Green，HistoryoftheEnglishPeople，i，13。J。Donovan，TheFestalOriginofHumanSpeech。Mind，Octover1891。”Juranegetsibinata，nihilnonarrogetarmis。”桯orace，A~EPoet。122。JO。Dorsey，OmahaSociology，315，316。ApublicationoftheUSBureauofEthnology。QuotedbyGibbon，DeclineandFall，Milman-Smithedition，i，194，195。TheSpiritofLaws，bookix，chap。1。DemocracyinAmerica，vol。i，chap。24。OneofmanyilluminatingphrasesintroducedbyT。V。VebleninhisworkonTheTheoryoftheLeisureClass。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter12：TheEnlargementof，Consciousness，CHAPTERXII

THETHEORYOFPUBLICOPINION，PUBLICOPINIONASORGANIZATION——AGREEMENTNOTESSENTIAL——

PUBLICOPINIONversusPOPULARIMPRESSION——PUBLICTHOUGHTNOT

ANAVERAGE——AGROUPISCAPABLEOFEXPRESSIONTHROUGHITSMOSTCOMPETENT

MEMBERS——GENERALANDSPECIALPUBLICOPINION——THESPHEREOFTHEFORMER——

OFTHELATTER——THETWOAREUNITEDINPERSONALITY——HOWPUBLICOPINION

RULES——EFFECTIVERULEBASEDONMORALUNITY

Publicopinionisnomereaggregateofseparateindividualjudgments，butanorganization，acooperativeproductofcommunicationandreciprocalinfluence。Itmaybeasdifferentfromthesumofwhattheindividualscouldhavethoughtoutinseparationasashipbuiltbyahundredmenisfromahundredboatseachbuiltbyoneman。

Agroup“makesupitsmind“inverymuchthesamemannerrthattheindividualmakesuphis。Thelattermustgivetimeandattentiontothequestion，searchhisconsciousnessforpertinentideasandsentiments，andworkthemtogetherintoawhole，beforeheknowswhathisrealthoughtaboutitis。Inthecaseofanationthesamethingmusttakeplace，onlyonalargerscale。Eachindividualmustmakeuphismindasbefore，butindoing90hehastodealnotonlywithwhatwasalreadyinhisthoughtormemory，butwithfreshideasthatflowinfrom，(122)otherswhosemindsarealsoaroused。Everyonewhohasanyfact，orthought，orfeeling，whichhethinksisunknown，orinsufficientlyregarded，triestoimpartit;andthusnotonlyonemindbutallmindsaresearchedforpertinentmaterial，whichispouredintothegeneralstreamofthoughtforeachonetouseashecan。Inthismannerthemindsinacommunicatinggroupbecomeasingleorganicwhole。Theirunityisnotoneofidentity，butoflifeandaction，acrystallizationofdiversebutrelatedideas。

Itisnotatallnecessarythatthereshouldbeagreement;theessentialthingisacertainripenessandstabilityofthoughtresultingfromattentionanddiscussion。Theremaybequiteasmuchdifferenceofopinionastherewasbefore，butthedifferencesnowexistingarecomparativelyintelligentandlasting。Peopleknowwhattheyreallythinkaboutthematter，andwhatotherpeoplethink。Measures，platforms，candidates，creedsandothersymbolshavebeenproducedwhichservetoexpressandassistcooperationandtodefineopposition。Therehascometobearelativelycompleteorganizationofthought，towhicheachindividualorgroupcontributesinitsownpeculiarway。

Take，forinstance，thestateofopinionintheUnitedStatesregardingslaveryattheoutbreakofthecivilwar。Nogeneralagreementhadbeenreached;butthepopularmindhadbecomeorganizedwithreferencetothematter，whichhadbeenturnedoverandregardedfromallpointsofview，byallpartsofthecommunity，untilacertainripenessregardingithadbeenreached;revealinginthis，(123)casearadicalconflictofthoughtbetweentheNorthandtheSouth，andmuchlocaldiversityinbothsections;

Onewhowouldunderstandpublicopinionshoulddistinguishclearlybetweenatrueormatureopinionandapopularimpression。Theformerrequiresearnestattentionanddiscussionforaconsiderabletime，andwhenreachedissignificant，evenifmistaken。Itrarelyexistsregardingmattersoftemporaryinterest，andcurrenttalkorprintisamostuncertainindexofit。Apopularimpression，ontheotherhand，isfacile，shallow，transient，withthatficklenessandfatuitythatusedtobeascribedtothepopularmindingeneral。Itisanalogoustotheunconsideredviewsandutterancesofanindividual，andthemoreonestudiesitthelessseriouslyhewilltakeit。Itmayhappenthatninety-ninemeninahundredholdopinionsto-daycontrarytothosetheywillholdamonthhence梡artlybecausetheyhavenotyetsearchedtheirownminds，partlybecausethefewwhohavereallysignificantandwell-groundedideashavenothadtimetoimpressthemupontherest。

Itisnotunreasonable，then，tocombineaveryslightregardformostofwhatpassesaspublicopinionwithmuchconfidenceinthesoundnessofanaroused，mature，organicsocialjudgment。

Thereisawidespread，butasIbelieveafallacious，ideathatthepublicthoughtoractionmustinsomewayexpresstheworkingofanaverageorcommonplacemind，mustbesomekindofameanbetweenthehigherandlowerintelligencesmakingupthegroup。Itwouldbe，(124)morecorrecttosaythatitisrepresentative，meaningbythisthatthepreponderantfeelingofthegroupseeksdefiniteandeffectualexpressionthroughindividualsspeciallycompetenttogiveitsuchexpression。

