第4章

Hedesiresallthesethingstogooninthebestwaypossible，soastoexpresstothefullestthathumannaturethatisinhimself。Andasaguarantyofthishedemandsthattheyshallbeconductedonanopenprinciple，whichshallgivecontrolofthemtothefittestindividuals。Hatingallprivilegenotbasedonfunction，hedesirespowertosuppresssuchprivilegewhenitbecomesflagrant。Andtomakeeverythingamenable，directlyorindirectly，topopularsuffrage，seemstohimapracticalstepInthisdirection。

Somethinglikethisisinthemindoftheplainmanofourtime;butheisquiteawareofhisincompetencetocarryonthesevariedactivitiesdirectly，eitheringovernmentorelsewhere，andcommon-senseteacheshimtoseekhisendbyashrewdchoiceofrepresentatives，andbydevelopingasystemofopenandjustcompetitionforallfunctions。Thepictureofthedemocraticcitizenasonewhothinkshecandoanythingaswellasanybodyis，ofcourse，acaricature，andintheUnitedStates，atleast，thereisagreatandincreasingrespectforspecialcapacity，andatendencytotrustitasfarasitdeserves。Ifpeoplearesometimesscepticalofthespecialist梚npoliticaleconomyletussay梐ndinclinedtoprefertheirowncommon-sense，(148)itisperhapsbecausetheyhavehadunfortunateexperiencewiththeformer。Onthewhole，ourtimeisoneofthe“riseoftheexpert，“

when，onaccountoftherapidelaborationofnearlyallactivities，thereisanevergreaterdemandfortrainedcapacity。Farfrombeingundemocratic，thisisaphaseofthateffectiveorganizationofthepublicintelligencewhichrealdemocracycallsfor。Inshort，asalreadysuggested，tobedemocratic，oreventobeignorant，isnotnecessarilytobeafool。

Soinanswertothequestion，Justwhatdotheundistinguishedmassesofthepeoplecontributetothegeneralthought？wemaysay，Theycontributesentimentandcommon-sense，whichgivesmomentumandgeneraldirectiontoprogress，and，asregardsparticulars，findsitswaybyashrewdchoiceofleaders。Itisintotheobscureandinarticulatesenseofthemultitudethatthemanofgeniuslooksinordertofindthosevitaltendencieswhoseutteranceishisoriginality。Asmeninbusinessgetrichbydiviningandsupplyingapotentialwant，soitisagreatpartofallleadershiptoperceiveandexpresswhatthepeoplehavealreadyfelt。

Endnotes，SomediscussionofleadershipwillbefoundinHumanNatureandtheSocialOrder，chaps。8and9。SoMr。Bryce，TheAmericanCommonwealth，chap。76。Someemphasisshouldbegiventothephrase“pushedon，“asdistinguishedfrom“initiated。”，IntheAtlanticMonthly，Oct。1905。Whoseekstohaveprivatethingslosescommonthings。ThomasKempis，DeImitationeChristi，bookiii，chap。13，sec。1。Inherbook，NewerIdealsofPeace。NewerIdealsofPeace，chap。1。DeImitationeChristi，bookii，chap。l，see。7。WilliamJames，VarietiesofReligiousExperienee，319。P。G。Hamerton，ThoughtsAboutArt，222。HenryD。Lloyd，MantheSocialCreator，101。Imeanmerelythatthelawgraduateslooksophisticated梟otdiahonest。

Theyhavelearnedtousevoiceandfacialexpressionaaweaponsofcontroversy。TheSpiritofLaws，bookxi，chap。6。FromaletterwrittentoanAmericancorrespondentin1857andprintedintheappendixtoTrevelyan’sMacaulay。DemocracyandLiberty，vol。i，chap。1，page25andpassim。SomeofLecky’sexpressions，however，aremorefavorabletodemocracy。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter14：DemocracyandCrowd，Excitement，CHAPTERXIV

DEMOCRACYANDCROWDEXCITEMENT，THECROWD-THEORYOFMODERNLIFE——THEPSYCHOLOGYOFCROWDS——

MODERNCONDITIONSFAVORPSYCHOLOGICALCONTAGION——DEMOCRACYATRAINING

INSELF-CONTROL——THECROWDNOTALWAYSINTHEWRONG——CONCLUSION;THE

CASEOFFRANCE。

CERTAINwriters，impressedwiththeriseofvastdemocracieswithinwhichspaceisalmosteliminatedbyeaseofcommunication，holdthatwearefallingundertheruleofCrowds，thatistosay，ofbodiesofmensubjectbytheirproximitytowavesofimpulsivesentimentandaction，quitelikemultitudesinphysicalcontiguity。

Acrowdiswellknowntobeemotional，irrationalandsuppressiveofindividuality：

democracy，beingtheruleofthecrowd，willshowthesametraits。

ThepsychologyofcrowdshasbeentreatedatlengthbySighele，[1]LeBon[2]andotherauthorswho，havingmadeaspecialtyofthemaninthethrong，areperhaps，(150)somewhatinclinedtoexaggeratethedegreeinwhichhedepartsfromordinarypersonality。Thecrowdmindnot，asissometimessaid，aquitedifferentthingfromtheoftheindividual(unlessbyindividualismeantthehigherself)，butismerelyacollectivemindofaloworderwhichstimulatesandunifiesthecruderimpulsesofitsmembers。Themenaretherebutthey“descendtomeet。”Thelossofrationalcontrolandliabilitytobestampededwhichareitsmaintraitsarenogreaterthanattendalmostanystateofexcitement梩heanger，fear，loveandthelike，Iofthemannotinthecrowd。

Andtheintimidatingeffectofathrongontheindividual梩hestage-fright，letussay，ofaninexperiencedspeaker梚snothingunique，butcloselyresemblesthatwhichwehaveallfeltonfirstapproachinganimposingperson;seemingtospringfromthatvaguedreadofunknownpowerwhichpervadesallconsciouslife。Andlikethelatter，itreadilywearsoff，sothatthepracticedoratorisnevermoreself-possessedthanwiththecrowdbeforehim。

Thepeculiarityofthecrowd-mindismainlyinthereadinesswithwhichanycommunicablefeelingisspreadandaugmented。Justasaheapoffirebrandswillblazewhenoneortwoalonewillchillandgoout，sotheunitsofacrowd“inflameeachotherbymutualsympathyandmutualconsciousnessofit。”[3]Thisismuchfacilitatedbythecircumstancethathabitualactivitiesareusuallyinabeyance，themaninathrongbeinglikeonefallenoverboardinthatheisremovedfromhisordinarysurroundingsandplungedintoastrangeandalarmingelement。Atonceexcitedandintimidated，hereadilytakesonasug-