Takeforinstancetheactivitiesofoneofourcollegesinintercollegiateathleticsordebates。Whatbelongstothegroupatlargeisavaguedesiretoparticipateandexcelinsuchcompetitions;butinrealizingitselfthisdesireseeksasitsagentsthebestathletesordebatersthataretobefoundAlittlecommon-senseandobservationwillshowthattheJ

expressionofagroupisnearlyalwayssuperior，forthepurposeinhand，totheaveragecapacityofitsmembers。

Idonotmeanmorallysuperior，butsimplymoreeffective，inadirectiondeterminedbytheprevalentfeeling。Ifamobisinquestion，thebrutalnature，forthetime-beingascendant，mayactthroughthemostbrutalmeninthegroup;andinlikemanneramoney-makingenterpriseisapttoputforwardtheshrewdestagentsitcanfind，withoutregardforanymoralqualitiesexceptfidelitytoitself。

Butifthelifeofthegroupisdeliberateandsympathetic，itsexpressionmaybemorallyhigh，onalevelnotmerelyoftheaveragemember，butofthemostcompetent，ofthebest。Theaveragetheoryasappliedtopublicconsciousnessiswhollyoutofplace。Thepublicmindmaybeonalowerplanethanthatoftheindividualthinkinginseparation，oritmaybeonahigher，butisalmostsuretobeonadifferentplane;andnoinklingofitsprobablecharactercanbehadbytakingamean。Onemindintheright，whetheronstatesmanship，science，morals，orwhatnot，(125)mayraiseallothermindstoitsownpointofview梑ecauseofthegeneralcapacityforrecognitionanddeferencejustasthroughouraptitudeforsuddenrageorfearonemindinthewrongmaydebasealltherest。

Thisisthewayinwhichrightsocialjudgmentsarereachedinmatterssobeyondcommonplacecapacityasscience，philosophy，andmuchofliteratureandart。Allgoodcriticstellusthatthejudgmentofmankind，inthelongrun，issureandsound。TheworldmakesnomistakeastoPlato，though，asEmersonsaid，thereareneverenoughunderstandingreadersalivetopayforaneditionofhisworks。This，tobesure，isajudgmentofthefew;andso，inasense，areallfinerjudgments。Thepointisthatthemanyhavethesensetoadoptthem。

Andletusnotethatthosecollectivejudgmentsinliterature，artandsciencewhichhaveexaltedPlatoandDanteandLeonardoandMichelangeloandBeethovenandNewtonandDarwin，aredemocraticjudgments，inthesensethateverymanhasbeenfreetotakeapartinproportiontohiscapacity，preciselyasthecitizenofademocracyisfreetotakeapartinpolitics。

Wealthandstationhaveoccasionallytriedtodictateinthesematters，buthavefailed。

Itisnaturalforanorganismtouseitsappropriateorgan，anditwouldbeasreasonabletosaythatthecapacityofthebodyforseeingisfoundbytakinganaverageofthevisualpowerofthehand，nose，liver，etc。alongwiththatoftheeye，asthatthecapacityofagroupforaspecialpurposeisthatofitsaveragemember。Ifagroupdoesnotfunctionthroughitsmostcompetentinstruments，itissimplybecauseofimperfectorganization。

(126)

Itisstrangethatpeoplewhoapplytheaveragetheorytodemocracydonotseethatifitweresounditmustapplytoallthesocialphenomenaofhistory，whichisarecordoftheworksofthecollectivemind。Sincethemaindifferencebetweendemocracyandancientormediaevalsystemsismerelythattheformerislessrestrictedbytime，spaceandcaste，isessentiallyanappealtofreehumanpowerasagainstwhatismerelymechanicalorconventional;bywhatmagicisthisappealtodepriveusofourancientprivilegeofactingthroughourefficientindividuals？

Onewhopondersthesethingswillseethattheprinciplesofcollectiveexpressionarethesamenowasever，andthatthespecialdifficultiesofourtimearisepartlyfromconfusion，duetothepaceofchange，andpartlyfromthegreaterdemandswhichafreesystemmakesuponhumancapacity。

Thequestionis，whether，inpractice，democracyiscapableoftheeffectiveexpressiontowhichnoveryserioustheoreticalobstaclecanbediscerned。

Itisamatterofdoingarathersimplethingonavasterandmorecomplicatedscalethaninthepast。

Publicopinionisnouniformthing，asweareapttoassume，buthasitsmultifariousdifferentiations。Wemayroughlydistinguishageneralopinion，inwhichalmosteverybodyinthecommunityhasapart，andaninfinitediversityofspecialorclassopinions梠fthefamily，theclub，theschool-room，theparty，theunion，andsoon。

Andthereisanequaldiversityinthekindofthoughtwithwhichthepublicmindmaybeconcerned：thecontentmaybeofalmostanysort。Thustherearegroupideals，liketheAmericanidealofindissolubleunityamong，(127)thestates，theFrenchidealofnationalglory，ortheidealsofhonorandgood-breedingcherishedinmanyfamilies;andtherearegroupbeliefs，regardingreligion，trade，agriculture，marriage，educationandthelike。Uponallmattersinwhichthemindhas，inthepast，takenalivelyinteresttherearelatentinclinationsandprepossessions，andwhenthesearearousedandorganizedbydiscussiontheycombinewithotherelementstoformpublicopinion。Mr。Higginson，recountinghisexperienceintheMassachusettslegislature，speaksof“certainvastandinscrutableundercurrentsofprejudice……whichcouldneverbecomprehendedbyacademicminds，orevencity-bredminds，“butwhichwereusuallyirresistible。Theyrelatedtotherightsoftowns，thepublicschoolsystem，thelawofsettlement，roads，navigablestreams，breadthofwheels，closetimeoffishing，etc。

“EverygooddebaterintheHouse，andeveryoneofitsrecognizedlegalauthorities，mightbeononeside，andyetthesmallestcontestwithoneoftheselatentprejudiceswouldlandtheminaminority。”[1]

Thisdiversitymerelyreflectsthecomplexityoforganization，currentopinionanddiscussionbeingapervasiveactivity，essentialtogrowth，thattakesplacethroughoutthesystematlargeandineachparticularmember。Generalopinionexistingalone，withoutspecialtypesofthoughtasinthevariousdepartmentsofscienceandart，wouldindicatealowtypeofstructure，morelikeamobthanarationalsociety。Itisuponthesespecialtypes，andtheindividualsthatspeakforthem，thatwerelyforthe，(128)guidanceofgeneralopinion(as，forinstance，werelyuponeconomiststoteachuswhattothinkaboutthecurrency)，andtheabsenceofmaturespecialityinvolvesweaknessandflatnessofgeneralachievement。Thisfaultisoftenchargedtodemocracy，butitshouldratherbesaidthatdemocracyissubstitutingafreetypeofspeciality，baseduponchoice，fortheoldtypebaseduponcaste，andthatwhateverdeficiencyexistsinthisregardisduechieflytotheconfusedconditionsthataccompanytransition。

Generalpublicopinionhaslessscopethaniscommonlyimagined。Itistruethatwiththenewcommunication，thewholepeople，iftheyareenoughinterested，mayformpublicjudgmentsevenupontransientquestions。

Butitisnotpossible，norindeeddesirable，thattheyshouldbeenoughinterestedinmanyquestionstoformsuchjudgments。Alikenessofspiritandprincipleisessentialtomoralunity，butasregardsdetailsdifferentiationisandshouldbetherule。Theworkoftheworldismostlyofaspecialcharacter，anditisquiteasimportantthatamanshouldmindhisownbusiness梩hatis，hisownparticularkindofgeneralservice梐sthatheshouldhavepublicspirit。Perhapswemaysaythatthemainthingistomindhisprivatebusinessinapublicspirit梐lwaysrememberingthatmenwhoareinapositiontodososhouldmakeittheirprivatebusinesstoattendtopublicaffairs。Itisnotindolenceandroutine，altogether，butalsoaninevitableconflictofclaims，thatmakesmenslowtoexerttheirmindsupongeneralquestions，andunderliesthepoliticalmaximthatyoucannotarousepublicopinion，(129)uponmorethanonematteratatime。Itisbetterthatthepublic，likethegeneral-in-chiefofanarmy，shouldberelievedofdetailsandfreetoconcentrateitsthoughtonessentialchoices。

Ihaveonlyalimitedbeliefintheefficacyofthereferendumandsimilardevicesforincreasedparticipationofthepeopleatlargeinthedetailsoflegislation。Insofarasthesefacilitatetheformationandexpressionofpublicwilluponmatterstowhichthepublicispreparedtogiveearnestandcontinuousattention，theyareserviceable;butifmanyquestionsaresubmitted，orthoseofatechnicalcharacter，thepeoplebecomeconfusedorindifferent，andtherealpowerfallsintothehandsofthefewwhomanagethemachinery。

Thequestionswhichcanprofitablybedecidedbythisdirectandgeneraljudgmentofthepublicarechieflythoseoforganicchangeorreadjustment，such，forinstance，asthecontemporaryquestionofwhatpartthegovernmentistotakeinrelationtotheconsolidationofindustries。Thesethepeoplemustdecide，sincenolesserpowerwillbesubmittedto，butroutineactivities，insocietyasinindividuals，arecarriedonwithoutarousingageneralconsciousness。Thepeoplearealso，asIshallshortlypointout，peculiarlyfittomakechoiceamongconspicuouspersonalities。

Specialistsofallsorts梞asons，soldiers，chemists，lawyers，bankers，evenstatesmenandpublicofficials梐reruledforthemostpartbytheopinionoftheirspecialgroup，andhavelittleimmediatedependenceuponthegeneralpublic，whichwillnotconcernitselfwiththemso，(130)longastheirworkisnotpalpablyinefficientorinsomewaydistasteful。

Yetspecialphasesofthoughtarenotreallyindependent，butaretobelookeduponastheworkofthepublicmindactingwithalessgeneralconsciousness梡artlyautomaticliketheactionofthelegsinwalking。

Theyarestillresponsibletothegeneralstateofopinion;anditisusuallyageneralneedofthespecialproduct，asshoes，banks，education，medicalaidandsoon，thatgivesthespecialgroupitspecuniarysupportandsocialstanding。Moreover，thegeneralinterestinaparticulargroupislikelytobecomeawakenedandcriticalwhenthefunctionisdisturbed，aswiththebuildingtradesorthecoal-mineoperatorsincaseofastrike;orwhenitbecomespeculiarlyimportant，aswiththearmyintimeofwar。