(151)-gestedemotion梐sofpanic，angerorself-devotion？andproceedstorecklessaction。

Itmustbeadmittedthatmodernconditionsenablesuchcontagiontoworkuponalargerscalethaneverbefore，sothatuwaveoffeelingnowpassesthroughthepeople，bytheaidofthenewspaper，verymuchasiftheywerephysicallyacrowd條ikethewaveofresentment，forinstance，thatsweptoverAmericawhenthebattle-shipMainewasdestroyedinHavanaharbor。Thepopularexcitementoverathleticcontestsisafamiliarexample。Duringthefoot-ballseasontheemotionofthecrowdactuallypresentatafamousgameisdiffusedthroughoutthecountrybypromptandingeniousdevicesthatdepicttheprogressoftheplay;and，indeed，itisjusttogetintothisexcitement，andoutofthemselvesandthehumdrumofroutine，thatthousandsofpeople，mostofwhomknownexttonothingofthegame，readthenewspapersandstandaboutthebulletinboards。Andwhenawarbreaksout，thepeoplereadthepapersinquitethesamespiritthattheRomanpopulacewenttothearena，notsomuchfromanydepravedtasteforblood，astobeinthethrill。Eventheso-called“individualism“ofourtime，andtheunrestingpursuitof“business，“areingreatpartduetoacontagionofthecrowd。

Peoplebecomeexcitedbythegameandwanttobeinit，whethertheyhaveanydefiniteobjectornot;andonceintheythinktheymustkeepupthepaceorgounder。

Isdemocracy，then，theruleofthecrowd，andisthereatendencyinmoderntimestowardthesubjectionofso~cietytoanirrationalanddegeneratephaseofthemind，(152)Thisquestion，likeothersrelatingtothetrendofmodernlife，looksdifferentlyaccordingtothepointsofviewfromwhichitisapproached。Ingeneralwemaysaythattheverychangeswhicharedrawingmodernpopulationstogetherintodenserwholesbringalsoadisciplineinorganizationandself-controlwhichshouldremovethemfurtherandfurtherfromthemobstate。

Itisagreedbywritersonthecrowdthatmenarelittlelikelytobestampededinmattersregardingwhichtheyhaveatrainedhabitofthought梐safireman，forinstance，willbeapttokeephisheadwhenthefire-alarmsounds。Anditisjusttheabsenceofthisthatisthemarkofacrowd，whichisnotmadebymerenumbersandcontiguity，butbygroupexcitabilityarisingfromlackofstableorganization。

Aveteranarmyisnotacrowd，howevernumerousandconcentrated;andnomoreperhapsisaveterandemocracy，thoughitnumbertwentymillionvoters。

Ahealthydemocracyisindeedatraininginjudgmentandself-controlasappliedtopoliticalaction;andjustasafiremanisathomeontremblingladdersandamidstchokingfumes，sothefreecitizenlearnstokeephisheadamidthecontendingpassionsandopinionsofa“fiercedemocratic。”Havingpassedsafelythroughmanydisturbances，hehasacquiredaconfidenceincooljudgmentandintheunderlyingstabilityofthingsimpossibletomenwho，livingunderastrictercontrol，havehadnosucheducation。Heknowswellhowtodiscountsuperficialsentimentand“thespawnofthepressonthegossipofthehour。”Itis，then，thenatureoforderedfreedomtotrainveteransofpolitics，secureagainstthewildimpulsesofarabble梥uchasmadehavocinParisatthecloseof，(153)theFranco-Prussianwar梐ndinmoderntimes，whenpowercannotbekeptawayfromthepeople，suchatrainingisthemainguarantyofsocialstability。

Isitnotapparenttojudiciousobserversthatourtough-fibred，loose-jointedsocietytakesagitationmoresafelythanthemorerigidstructuresofEurope？

Norisitmerelyinpoliticsthatthisistrue，foritisthewholetendencyofafreesystemtotrainmentostandontheirownfeetandresisttherush。Inafixedorder，withlittleopeningforinitiativeordifferentiateddevelopment，theyscarcelyrealizethemselvesasdistinctandself-directingindividuals，andfromthemonemayexpectthetraitsofLeBon’sfoules;hardlyfromtheshrewdfarmersandmechanicsofAmericandemocracy。

Itlooksatfirstsightasif，becauseoftheirdensehumanity，thegreatcitiesinwhichthemajorityofthepopulationareapparentlytolivemusttendtoamoblikestateofmind;butexceptinsofarascitiesattracttheworseelementsofthepeoplethisisprobablynotthecase。Mobphenomenagenerallycomefromcrowdexcitementensuinguponasluggishhabitoflifeandservingasanoutlettothepassionswhichsuchalifestoresup。Wefindthemobandthemob-likereligiousrevivalinthebackcountiesratherthanamongthecheerfulandanimatedpeoplethatthrongtheopenplacesofNewYorkorChicago。

Moreover，itishardlytruethat“themultitudeisalwaysinthewrong“;[4]andconclusionsmaybenoless，(154)soundandvitalforbeingreachedunderacertainexaltationofpopularenthusiasm。Theindividualengagedinprivateaffairsandwithoutthethrillofthecommonlifeisnotmoreapttobeattheheightofhismentalbeingthanthemaninthecrow~l。Aminglingoftheseinfluencesseemstoproducethebestresults，andthehighestrationality，whileitinvolvesmuchploddingthoughtinitspreparation，islikelytocometodefiniteconsciousnessandexpressioninmomentsofsomeexcitement。Asitisthecommonexperienceofartists，poetsandsaintsthattheirbestachievementsaretheoutcomeoflongbrood)

i~gculminatinginakindofecstasy，sotheclearestnotesofdemocracymaybestruckintimesofexaltationlikethatwhich，intheNorthernUnitedStates，followedtheatta。konFortSumter。TheimpulsivenesswhichmarkspOplilarfeelingmayexpresssomebrutalortrivialphaseofhumannature，orsomeprofoundmoralintuition，theonlydefinitetestbeingthepersistenceofthesentimentwhichthuscomestolight;andifitprovestohavethelastingwarrantofthegeneralconscienceitmaybeoneofthosevoicesofthepeopleinwhichposteritywilldiscoverthevoiceofGod。

Theviewthatthecrowdisirrationalanddegenerateischaracteristicofanintricatesocietywherereadinghaslargelytakentheplaceofassemblyasastimulustothought。Inprimitivetimesthesocialexcitementofreligiousandotherfestivalsrepresentedthehigherlife;asitstilldoes，(155)inbackwoodscommunities，andtosluggishtemperamentseverywhere。Eveninthetownsourhighersentimentsarelargelyformedinsocialmeetingsofonesortoranother，accompaniedbymusic，acting，dancingorspeech-making，whichdrawoneoutthemoresolitarycurrentsofhisthoughtandbringhimintolivelierunitywithhisfellows。

Thereisreallynosolidbasisinfactortheoryfortheviewthatestablisheddemocracyistheruleofanirresponsiblecrowd。IfnottrueofAmerica，itfailsasageneralprinciple;

andnoauthoritativeobserverhasfoundittobethecasehere。Thosewhoholdthecrowd-theoryseemtobechieflywriters，whetherFrenchornot，whogeneralizefromthehistoryofFrance。Withoutattemptinganydiscussionofthis，Imaysuggestoneortwopointsthatweareperhapsapttooverlook。

Itis，foronething，bynomeansclearthatFrenchdemocracyhasshownitselftolackthepowerofself-controlanddeliberateprogress。Itsdifficulties梩hepresenceofancientclassdivisions，ofinevitablemilitarism，andthelike梙avebeenimmeasurablygreaterthanours，anditsspiritonewithwhichwedonotreadilysympathize。France，Isuppose，islittleunderstoodinEnglandortheUnitedStates，andweprobablygetourviewstoomuchfromaschoolofFrenchwriterswhosezealtocorrectherfaultsmaytendtoexaggeratethem。ThemorenotoriousexcessesoftheFrenchorParisianpopulace梥uchasarerealandnotafictionofhostilecritics梥eemtohavesprungfromthatexerciseofpowerwithouttraininginevitableinacountrywheredemocracyhadtocomebyrevolution。And，again，acertain，(156)，tendencytoactinmasses，andlackofvigorouslocalandprivateinitiative，whichappearstocharacterizeFrance，ismucholderthantheRevolution，andseemsduepartlytoracetraitsandpartlytosuchhistoricalconditionsasthecentralizedstructureinheritedfromabsolutemonarchy：

Endnotes，SeipioSighele，Lafolladelinquente。

FrenchtranslationLafoulecriminelle。GustaveLeBon，Psychologiedesfoules。EnglishtranslationTheCrowd。

Thewholesubject，includingthequestionof“prophylactics“againstthemob-mind’iswelldiseussedinProfessorE。A。Ross’sSocialPsychology，WhatelyinhisnotetoBacon’sessayonDiscourse。AttributedtotheEarlofRoscommon。

SeeBartlett’sFamiliarQuotations。

SirThomasBrownecharacteristicallydescribesthemultitudeas“thatnumerouspieceofmonstrosity，which，takenasunder，seemmen，andthereasonablecreaturesofGod，butconfusedtogether，makebutonegreatbeast，andamonstrositymoreprodigiousthanHydra。”ReligioMedici，partii，sec。1。Thisistheverymanthaturgedtheburningofwitchesafterthemultitudewasreadytogiveitup。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter15：DemocracyandDistinction，CHAPTERXV

DEMOCRACYANDDISTINCTION，THEPROBLEM——DEMOCRACYSHOULDBEDISTINGUISHEDFROMTRANSITION——

THEDEAD-LEVELTHEORYOFDEMOCRACY——CONFUSIONANDITSEFFECTS——“INDIVIDUALISM“

MAYNOTBEFAVORABLETODISTINGUISHEDINDIVIDUALITY——CONTEMPORARYUNIFORMITY——

RELATIVEADVANTAGESOFAMERICAANDEUROPE——HAST，SUPERFICIALITY，STRAIN——

SPIRITUALECONOMYOFASETTLEDORDER——COMMERCIALISM——ZEALFORDIFFUSION——

CONCLUSION

WHATshallwesayofthedemocratictrendofthemodernworldasitaffectsthefinersortofintellectualachievement？Whiletheconsciousswayofthemassesseemsnotuncongenialtothemorepopularandobviouskindsofeminence，asofstatesmen，inventors’soldiers，financiersandthelike，therearemanywhobelieveittobehostiletodistinctioninliterature，artorscience。Istherehopeforthisalso’ormustwehecontenttooffsetthedearthofgreatnessbytheabundanceofmediocrity？

This，Itakeit，isamatterforaprioripsychologicalreasoningratherthanforcloseinductionfromfact。Thepresentdemocraticmovementissodifferentfromanythinginthepastthathistoricalcomparisonofanylargesortisnearlyorquiteworthless。And，moreover，itissoboundupwithotherconditionswhicharenotessentialtoitandmaywellprovetransient，thatevencontemporaryfactgivesusverylittlesecureguidance。Allthatisreallypracticableisasurveyofthebroadprinciplesatworkandaroughattempttoforecasthowtheymay，(158)workout。Aninquiryofthissortseemstometoleadtoconclusionssomewhatasfollows。

First，thereis，Ibelieve，nosoundreasonforthinkingthatthedemocraticspiritororganizationisinitsessentialnaturehostiletodistinguishedproduction。Indeed，onewhoholdsthattheoppositeisthecase，whilehewillnotbeabletosilencethepessimist，willfindlittleinfactortheorytoshakehisownfaith。

Second，althoughdemocracyitselfisnothostile，sofaraswecanmakeoutitsnaturebygeneralreasoning，thereismuchthatissointhepresentstateofthought，bothintheworldatlargeand，moreparticularly，intheUnitedStates。

Inthis，asinalldiscussionsregardingcontemporarytendency，weneedtodiscriminatebetweendemocracyandtransition。Atpresentthetwogotogetherbecausedemocracyisnew;butthereisnoreasoninthenatureofthingswhytheyshouldremaintogether。Aspopularrulebecomesestablisheditprovescapableofdevelopingastability，evenarigidity，ofitsown;

anditisalreadyapparentthattheUnitedStates，forinstance，justbecausedemocracyhashaditswaythere，islessliabletosuddentransitionsthanperhapsanyotherofthegreatnations。

Itistruethatdemocracyinvolvessomeelementsofpermanentunrest。

Thus，bydemandingopenopportunityandresistinghereditarystratification，itwillprobablymaintainacompetitionofpersonsmoregeneral，andasregardspersonalstatusmoreunsettling，thananythingtheworldhasbeenusedtointhepast。Butpersonalcompetitionaloneisthecauseofonlyasmallpartofthe，(159)stressanddisorderofourtime;muchmorebeingduetogeneralchangesinthesocialsystem，particularlyinindustry，whichwemaydescribeastransition。Andmoreover)competitionitselfisinaspeciallydisorderedortransitionalstateatpresent，andwilli。elessdisquietingwhenamoresettledstateofsocietypermitsittobecarriedonunderestablishedrulesofjustice，andwhenadiscriminatingeducationshalldoalargepartofitswork~Inshort，democracyisnotnecessarilyconfusion，andweshallfindreasontothinkthatitisthelatter，chiefly，thatisopposedtodistinction。

Theviewthatpopularruleisinitsnatureunsuitedtofostergeniusrestschieflyonthedead-leveltheory。Equalitynotdistinctionissaidtobethepassionofthemasses，diffusionnotconcentration。Everythingmovesonavastandvasterscale：thefacilityofintercourseismeltingtheworldintoonefluidwholeinwhichthesingleindividualismoreandmoresubmerged。Theeraofsalientpersonalitiesispassingaway，andtheprincipleofequality，whichensurestheelevationofmeningeneral，isfataltoparticulargreatness。“Inmodernsociety，“saidDeTocqueville，thechiefbegetterofthisdoctrine，“everythingthreatenstobecomesomuchalikethatthepeculiarcharacteristicsofeachindividualwillsoonbeentirelylostinthegeneralaspectoftheworld。”[1]ShallweagreewiththisormaintainwithPlatothatademocracywillhavethegreatestvarietyofhumannature？[2]

(160)

Perhapsthemostplausiblebasisforthistheoryisthelevellingeffectascribedbymanytothefacilitiesforcommunicationthathavegrownupsosurprisinglywithinthepastcentury。InaformerchapterIhavesaidmuchuponthismatter，holdingthatwemustdistinguishbetweentheindividualityofchoiceandthatofisolation，andgivingreasonswhythemodernfacilityofintercourseshouldbefavorabletotheformer。

Tothiswemayaddthatthemerefactofpopularrulehasnoinevitableconnection，eitherfriendlyorhostile，withvarietyandvigorofindividuality。

IfFranceissomewhatlackinginthese，itisnotbecausesheisdemocratic，butbecauseoftheracetraitsofherpeopleandherpeculiarantecedents;

ifAmericaaboundsinacertainkindofindividuality，itischieflybecausesheinheriteditfromEnglandanddevelopeditinafrontierlife。Ineithercasedemocracy，inthesenseofpopulargovernment，isasecondarymatter。