Thenisthedayofreckoningwhenthespecialisthastorenderanaccountofthetalentsentrustedtohim。

Theseparatenessofthespecialgroupisalsolimitedbypersonality，bythefactthatthemenwhoperformthespecialtydonotinothermattersthinkapartfromtherestofthesociety，but，insofarasitisamoralwhole，shareitsgeneralspiritandarethesamemenwho，alltakentogether，aretheseatofpublicopinion。Howfarthedifferentdepartmentsofaman’smind，correspondingtogeneralandspecialopinion，mayberuledbydifferentprinciples，isamatterofinterestfromthefactthateveryoneofusisthetheatreofaconflictofmoralstandardsarisinginthisway。Itisevidentbygeneralobservationandconfessionthatweusuallyacceptwithoutmuchcriticismtheprincipleswebecomeaccustomedtoineachsphereof，(131)activity，whetherconsistentwithoneanotherornot。Yetthisisnotrational，andthereisandmusteverbeastrivingofconsciencetoredresssuchconflicts，whicharereallydivisionsinsocietyitself，andtendtowardanarchy。Itisalleasybutweakdefenceoflowprinciplesofconduct，inbusiness，inpolitics，inwar，inpayingtaxes，tosaythataspecialstandardprevailsinthissphere，andthatourbehaviorisjustifiedbycustom。Wecannotwhollyescapefromthecustomary，butconscienceshouldrequireofourselvesandothersanhonestefforttoraiseitsstandard，evenatmuchsacrificeofloweraims。Sucheffortsaretheonlysourceofbetterment，andwithoutthemsocietymustdeteriorate。

Inotherwords，itisthechiefandperhapstheonlymethodofmoralandintellectualprogressthatthethoughtandsentimentpertainingtothevariousactivitiesshouldmingleinthemind，andthatwhateverishigherormorerationalineachshouldraisethestandardoftheothers。

Ifonefindsthatasabusinessmanhetendstobegreedyandnarrow，heshouldcallintothatsphere。hissentimentsasapatriot，amemberofafamilyandastudent，andhemayenrichtheselatterprovincesbythesystemandshrewdnesshelearnsinbusiness。Thekeepingofclosedcompartmentsisaprincipleofstagnationanddecay。

Theruleofpublicopinion，then，meansforthemostpartalatentauthoritywhichthepublicwillexercisewhensufficientlydissatisfiedwiththespecialistwhoisinimmediatechargeofaparticularfunction。Itcannotextendtotheimmediateparticipationofthegroupasawholeinthedetailsofpublicbusiness。

(132)

Thisprincipleholdsgoodintheconductofgovernmentaswellaselsewhere，experienceshowingthatthepoliticsofanintricatestateisalwaysaspecialty，closertothepublicinterest，perhaps，thanmostspecialties，butordinarilycontrolledbythosewho，forwhateverreason，puttheirmainenergyintoit。Professionalpoliticians，inthissense，aresuretowinasagainsttheamateur;andifpoliticsisbadlymanagedthechiefremedyistoraisetheleveloftheprofession。

DeTocquevillesaysthat“thepeoplereignintheAmericanpoliticalworldastheDeitydoesintheuniverse。Theyarethecauseandtheaimofallthings;everythingcomesfromthemandisabsorbedbythem。”[2]Andwemayaddthat，alsoliketheDeity，theydothingsthroughagentsinwhomthesupposedattributesoftheirmasteraremuchobscured。

Therearesomewhosaywehavenodemocracy，becausemuchisdone，ingovernmentaselsewhere，inneglectordefianceofgeneralsentiment。Butthesameistrueunderanyformofsovereignty;indeed，muchmoretrueundermonarchyoroligarchythanunderourform。TheruleofthepeopleissurelymorerealandpervasivethanthatofLouisXIVorHenryVIII。

Nosovereignpossessescompletelyitsinstruments，butdemocracyperhapsdoessomorenearlythananyother。

Whenanimportantfunction，suchasgovernment，ortradeoreducation，isnotperformedtothesatisfactionofwatchfulconsciences，theremedyissomewhatasfollows。Arathergeneralmoralsentimentregardingthemattermustbearousedbypublishingthefactsandex，(133)posingtheirinconsistencywithunderlyingstandardsofright。

Thissentimentwilleffectlittlesolongasitismerelygeneral，butifvigorousitrapidlybegetsorgansthroughwhichtowork。Itisthenatureofsuchasentimenttostimulateparticularindividualsorgroupstoorganizeandeffectuateit。Thepresshasamotivetoexploitandincreaseitbyvividexpositionofthestateofaffairs;enthusiasm，seekingforanoutlet，findsitinthisdirection;ambitionandevenpecuniaryinterestareenlistedtogratifythedemand。Effectiveleadershipthusarises，andorganization，whichthrivesinthewarmthofpublicattention，isnotlongwanting。Civicleaguesandthelike梥upposingthatitisamatterofpolitics梪nitewithtrustedleadersandtheindependentpresstoguidethevoterinchoosingbetweenhonestyandcorruption。Themoralstandardoftheprofessionalgroupbeginstorise：afewoffendersarepunished，manyarealarmed，andthingswhicheveryonehasbeendoingorconnivingatarefeltaswrong。