Certainly，Americaisaratherconvincingproofthatdemocracydoesnotnecessarilysuppresssalientpersonality。Sofarasindividualityofspiritisconcerned，ourlifeleaveslittletobedesired，andnotraitimpressesitselfmorethanthisuponobserversfromthecontinentofEurope。

“AllthingsgrowclearintheUnitedStates，“saysPaulBourget，“whenoneunderstandsthemasanimmenseactoffaithinthesocialbeneficenceofindividualenergylefttoitself。”*The“individualism“ofoursocialsystemisacommonplaceofcontemporarywriters。Nowhereelse，noteveninEngland，Isuppose，istheremorerespectfornon-conformityormoredispositionto，(161)assertit。Inourintenselycompetitivelifemenlearntovaluecharacterabovesimilarity，andonewhohascharactermayholdwhatopinionshepleases。Personality，asMr。BrownellpointsoutincontrastingtheAmericanswiththeFrench，istheonethingofuniversalinteresthere：

ourconversation，ournewspapers，ourelectionsaredominatedbyit，andourgreatcommercialtransactionsarelargelyastruggleforsupremacyamongrivalleaders。[4]Theaugmentingnumbersofthepeople，farfromobscuringthesalientindividual，onlymakeforhimalargertheatreofsuccess;andpersonalreputation梬hetherforwealth，statesmanship，literaryachievement，orformeresingularity梚sorganizedonagreaterscalethaneverbefore。OnewhoisfamiliarwithanyprovinceofAmericanlife，asforexample，thatofcharitableandpenalreform，isawarethatalmosteveryadvanceismadethroughtheembodimentoftimelyideasinoneorafewenergeticindividualswhosetanexampleforthecountrytofollow。Experiencewithnumbers，insteadofshowingtheinsignificanceoftheindividual，provesthatifhehasfaithandaworthyaimthereisnolimittowhathemaydo;andwefind，accordingly，plentyofcourageinstartingnewprojects。Thecountryisfullofmenwhofindthejoysofself-assertion，ifnotalwaysofoutwardsuccess，intheboldpursuitofhazardousenterprises。

Ifthereisadeficiencyofliteraryandartisticachievementinademocracyofthiskind，itisduetosomeothercausethanageneralsubmergenceoftheindividualinthemass。

Thedead-leveltheory，then，issufficientlydiscredited，(162)asagenerallawbytheundiminishedascendancyofsalientindividualitiesineveryprovinceofactivity。Theenlargementofsocialconsciousnessdoesnotaltertheessentialrelationofindividualitytolife，butsimplygivesitagreaterfieldofsuccessorfailure。Themanofgeniusmaymeetwithmorecompetition，butifheistrulygreatalargerworldishis。

Toimaginethatthemasswillsubmergetheindividualistosupposethatoneaspectofsocietywillstandstillwhiletheothergrows。Itrestsuponasuperficial，numericalwayofthinking，whichregardsindividualsasfixedunitseachofwhichmustbecomelessconspicuousthemoretheyaremultiplied。Butifthemanofgeniusrepresentsaspiritualprinciplehisinfluenceisnotfixedbutgrowswiththegrowthoflifeitself，andislimitedonlybythevitalityofwhathestandsfor。Surelythegreatmenofthepast桺lato，Dante，Shakespeareandtherest梐renotsubmerged，norindangerofbeing;norisitapparentwhytheirsuccessorsshouldbe。

Therealcauseofliteraryandartisticweakness(insofarasitexists)

Itaketobechieflythespiritualdisorganizationincidenttoatimeofrathersuddentransition。Howthiscondition，andotherscloselyassociatedwithit，areunfavorabletogreataestheticproduction，Ishalltrytopointoutunderthefourheads，confusion，commercialism，hasteandzealfordiffusion。

Withreferencetothehigherproductsofculture，notonlytheUnitedStates，butinsomedegreecontemporarycivilizationingeneral，isaconfused，araw，society，notasbeingdemocraticbutasbeingnew。Itisourwholenewspaperandfactoryepochthatiscrude，andscarcely，(163)moresoinAmericathaninEnglandorGermany;themaindifferenceinfavorofEuropeancountriesbeingthatthepresentcannotsoeasilybeseparatedfromtheconditionsofanearlierculture。Itisageneraltraitofthetimethatsocialtypesaredisintegrated，oldonesgoingtopiecesandnewonesnotperfected，leavingtheindividualwithoutadequatedisciplineeitherintheoldorinthenew。

Nowworksofenduringgreatnessseemtodepend，amongotherthings，onacertainripenessofhistoricalconditions。Nomatterhowgiftedanindividualmaybe，heisinnowayapartfromhistime，buthastotakethatandmakethebestofithecan;themanofgeniusisinonepointofviewonlyatwiguponwhichamaturetendencybearsitsperfectfruit。

Inthenewepochthevastthingsinprocessareasyetsounfinishedthatindividualgiftsarescarcesufficienttobringanythingtoaclassicalcompleteness;sothatourliferemainssomewhatinarticulate，ourliterature，andstillmoreourplasticart，beinginadequateexponentsofwhatismostvitalinthemodernspirit。

Thepsychologicaleffectofconfusionisalackofmatureculturegroups，andofwhattheyonlycandoforintellectualoraestheticproduction。

Whatthismeansmay，perhaps，bemadeclearerbyacomparisondrawnfromathleticsports。Wefindinourcollegesthattoproduceawinningfoot-ballteam，ordistinguishedperformanceinrunningorjumping，itisessentialfirstofalltohaveaspiritofintenseinterestinthesethings，whichshallarousetheambitionofthosehavingnaturalgifts，supportthemintheirtrainingandrewardtheirsuccess。With，(164)outthisgroupspiritnoefficientorganization，nohighstandardofachievement，canexist，andasmallinstitutionthathasthiswilleasilysurpassalargeonethatlacksit。Andexperienceshowsthatittakesmuchtimetoperfectsuchaspiritandtheorganizationsthroughwhichitisexpressed。

Inquitethesamewayanyripedevelopmentofproductivepowerinliteraryorotnerartimpliesnotmerelycapableindividualsbuttheperfectionofasocialgroup，whosetraditionsandspirittheindividualabsorbs，andwhichfloatshimuptoapointwhencehecanreachuniqueachievement。

Theunityofthisgrouportypeisspiritual，notnecessarilylocalortemporal，andsomaybedifficulttotrace，butitsrealityisassureastheprinciplethatmanisasocialbeingandcannotthinksanelyandsteadfastlyexceptinsomesortofsympathywithhisfellows。Theremustbeotherswhomwecanconceiveassharing，corroboratingandenhancingourideals，andtonooneismorenecessarythanthemanofgenius。

Thegroupislikelytobemoreapparentortangibleinsomeartsthaninothers：itisgenerallyquiteevidentinpainting，sculpture，architectureandmusic，wherearegulardevelopmentbythepassageofinspirationfromoneartisttoanothercanalmostalwaysbetraced。Inliteraturetheconnectionsarelessobvious，chieflybecausethisartisinitsmethodsmoredisengagedfromtimeandplace，sothatitiseasiertodrawinspirationfromdistantsources。Itisalsopartlyamatteroftemperament，menofsomewhatsolitaryimaginationbeingabletoformtheirgroupoutofremotepersonalities，andsotobealmostindependentoftimeandplace。ThusThoreau，(165)livedwiththeGreekandHindooclassics，withtheoldEnglishpoets，andwiththesuggestionsofnature;butevenheowedmuchtocontemporaryinfluences，andthemoreheisstudiedthelesssolitaryheappears。IsnotthisthecasealsowithWordsworth，withDante，withallmenwhoaresupposedtohavestoodalone？