InavigorousdemocracylikethatoftheUnitedStates，thisprocessisevergoingon，onagreatscaleandininnumerableminorgroups：thepublicmind，likeacarefulfarmer，movesaboutitsdomain，hoeingweeds，mendingfencesandotherwisesettingthingstorights，undeterredbythefactthattheworkwillnotstaydone。

Suchregenerationimpliestheexistenceofareal，thoughperhapslatent，moralunityinthegroupwhosestandardsarethusrevivedandapplied。

Itis，forinstance，ofuntoldadvantagetoallrighteousmovementsintheUnitedStates，thatthenationtraditionallyexiststothe，(134)endsofjustice，freedomandhumanity。Thistraditionmeansthatthereisalreadyanobleandcherishedideal，nosincereappealtowhichisvain;andwecouldaswelldispensewiththewisdomoftheConstitutionaswiththesentimentoftheDeclarationofIndependence。

Onthesameprinciple，itisachieffactorinthemisgovernmentofourcitiesthattheyaremostlytoonewandheterogeneoustohaveanestablishedconsciousness。Assoonasthepeoplefeeltheirunity，wemayhopefullylookforcivicvirtueanddevotion，becausethesethingsrequireasocialmediuminwhichtowork。Amanwillnotdevotehimself，ordinarily，wherethereisnodistinctandhumanwholetodevotehimselfto，nomindinwhichhisdevotionwillberecognizedandvalued。Buttoavitalandenduringgroupdevotionisnatural，andwemayexpectthataself-consciouscity，state，universityorprofessionwillprovetobeatheatreofthemagnanimousvirtues。

Endnotes，OntheOutskirtsofPublicLife，TheAtlanticMonthly，Feb。1898。DemocracyinAmerica，vol。i，chap。4。，CharlesHortonCoolety：SocialOrganization：Chapter13：WhattheMassesContribute，CHAPTERXIII

WHATTHEMASSESCONTRIBUTE，THEMASSESTHEINITITATORSOFSENTIMENT——THEYLIVEINTHE

CENTRALCURRENTOFEXPERIENCE——DISTINCTIONORPRIVILEDGEAPTTOCAUSE

ISOLATION——INSTITUTIONALCHARACTEROFUPPERCLASSES——THEMASSESSHREWD

JUDGESOFPERSONS——THISTHEMAINGROUNDFOREXPECTINGTHATTHEPEOPLE

WILLBERIGHTINTHELONGRUN——DEMOCRACYALWAYSREPRESENTATIVE——CONCLUSION

Thefunctionofleadersindefiningandorganizingtheconfusedtendenciesofthepublicmindisevidentenough，butjustwhatthemassesthemselvescontributeisperhapsnotsoapparent。[1]Thethoughtoftheundistinguishedmanyis，however，notlessimportant，notnecessarilylessoriginal，thanthatoftheconspicuousfew;theoriginalityofthelatter，justbecauseitismoreconspicuous，beingeasytooverestimate。Leadershipisonlysalientinitiative;andamongthemanytheremaywellbeincrementsofinitiativewhichthoughnotsalientareyetmomentousasawhole。

Theoriginalityofthemassesistobefoundnotsomuchinformulatedideaasinsentiment。Incapacitytofeelandtotrustthosesentimentswhichitistheproperaimofsocialdevelopmenttoexpress，theyare，perhaps，commonlysuperiortothemoredistinguishedorprivilegedclasses。

Thereasonisthattheirexperienceusually，(136)keepsthemclosertothespringsofhumannature，andsomoreunderthecontrolofitsprimaryimpulses。

Radicalmovementsaimingtoextendtheapplicationofhighersentimenthavegenerallybeenpushedonbythecommonpeople，ratherthanbyprivilegedorders，orbyconspicuousleadershipofanysort。[2]ThisseemstobetrueofChristianityinallages，andofthemanyphasesofmoderndemocracyandenfranchisement。InAmericanhistory，particularly，boththerevolutionwhichgaveusindependenceandthecivilwarwhichabolishedslaveryandreunitedthecountry，weremoregenerallyandsteadfastlysupportedbythemassesthanbypeopleofeducationorwealth。Mr。Higginson，writingontheCowardiceofCulture，[3]assertsthatattheopeningoftheRevolutionthemenofwealthandstandingwhotookthesideoflibertyweresofewthattheycouldbecounted，andthat“therewasneveraperiodinourhistory，sincetheAmericanNationwasindependent，whenitwouldnothavebeenacalamitytohaveitcontrolledbyitshighlyeducatedmenalone。”AndinEnglandalsoitwasthemasseswhoupheldabolitioninthecoloniesandsympathizedwiththeNorthintheAmericanstruggle。

Thecommonpeople，asarule，livemoreinthecentralcurrentofhumanexperiencethanmenofwealthordistinction。Domesticmorality，religioussentiment，faithinmanandGod，loyaltytocountryandthelike，arethefruitofthehumanheartgrowinginhomelyconditions，(137)andtheyeasilywitherwhentheseconditionsarelostTobeoneamongmany，withoutindividualpretension;isinonewayapositionofsecurityandgrandeur。Onestands，asitwere，withthehumanraceathisback，sharingitsclaimontruth，justiceandGod。Quiquoerithabereprivataamittitcommunia;[4]，theplainmanhasnotconspicuouslygainedprivatethings，andshouldbeallthericherinthingsthatarecommon，infaithandfellowshipNothing，perhaps，ishealthythatisolatesusfromthecommondestinyofmen，thatismerelyappropriativeandnotfunctional，thatisnotsuchasallmightrejoiceiniftheyunderstoodit。