Themostcompetentofallauthoritiesonthisquestion？Goethe梬asafullbelieverinthedependenceofgeniusoninfluences。“Peoplearealwaystalkingaboutoriginality，“hesays，“butwhatdotheymean？Assoonasweareborntheworldbeginstoworkuponus，andthisgoesontotheend。Andafterallwhatcanwecallourownexceptenergy，strengthandwill？IfIcouldgiveanaccountofallthatIowetogreatpredecessorsandcontemporaries，therewouldbebutasmallbalanceinmyfavor。”[5]Heevenheldthatmenofgeniusaredependentupontheirenvironmentthanothers;for，beingthinner-skinned，theyaremoresuggestible，moreperturbable，andpeculiarlyinneedoftherightsortofsurroundingstokeeptheirdelicatemachineryinfruitfulaction。

Nodoubtsuchquestionsaffordgroundforinfinitedebate，buttheunderlyingprinciplethatthethoughtofeverymanisonewiththatofagroup，visibleorinvisible，issure，Ithink，toprovesound;andifsoitisindispensablethatagreatcapacityshouldfindaccesstoagroupwhoseidealsandstandardsareofasorttomakethemostofit。

Anotherreasonwhytherawnessofthemodernworldisunfavorabletogreatproductionisthattheidealsthemselveswhichagreatartshouldexpressshareinthegen-

(166)-eralincompletenessofthingsanddonotpresentthemselvestothemindclearlydefinedandincarnateinvividsymbols。Perhapsacertainfragmentarinessandpettinessincontemporaryartandliteraturejsduemoretothiscausethantoanyother梩othefactthattheaspirationsofthetime，largeenough，certainly，aretoomuchobscuredinsmoketobeclearlyandsteadilyregarded。Wemaybelieve，forexample，indemocracy，butitcanhardlybesaidthatweseedemocracy，asthemiddleages，intheirart，sawtheChristianreligion。

Fromthispointofviewofgroupsandorganizationitiseasytounderstandwhythe“individualism“ofourepochdoesnotnecessarilyproducegreatindividuals。Individualitymayeasilybeaggressiveandyetfutile，becausenotbasedonthetrainingaffordedbywell-organizedtypes條ikethefruitlessvalorofanisolatedsoldier。Mr。BrownellpointsoutthattheprevalenceofthissortofindividualityinourartandlifeisapointofcontrastbetweenusandtheFrench。Paris，comparedwithNewYork，hasthe“organicqualitywhichresultsfromvarietyoftypes，“asdistinguishedfromvarietyofindividuals。“Wedofarbetterintheproductionofstrikingartisticpersonalitiesthanwedointhegeneralmediumoftasteandculture。Wefigurewell，invariably，attheSalon……Comparativelyspeaking，ofcourse，wehavenomilieu。”*

ThesameconditionsunderliethatcomparativeuniformityofAmericanlifewhichweariesthevisitorandimplantsinthenativesuchapassionforEurope。When，(167)apopuloussocietyspringsuprapidlyfromafewtransplantedseeds，itsstructure，howevervast，isnecessarilysomewhatsimpleandmonotonous。Athousandtowns，tenthousandchurches，amillionhouses，arebuiltonthesamemodels，andthepeopleandthesocialinstitutionsdonotaltogetherescapeasimilarpovertyoftypes。Nodoubtthisissometimesexaggerated，andAmericadoespresentmanypicturesquevariations，butonlyarecklessenthusiasmwillequalthemwiththoseofEurope。Howunspeakablyinferiorinexterioraspectandinmanyinnerconditionsofculturemustanyrecentcivilizationbetothat，letussay，ofItaly，whoseaccumulatedrichesrepresentthedepositofseveralthousandyears。

Suchdeposits，however，belongtothepast;andasregardscontemporaryaccretionsthesamenessofLondonorRomeishardlylessthanthatofChicago。

Itisamatteroftheepoch，moreconspicuousherechieflybecauseithashadfullersweep。Aheavyfallofcrudecommercialismisrapidlyobscuringthecontoursofhistory。

IncomparisonwithEuropeAmericahastheadvantagesthatcomefrombeingmorecompletelyinthenewercurrentofthings。Itisnearer，perhaps，tothespiritofthecomingorder，andsoperhapsmorelikely，induetime，togiveitadequateutteranceinart。Anotherbenefitofbeingnewistheattitudeofconfidencethatitfosters。IfAmericacouldhardlyhavesustainedtheassuredmasteryofTennyson，neither，perhaps，couldEnglandanoptimismlikethatofEmerson。Incontrasttothelatter，Carlyle，RuskinandTolstoi梡rophetsofanolderworld梐reshadowedbyafeelingoftheascendancyandinertia，(168)ofancientandsomewhatdecadentinstitutions。Theyareafraidofthem，andsoareapttoberathershrillinprotest。AnAmerican，accustomedtoseehumannaturehaveprettymuchitsownway，hasseldomanyseriousmistrustoftheoutcome。Nearlyallofourwriters梐sEmerson，Longfellow，Lowell，Whittier，Holmes，Thoreau，Whitman，evenHawthorne梙avebeenofacheerfulandwholesomepersonality。[7]

Ontheotherhand，anoldcivilizationhasfromitsmereantiquityarichnessandcomplexityofspirituallifethatcannotbetransplantedtoanewworld。Theimmigrantsbringwiththemthetraditionsofwhichtheyfeelinimmediateneed，suchasthosenecessarytofoundthestate，thechurchandthefamily;buteventheselosesomethingoftheiroriginalflavor，whilemuchofwhatissubtlerandlessevidentlyusefulisleftbehind。Wemustremember，too，thatthecultureoftheOldWorldischieflyaclassculture，andthattheimmigrantshavemostlycomefromaclassthathadnogreatpartinit。

Withthisgoeslossofthevisiblemonumentsofcultureinheritedfromthepast梐rchitecture，painting，sculpture，ancientuniversitiesandthelike。Burne-Jones，theEnglishpainter，speakingofthecommercialcityinwhichhespenthisyouth，says：……“iftherehadbeenonecastfromancientGreeksculpture，oronefaithfulcopyofagreatItalianpicture，tobeseeninBirminghamwhenIwasaboy，IshouldhavebeguntopainttenyearsbeforeIdid……eventhesilentpresenceofgreatworksinyourtownwillproduceanimpressiononthosewhoseethem，andthenextgenerationwill，withoutknowing，(169)howorwhy，finditeasiertolearnthanthisonedoeswhosesurroundingsaresounlovely。”*