MissJaneAddamshasadvancedatheory，[5]farfromabsurd，thattheconfusedanddeprivedmassesofourcities，collectedfromalllandsbyimmigration，arelikelytobetheinitiatorsofnewandhigheridealsforourcivilization。Since“idealsarebornofsituations，“theyareperhapswellsituatedforsuchafunctionbythealmostcompletedestruction，sofarastheyareconcerned，ofoldtraditionsandsystems。Inthispromiscuousminglingofelementseverythingiscancelledbuthumannature，andtheyarethrownbackuponthatforanewstart。Theyarean“unencumberedproletariat“notableforprimaryfaithandkindness;“simplepeoplewhocarryintheirheartsadesireformeregoodness。Theyregularlydepletetheirscantylivelihoodinresponsetoaprimitivepity，and，independentofthereligionstheyhaveprofessed，ofthewrongstheyhavesuffered，andofthefixedmoralitythey，(138)havebeentaught，theyhaveanunquenchabledesirethatcharityandsimplejusticeshallregulatemen’srelations。”[6]

Sometendencytoisolationandspiritualimpoverismentsislikelytogowithanysortofdistinctionorprivilege。Wealth，culture，reputation，bringspecialgratifications。Thesefosterspecialtastes，andtheseinturngiverisetospecialwaysoflivingandthinkingwhichimperceptiblyseparateonefromcommonsympathyandputhiminaspecialclass。Ifonehasagoodincome，forinstance，hownaturalitistospendit，andhownaturally，also，thatexpenditurewithdrawsonefromfamiliarintercoursewithpeoplewhohavenotagoodincome。Successmeanspossessions，andpossessionsareapttoimprisonthespirit。

Ithasalwaysbeenheldthatworldlygoods，whichofcourseincludereputationaswellaswealth，makethehighestlifeoftheminddifficultifnotimpossible，devotionalordersinnearlyallreligionsrequiringpersonalpovertyandlowlinessastheconditionofedification。Tantumhomoimpedituretdistrahitur，quantumsibiresattrahit。[7]“Slothorcowardice，“saysapsychologist，“creepinwitheverydollarorguineawehavetoguard……livesbasedonhavingarelessfreethanlivesbasedoneitherdoingorbeing。”[8]“Itiseasierforacameltopassthroughtheeyeofaneedle。”Notfornothinghavemenofinsightagreeduponsuchpropositionsasthese。

Distinction，also，isapttogowithanexaggeratedself-consciousnesslittlefavorabletoanaturalandheart，(139)participationinthedeepercurrentsofthegenerallife。Ambitionandthepassionfordifferencearegoodintheirway，butlikemostgoodthingstheyareboughtataprice，inthiscaseapreoccupationwithideasthatseparateonefromimmediatefellowship。Itisrighttohavehighandunusualaimsandactivities，buthardtokeepthemfreefrompride，mistrust，gloomandothervicesofisolation。Onlyaverysanemindcancarrydistinctionandfellowshipwithoutspillingeither。

Inthesocialregardpaidtowealthandstandingwesymbolizeourvaguesenseofthevalueofpersonalfacultyworkingintheserviceofthewhole，butitrequiresanunusualpurityanddepthofsocialfeelingforthepossessoroffacultynottobedemoralizedbythisregard，whichis？perhapsnecessarily梐lmostdisassociatedfromdefiniteandcogentresponsibility。Imeanthattheeminentusuallygetthecreditofvirtueasitwereexofficiowhethertheyreallyhaveitornot。Wefindthereforethatpower，insteadofbeingsimplyhigherservice，isgenerallymoreorlesscorruptorselfish，andthosewhoareraiseduparesomuchthemorecastdown。Atthebesttheymakesomesacrificeofinnocencetofunction;attheworsttheydestroythemselvesanddebauchsociety。

Evenvulgarity(byetymologytheviceofthecrowd)ifwetakeittomeanundisciplinedselfishnessandpretension，flourishesatleastasmuchamongtheprosperousasamongthehardworkingpeople。Wealthwhichisnotdominatedbynobletraditionorbyrarepersonalinspirationfallsintovulgaritybecauseitpermitstheinflationofthosecrudeimpulseswhicharemuchkeptdowninthepoorbythedisciplineofhardship。Whateverisseverely，(140)necessarycanneverbevulgar，whileonlynoblenesscanpreventthesuperfluousfrombeingso。Andasuperficial，functionlesseducationandrefinementisnearlyasvulgarasuninspiredwealth。Soithasbeenremarkedthatwhenartistspaintourcontemporarylifetheyareapttochooseitashumbleaspossibleinorder“togetdownbelowthestratawhichvulgaritypermeates。”[9]

Moreover，conspicuousandsuccessfulpersonsaremorelikelythanthecommonaltytobeinstitutionized，tohavesacrificedhumannaturetospeciality。

Tosucceedinthehouronemustbeamanofthehour，andmustordinarilyharnesshisverysoultosomesortofcontemporaryactivitywhichmayafterallbeofnorealworth。Anupperclassisinstitutionalinitsveryessence，sinceitiscontrolofinstitutionsthatmakesitanupperclass，andmencanhardlykeepthiscontrolexceptastheyputtheirheartsintoit。Successfulbusinessmen，lawyers，politicians，clergymen，editorsandthelikearesuchthroughidentifyingtheirminds，forbetterorworse，withthepresentactivitiesandidealsofcommercialandotherinstitutions。“Seldomdoesthenewconscience，whenitseeksateachertodeclaretomenwhatiswrong，findhiminthedignitariesofthechurch，thestate，theculture，thatis。Thehighertherankthecloserthetiethatbindsthosetowhatisbutoughtnottobe。[10]