NorisAmericanlifefavorabletotherapidcrystallizationofanewartisticculture;itistootransientandrestless;transatlanticmigrationisfollowedbyinternalmovementsfromeasttowestandfromcitytocountry;

whileontopofthesewehaveacontinuoussubversionofindustrialrelationstAnotherelementofspecialconfusioninourlifeistheheadlongmixtureofraces，temperamentsandtraditionsthatcomesfromthenewimmigration，fromtheirruptionbymillionsofpeoplesfromthesouthandeastoftheOldWorld。Iftheywerewhollyinferior，aswesometimesimagine，itwouldperhapsnotmattersomuch;butthetruthisthattheycontesteveryintellectualfunctionwiththeolderstock，and，intheuniversitiesforinstance，areshortlyfoundteachingourchildrentheirownhistoryandliterature。Theyassimilate，butalwayswithadifference，andinthenorthernUnitedStates，formerlydominatedbyNewEnglandinfluences，arevolutionfromthiscauseiswellunderway。Itisasifakettleofbrothwerecookingquietlyonthefire，whensomeoneshouldcomeinandaddsuddenlyagreatpailfulofrawmeats，vegetablesandspices梐richcombination，possibly，butlikelytorequiremuchboiling。ThatfineEnglishsentimentthatcamedowntousthroughthecolonistsmorepurely，perhaps，thantotheEnglishintheoldcountry，ispassing，(170)away梐sadistinctcurrent，thatis條ostinafloodofcosmopolitanlife。Beforeus，nodoubt，isalargerhumanity，butbehindisacherishedspiritthatcanhardlyliveagain;and，likethetroywholeaveshome，wemustturnourthoughtsfromanirrevocablepastandgohopefullyontoweknownotwhat。

Inshort，ourworldlacksmaturityofcultureorganization。Whatwesometimescall梩rulyenoughasregardsitseconomiclife梠urcomplexcivilization，issimpletothepointofpovertyinspiritualstructure。Wehavecastoffmuchrubbishanddecayandarepreparing，wemayreasonablyhope，toproduceanartandliteratureworthyofourvigorandaspiration，butinthepast，certainly，wehavehardlydoneso。

Hasteandthesuperficialityandstrainwhichattenduponitarewidelyandinsidiouslydestructiveofgoodworkinourday。Nootherconditionofmindorofsociety？notignorance，poverty，oppressionorhate梜illsartashastedoes。Almostanyphaseoflifemaybeennobledifthereisonlycalmenoughinwhichthebroodingmindmaydoitsperfectworkuponit;butoutofhurrynothingnobleeverdidorcanemerge。Inarthumannatureshouldcometoatotal，adequateexpression;aspiritualtendencyshouldbeperfectedandrecordedincalmnessandjoy。Butoursis，onthewhole，atimeofstress，ofthehabitofincompletework;itsproductsareunlovelyandunrestfulandsuchasthefuturewillhavenojoyin。

Thepaceissuitedonlytoturnoutmediocregoodsonavastscale。

Itis，toputthematterotherwise，aloudtime。The，(171)newspapers，theadvertising，thegeneralinsistenceofsuggestion，haveaneffectofdin，sothatonefeelsthathemustraisehisvoicetobeheard，andthewhispersofthegodsatehardtocatch。Menwhosevoicesarenaturallylowandfineeasilylosethistraitintheworldandbegintoshoutliketherest。Thatistosay，theyexaggerateandrepeatandadvertiseandcaricature，sayingtoomuchinthehopethatalittlemaybeheard。Ofcourse，inthelongrunthisisafataldelusion;nothingwillreallybelistenedtoexceptthatwhosequiettruthmakesitworthhearing;butitisonesorootedinthegeneralstateofthingsthatfewescapeit。Eventhosewhopreservethelowertonedosowithaneffortwhichisinitselfdisquieting。

Astrenuousstateofmindisalwayspartialandspecial，sacrificingscopetointensityandmorefittedforexecutionthaninsight。Itisusefulattimes，butifhabitualcutsusofffromthatseaofsubconsciousspiritfromwhichalloriginalpowerflows。“Theworldofart，“saysPaulBourget，speakingofAmerica，“requireslessself-consciousness梐nimpulseoflifewhichforgetsitself，thealternationsofdreamyidlenesswithfervidexecution。”。[10]SoHenryJames[11]remarksthatwehavepracticallylostthefacultyofattention，meaning，Isuppose，thatunstrenuous，broodingsortofattentionrequiredtoproduceorappreciateworksofart梐ndasregardstheprevalenttypeofbusinessorprofessionalmindthisseemsquitetrue。

Itcomesmainlyfromhavingtoomanythingstothinkof，fromtheurgencyanddistractionofanepochanda，(172)countryinwhichthetraditionalstructuresthatsupportthemindandsaveitsenergyhavelargelygonetopieces。Theendeavortosupplybywillfunctionsthatinotherconditionswouldbeautomaticcreatesarushwhichimitationrendersepidemic，andfromwhichitisnoteasytoescapeinordertomatureone’spowersinfruitfulquiet。

Thereisanimmensespiritualeconomyinanysettledstateofsociety，sufficient，sofarasproductionisconcerned，tooffsetmuchthatisstagnantoroppressive;thewillissavedandconcentrated;whilefreedom，asDeTocquevillenoted，sometimesproduces“asmall，distressingmotion，asortofincessantjostlingofmen，whichannoysanddisturbsthemindwithoutexcitingorelevatingit。”[12]Themodernartisthastoomuchchoice。

Ifheattemptstodeallargelywithlife，hiswillisoverworkedattheexpenseofaestheticsynthesis。Freedomandopportunityarewithoutlimit，allcultureswithinhisreachandsplendidserviceawaitingperformance。

Butthetaskofcreatingagladwholeseemsbeyondanyordinarymeasureoftalent。Theresultinmostcases梐shasbeensaidofarchitecture梚s“confusionoftypes，illiteratecombinations，anevidentbreathlessnessofeffortandstrivingforeffect，withtheinevitablelossofrepose，dignityandstyle。”[13]AmediaevalcathedraloraGreektemplewastheculminationofalongsocialgrowth，agradual，deliberate，corporateachievement，towhichtheindividualtalentaddedonlythefinishingtouch。

Themodernarchitecthas，no，(173)doubt，asmuchpersonalability，butthedemandsuponitareexcessive;

itwouldseemthatonlyatranscendentsyntheticgeniusofthecalibreofDantecoulddealadequatelywithourscatteredconditions。

Thecauseofstrainisradicalandsomewhatfeverishchange，notdemocracyassuch。Alargepartofthepeople，particularlythefarmingclass，arelittleaffectedbyit，andthereareindicationsthatinAmerica，whereithasbeengreaterthanelsewhere，theworstisnowover。

Bycommercialism，inthisconnection，wemayunderstandapreoccupationoftheabilityofthepeoplewithmaserialproductionandwiththetradeandfinancebaseduponit。Thisagainisinpartatraitoftheperiod，inpartapeculiarityofAmerica，initscharacterasanewcountrywithstumpstogetoutandmaterialcivilizationtoerectfromthegroundup。

Theresultofitisthatabilityfindsconstantopportunityandincitementtotakeacommercialdirection，andlittletofollowpureartorletters。

Amanlikestosucceedinsomething，andifheisconsciousofthecapacitytomakehiswayinbusinessorprofessionallife，heisindisposedtoendurethepoverty，uncertaintyandindifferencewhichattendthepursuitofanartisticcalling。Lessprosperoussocietiesowesomethingtothatverylackofopportunitywhichmakesitlesseasyforartisticabilitytotakeanotherdirection。