Thehumblerclassesaresomewhatlessentangledinspirit。Itisbettertohavethehandsubduedtowhatitworksinthanthesoul;andthemechanicwhosellstothe，(141)timesonlyhistenhoursadayofmuscularworkisperhapsmorefreetothinkhumanlytherestofthetimethanhisemployer。Hecanalsomoreeasilykeepthehabitofsimplelookandspeech，sincehedoesnothavetolearntocollecalhisthoughtsinthesamedegreethatthelawyer，themerchantandthestatesmando。EvenamongstudentsIhaveobserved，inthematterofopennessofcountenance，amarkeddifference，onthewhole，betweenthegraduatesofanengineeringschoolandthoseofalawschool，verymuchinfavoroftheformer。[11]Again，thehandlaborerisusedtoreckoninghiswagesbythehour？somuchtimesomuchpay梐ndwouldfeeldishonestifhedidanythingelse。Butintheprofessions，andstillmoreincommerceandfinance，thereis，asarule，nodefinitemeasureofservice，andmeninsensiblycometobasetheirchargesontheirviewofwhattheothermanwillpay;thusperilouslyaccustomingthemselvestoexploitthewealthorweaknessofothers。

Thelifeofspecialinstitutionsisoftentransientinproportiontoitsspeciality，anditisonlynaturalthatcommercialandprofessionalactivityshoulddeallargelywithevanescentinterestsoflittledignityinthemselves。The“demand“ofthepublicwhichthemerchanthastomeet，isingreatpartathingofvanity，ifnotofdegradation，whichitcanhardlybeedifyingtosupply。Indeed，many，ifnotmost，businessmenplaytheiroccupationasagame，ratherthaninaspiritofservice，andarewidelyinfectedbythefallacythattheyarejustifiedinsellinganything，(142)thatthepeoplewillbuy。Simplemindsarerevoltedbythelackoftangiblehumanserviceinmanyofthehigherpaidoccupations，andyoungmenenterthemforthepayalonewhentheirbetterimpulseswouldleadthemtopreferhandlabor。

Thesentimentofthepeopleismostreadilyandsuccessfullyexercisedintheirjudgmentofpersons。Montesquieu，indiscussingrepublicangovernment，advocatedonthisgroundanalmostuniversalmanhoodsuffrageinthechoosingofrepresentatives。“For，“sayshe，“thoughfewcantelltheexactdegreeofmen’scapacities，yettherearenonebutarecapableofknowingingeneralwhetherthepersontheychooseisbetterqualifiedthanmostofhisneighbors。”[12]Theplainestmenhaveaninbredshrewdnessinjudginghumannaturewhichmakesthemgoodcriticsofpersonsevenwhenimpenetrabletoideas。Thisshrewdnessisfosteredbyafreesociety，inwhicheveryonehastomakeandholdhisownplaceamonghisfellows;anditisusedwithmucheffectinpoliticsandelsewhereasaguidetosoundideas。

Someyearsago，forinstance，occurredanationalelectioninwhichthemainissuewaswhethersilvershouldorshouldnotbecoinedfreelyataratemuchaboveitsbullionvalue。Twofactswereimpressedupontheobserverofthiscampaign：first，theinabilityofmostmen，evenofeducation，toreasonclearlyonasomewhatabstractquestionIyingoutsideoftheirdailyexperience，and，second，thesoundinstinctwhichallsortsofpeopleshowedinchoosingsidesthroughleadership。Theflowofnonsense，(143)onbothpartswasremarkable，butpersonalitywasthedetermininginfluence。Itwascommontohearmensaythattheyshouldvotefororagainstthepropositionbecausetheydidordidnottrustitsconspicuousadvocates;

anditwasevidentthatmanywerecontrolledinthiswaywhodidnotacknowledgeit，eventothemselves。Thegeneralresultwasthatthemoreconservativemenwereunitedononeside，andthemoreradicalandshiftingelementsontheother。

Therealinterestofthevoteratourelectionsisusuallyinpersonality。

OnelikesordislikesA，whoisrunningforalderman，andvotesaccordingly，withoutknowingorcaringwhatheislikelytodoifelected。OroneopposesB，becauseheisbelievedtobeinleaguewiththeobnoxiousC，andsoon。Itisnexttoimpossibletogetalargeorintelligentvoteonanimpersonalmatter，suchastheconstitutionalamendmentswhich，inmostofourstates，havetobesubmittedtothepeople。Thenewspapers，reflectingthepublictaste，saylittleaboutthem，andtheordinaryvoterlearnsofthemforthefirsttimewhenhecomestothepolls。Onlyameasurewhichdirectlyaffectstheinterestsorpassionsofthepeople，likeprohibitionoftheliquortraffic，willcalloutalargevote。