Anevengreaterperilisthedebasingofartbyanunculturedmarket。

Thereseemtobeplentyofartistsofeverykind，buttheirstandardofsuccessismostlylow。Thebeginnertooearlygetscommercialemploymentin，(174)whichheisnothelduptoanyhighideal。Thisbringsusbacktothelackofawell-knitartistictraditiontoeducateboththeartistandthepublic，thelackofatype，“thenon-existence“asMr。RussellSturgissays;“Ofanartisticcommunitywithamindofitsownandacertaingeneralagreementastowhataworkofartoughttobe。”Thislackinvolvestheweaknessofthecriticismwhichisrequiredtomaketheartistseehimselfasheoughttobe。“Thatcriticismisnowhereinproportiontotheneedofit，“saysHenryJames，“isthevisitingobserver’sfirstandlastimpression梐nimpressionsoconstantthatitattimesswallowsuporelbowsouteveryother。”

Theantipathybetweenartandthecommercialspirit，however，isoftenmuchoverstated。Asamatterofhistoryartandliteraturehaveflourishedmostconspicuouslyinprosperouscommercialsocieties，suchasAthens，Florence，Venice，thecommunesofthethirteenthandfourteenthcenturies，thetradingcitiesofGermany，theDutchRepublicandtheEnglandofElizabeth。

Nothingdoesmorethancommercetoawakenintelligence，enterpriseandafreespirit，andthesearefavorabletoidealproduction。Itisonlytheextremeone-sidednessofourcivilizationinthisregardthatisprejudicial。

Itisalsotrue梐ndherewetouchuponsomethingpertainingmoretotheverynatureofdemocracythanthematterssofarmentioned梩hatthezealfordiffusionwhichspringsfromcommunicationandsympathyhasinitmuchthatisnotdirectlyfavorabletothefinersortsofproduction。

Whichisthebetter，fellowshipordistinction？There，(175)ismuchtobesaidonbothsides，butthefinerspiritsofourdayleantowardtheformer，andfinditmorehumanandexhilaratingtospreadabroadthegoodthingsthewnrldalreadyhasthantoprosecutealonesomesearchfornewones。lnoticeamongthechoicestpeoplelknow梩hosewhoseemtomemostrepresentativeoftheinnertrendofdemocracy梐certaingenerouscontemptfordistinctionandapassiontocasttheirlivesheartilyonthegeneralcurrent。Butthehighestthingsarelargelythosewhichdonotimmediatelyyieldfellowshipordiffusejoy。Thoughmakingintheendforageneralgood，theyareasprivateintheirdirectactionasselfishnessitself，fromwhichtheyarenotalwayseasilydistinguished。Theyinvolveintenseself-consciousness。Probablymenwhofollowthewhispersofgeniuswillalwaysbemoreorlessatoddswiththeirfellows。

Ours，then，isanAgeofDiffusion。Thebestmindsandheartsseekjoyandself-forgetfulnessinactiveservice，asinanothertimetheymightseekitinsolitaryworship;God，asweoftenhear，beingsoughtmorethroughhumanfellowshipandlessbywayofisolateself-consciousnessthanwasthecaseashorttimesince。

Ineedhardlyparticularizetheeducationalandphilanthropiczealthat，inoneformoranother，incitesthebettermindsamongourcontemporariesandmakesthemfeelguiltywhentheyarenotinsomewayexertingthemselvestospreadabroadmaterialorspiritualgoods。Noonewouldwishtoseethiszealdiminished;andperhapsitmakesinthelongrunforeverykindofworthyachievement;butitsimmediateeffectisoftentomultiplythecommonplace，givingpointtoDeTocqueville’sreflection，(176)that“inaristocraciesafewgreatpicturesareproduced，indemocraticcountriesavastnumberofinsignificantones。”[14]Inaspiritualaswellasamaterialsensethereistotendencytofabricatecheapgoodsfortanuncriticalmarket。“Menandgodsaretooextense。”[15]Finally，alltheoriesthataimtodeducefromsocialconditionsthelimitsofpersonalachievementmustbereceivedwithmuchcaution。Itistheverynatureofavirilesenseofselftorevoltfromtheusualandtheexpectedandpursuealonesomeroad。Ofcourseitmusthavesupport，butitmayfindthisinliteratureandimaginativeintercourse。So，inspiteofeverything，wehavehadinAmericamenofsignaldistinction梥uch，forinstance，asEmerson，ThoreauandWhitman梐ndweshallnodoubthavemore。Weneedfearnodearthofinspiringissues;forifoldonesdisappearenergeticmindswillalwayscreatenewonesbymakinggreaterdemandsuponlife。

Theveryfactthatourtimehassolargelycastoffallsortsofstructureisinonewayfavorabletoenduringproduction，sinceitmeansthatwehavefallenbackuponhumannature，uponthatwhichispermanentandessential，theadequaterecordofwhichisthechiefagentingivinglifetoanyproductofthemind。

Endnotes，DemcracyinAmerica，vol。ii，bookiv，chap。7。Butelsewhereheexpressestheopinionthatthislevellingandconfusionisonlytemporary。See，forexample，bookiii，chap。21。Republic，bookviii。Outre-Mer。EnglishTranslation，306。SeethefinalchapterofhisFrenchTraits。ConversationwithEckermann，May12，1825。FrenchTraits，385，387，393。Poeistheonlynotableexceptionthatoccurstome。MemorialsofEdwardBurne-Jones，ii，100，101。Ourmostnotablegroupofwriters梖lourishingatConcordandBostonabout1850梚s，ofcourse，connectedwiththematuring，inpartialisolation，ofalocaltypeofculture，nowdisintegratedanddispersedonthewidercurrentsofthetime。Outre-Mer，25。InhisessayonBalzac。DemocracyinAmerica，vol。ii，booki，chap。10。HenryVanBrunt，GreekLines，225。Someofthesephrases，suchas“illiteratecombinations，“couldneverapplytotheworkofgoodarchitects。DemocracyinAmerica，vol。ii，booki，chap。11。Emerson，AlphonsoofCastile。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter16：TheTrendofSentiment，CHAPTERXVI，THETRENDOFSENTIMENT

MEANINGANDGENERALTRENDOFSENTIMENT——ATTENUATION——

REFINEMENT——SENSEOFJUSTICE——TRUTHASJUSTICE——ASREALISM——

ASEXPEDIENCY——ASECONOMYOFATTENTION——HOPEFULNESS

BYsentimentImeansocializedfeeling，feelingwhichhasbeenraisedbythoughtandintercourseoutofitsmerelyinstinctivestateandbecomeproperlyhuman。Itimpliesimagination，andthemediuminwhichitchieflylivesissympatheticcontactwiththemindsofothers。Thusloveisasentiment，whilelustisnot;resentmentis，butnotrage;thefearofdisgraceorridicule，butnotanimalterror，andsoon。Sentimentisthechiefmotivepoweroflife，andasaruleliesdeeperinourmindsandislesssubjecttoessentialchangethanthought，fromwhich，however，itisnottobetoosharplyseparated。

Twotraitsinthegrowthofsentimentareperhapscharacteristicofmodernlife，bothofwhich，aswillappear，arecloselyboundupwiththeotherpsychologicalchangesthathavealreadybeendiscussed。