Onthisshrewdjudgmentofpersonstheadvocateofdemocracychieflygroundshisfaiththatthepeoplewillberightinthelongrun。Theoldargumentagainsthimrunsasfollows：democracyistheruleofthemany;

themanyareincompetenttounderstandpublicquestions;hencedemocracyistheruleofincompetence。ThusMacauleyheldthatinstitutionspurelydemocraticmust，(144)soonerorlaterdestroylibertyorcivilizationorboth;andexpectedadayofspoliationintheUnitedStates，“forwithyouthemajorityisthegovernmentandhastherichabsolutelyatitsmercy。”[13]Morerecentwritersofstandinghavetakenthesameview，likeLecky，whodeclaresthattheruleofthemajorityistheruleofignorance，sincethepoorandtheignorantarethelargestproportionofthepopulation。[14]

Tothisourdemocratwillanswer，“Themany，whetherrichorpoor，areincompetenttograspthetruthinitsabstractness，buttheyreachitthroughpersonalsymbols，theyfeeltheirwaybysympathy，andtheirconclusionsareatleastasapttoberightasthoseofanyartificiallyselectedclass。”

AndhewillperhapsturntoAmericanhistory，whichis，onthewhole，afairlyconvincingdemonstrationthatthemassesarenotincapableoftemperateandwisedecision，evenonmattersofmuchdifficulty。Thatourantecedentsandtraininghavebeenpeculiarlyfortunatemustbeconceded。

Thecrudelypessimisticviewissuperficialnotonlyinunderestimatingthemassesandoverestimatingwealth？whichis，inourtimesatleast，almosttheonlypossiblebasisofaprivilegedclass梑utinfailingtounderstandtheorganiccharacterofamaturepublicjudgment。Isitnotaratherobviousfallacytosaythatbecausetheignorantoutnumbertheeducated，thereforetheruleofthemajorityistheruleofignorance？

Iffiftymenconsult，(145)together，fortyofwhomareignorantregardingthematterinhandandteninformed，willtheirconclusionsnecessarilybethoseofignorance？

Evidentlynot，unlessinsomeimprobablemannerthefortyseparatefromthetenandrefusetobeguidedbythem。Savagesandgangsofboysonthestreetchoosethemostsagacioustoleadincounsel，andevenpirateswillputthebestnavigatorsinchargeoftheship。Thenaturalthing，aswehaveseen，isforagrouptodefertoitsmostcompetentmembers。LeckywouldhimselfhavemaintainedthisinthecaseofParliament，andwhyshoulditnotbetrueofothergroups？Iseenoreasonwhytheruleofthemajorityshouldbetheruleofignorance，unlesstheyarenotonlyignorantbutfools;andIdonotsupposethecommonpeopleofanycapableracearethat。

Iwasbornandhavelivednearlyallmylifeintheshadowofaninstitutionofhigherlearning，auniversity，supportedoutofthetaxesofademocraticstateandgovernedbyaboardelecteddirectlybythepeople。SofarbackasIcanremembertherehavenotbeenwantingpessimiststosaythattheinstitutioncouldnotprosperonsuchabasis。“What，“theysaid，“dothefarmersknoworcareabouttheuniversity？howcanweexpectthattheyshouldsupportastronomyandSanscritandthehighermathematics？“Infacttherehavebeentroubloustimes，especiallyintheearlierdays，butthehigherlearninghassteadilywonitswayinopendiscussion，andtheuniversityisnowfarlarger，higherinitsstandards，bettersupportedandapparentlymorefirmlyestablishedinpopularapprovalthaneverbefore。

Whatmoreexactingtestofthepowerofdemocracytopursueandeffectuate，(146)highandratherabstractidealscouldtherewellbethanthis？OnewholivesinthemidstofsuchfactscannotbutdiscoversomethingratherdoctrinaireintheviewsofMacaulayandLecky。

Ifitbetruethatmostpeoplejudgemenratherthanideas，wemaysaythatdemocraticsocietyisrepresentativenotonlyinpoliticsbutinallitsthought。Everywhereafewareallowedtothinkandactfortherest，andtheessenceofdemocraticmethodisnotinthedirectchoiceofthepeopleinmanymatters，butintheirretainingaconsciouspowertochangetheirrepresentatives，ortoexercisedirectchoice，whentheywishtodoso。Alltolerablegovernmentisrepresentative，butdemocracyisvoluntarilyso，anddiffersfromoligarchyinpreservingthedefiniteresponsibilityofthefewtothemany。Itmayevenhappen，asinEngland，thatahereditaryrulingclassretainsmuchofitspowerbytheconsentofademocratizedelectorate，or，asinFrance，thataconceptionofthestate，generatedunderabsolutemonarchy，ischerishedundertheruleofthepeople。

Asforpopularsuffrage，itisacrudebutpracticaldeviceforascertainingthepreponderantbentofopiniononadefiniteissue。Itisinasensesuperficial，mechanical，almostabsurd，whenweconsiderthedifferenceinrealsignificanceamongtheunits;butitissimple，educative，andhasthatpalpablesortofjusticethatallayscontention。Nodoubtspiritualweightisthegreatthing，butasthereisnoacceptedwaytomeasurethis，wecountonemanonevote，andtrustthatspiritualdifferenceswillbeexpressedthroughpersuasion。

(147)

Thereis，then，noessentialconflictbetweendemocracyandspecializationinanysphere。Itistruethatasthevitalunityofagroupbecomesmoreconsciouseachmembertendstofeelaclaimoneverythingthegroupdoes。

Thusthecitizennotonlywishesthegovernment梠fthevillage，thestateorthenation梩obeanexpressionofhimself;buthewishesthesameregardingtheschools，manufactures，trade，religionandtheadvanceofknowledge。