Firstatrendtowarddiversification：undertheimpulseofagrowingdiversityofsuggestionandintercoursemanynewvarietiesandshadesofsentimentaredeveloped。Likeastreamwhichisdistributedforirrigation，(178)

thegeneralcurrentofsocialfeelingisdrawnoffintomanysmallchannels。

Secondatrendtowardhumanism，meaningbythisawiderreachandapplicationofthesentimentsthatnaturallyprevailinthefamiliarintercourseofprimarygroups。Followingatendencyevidentinallphasesofthesocialmind，theseexpandandorganizethemselvesattheexpenseofsentimentsthatgowiththemoreformaloroppressivestructuresofanearlierepoch。

Thediversificationofsentimentseemstoinvolvesomedegreeofattenuation，ordeclineinvolume，andalsosomegrowthofrefinement。

BytheformerImeanthattheconstantandvarieddemandsuponfeelingwhichmodernlifemakes梚ncontrasttotheoccasionalbutoftenseveredemandsofamoreprimitivesociety梘iverise，verymuchasinthecaseoftheirrigatingstream，totheneedandpracticeofmoreeconomyandregularityintheflow，sothat“animatedmoderation“[1]infeelingsucceedsthealternationsofapathyandexplosioncharacteristicofarudercondition。Thusouremotionalexperienceismadeupofdiversebutforthemostpartrathermildexcitements，sothatthemanmostathomeinourcivilization，thoughmorenimbleinsentimentthanthemanofanearlierorder，isperhapssomewhatinferiorindepth。Somethingofthesamedifferencecanbeseenbetweenthecitymanandthefarmer;whilethelatterisinferiorinversatilityandreadinessoffeeling，hehasagreaterstoreofitlaidup，whichisapttogivesuperiordepthandmomentumtosuch，(179)sentimentashedoescherish。Whohasnotexperiencedthelong-mindedfaithfulnessandkindness，orperhapsresentment，ofcountrypeople，andcontrastedthemwiththelessstablefeelingsofthosewholiveamoreurbanelife？

Insayingthatlifetendstowardrefinementitisonlyageneraltrendthatisasserted。Wemustadmitthatmanyphasesofrefinedsentimenthavebeenmoreperfectlyfeltandexpressedinthepastthantheyarenow;butthisisamatterofthematurityofspecialtypesofculture，ratherthanofgeneralprogress。ThustheItalianRenaissanceproducedwondersofrefinementinart，asinthepainting，letussay，ofBotticelli;butitwas，onthewhole，abloody，harshandsensualtimecomparedwithours，atimewhenassassination，tortureandrapeweremattersofeveryday。So，also，thereisarefinementofthesenseoflanguageinShakespeareandhiscontemporarieswhichwecanonlyadmire，whiletheirplaysdepictarathergrossstateoffeeling。AcourseofreadinginEnglishfiction，beginningwithChaucerandendingwithJames，HowellsandMrsWard，wouldcertainlyleavetheimpressionthatoursensibilitieshad，onthewhole，grownfiner。

Andthisisevenmoretrueofthecommonpeoplethanofthewell-to-doclasswithwhichliteratureischieflyoccupied：thetendencytothediffusionofrefinementbeingmoremarkedthanitsincreaseinafavoredorder。Thesharpcontrastinmannersandfeelingsbetweenthe“gentleman，“asformerlyunderstood，andthepeasant，artisanandtradingclasseshaspartlydisappeared。

(180)Differencesinwealthandoccupationnolongernecessitatedifferencesinrealculture，theopportunitiesforwhicharecomingtobeopentoallclasses，andinAmerica，atleast，thenative-bredfarmerorhandworkerisnotuncommonly，inessentialqualities，agentleman。

Thegeneralfactisthattheactivitiesoflife，towhichfeelingresponds，havebecomemorevariousandsubtleandlesscrudelydeterminedbyanimalconditions。Materialvarietyandcomfortisonephaseofthis：webecomehabituatedtoacomparativelydelicateexistenceandsoaretrainedtoshuncoarseness。Communication，bvgivingabundanceandchoiceofsocialcontacts，alsoactstodiversifyandrefinesentiment;thegrowthoforderdisaccustomsustoviolence，anddemocracytendstoremovethedegradingspectacleofpersonalorclassoppression。

Thismodernrefinementhastheadvantagethat，beingageneralriseinlevelratherthantheachievementofaclassoranation，itisprobablysecure。Itisnot，liketherefinementofGreece，thesomewhatprecariousfruitoftransientconditions，butapossessionoftherace，innomoredangerofdyingoutthanthesteam-engine。

Tothetrendtowardhumanismandthesentiments梥uchasjustice，truth，kindnessandservice梩hatgowithit，Ishalldevotetherestofthischapterandtheonethatfollows：

Thebasisofallsentimentofthiskindisthesenseofcommunity，orofsharinginacommonsocialorspiritualwhole，membershipinwhichgivestoallakindofinnerequality，nomatterwhattheirspecialpartsmaybe。Itisfelt，however，thatthedifferencesamongmenshouldbe，(181)functionalandintrinsic，notarbitraryoraccidental。Thesenseofjusticeisusuallystrongamongthemembersofasympatheticgroup，thebasisfordeterminingwhatisjustbeingtheperceptionofsomepurposewhicheveryoneistoserve，eachinhisownway，sothathewhorightlyholdsahigherplaceistheonewhocanfunctionbestforthecommongood。

Itdoesnothurtmyself-respectormyallegiancetoremainacommonseamanwhileanotherbecomescaptainoftheship，providedIrecognizethatheisthefittermanfortheplace;andifthedistributionofstationsinsocietywereevidentlyofthissorttherewouldbenoseriousprotestagainstit。Whatmakestroubleisthegrowthofanidealoffairplaywhichtheactualsystemofthingsdoesnotsatisfy。

Thewideningofsympathyandtheconsciousnessoflargerunityhavebroughtthehopeanddemandforacorrespondingextensionofjustice;andallsortsofhumanity梟ottospeakoftheloweranimals梡rofitbythiswidersentiment。Classesseektounderstandeachother;thepersonalityofwomenandchildrenisrecognizedandfostered;thereissomeattempttosympathizewithaliennationsandraces，civilizedorsavage，andtohelpthemtotheirjustplaceinthecommonlifeofmankind。

Ourconceptionofinternationalrightsreflectsthesameview，andtheAmerican，atleast，desiresthathiscountryshouldtreatothercountriesasonejustmantreatsanother，andisproudwhenhecanbelievethatshehasdoneso。Itissurelyofscmesignificancethatinthemostpowerfulofdemocraciesnationalselfishness，inthejudgmentofacompetentEuropeanobserver，(182)islesscynicalandobtrusivethaninanyofthegreatstatesofEurope。[2]

Truthisakindofjustice，andwhereverthereisidentificationofonselfwiththelifeofthegroupitisfostered，andlyingtendstobefeltasmeanandimpolitic。Seriousfalsehoodamongfriendsis，Ibelieve，universallyabhorred梑ysavagesandchildrenaswellasbycivilizedadults。

Tolietoafriendistohithimfrombehind，totriphimupinthedark，andsothemoralsentimentofeverygroupattemptstosuppressfalsehoodamongitsmembers，howeveritmaybeencouragedasagainstoutsiders。“Wherefore，“

saysSt。Paul，“puttingawaylying，speakeverymantruthwithhisneighbor，forwearemembersoneofanother。”[3]

Ourdemocraticsystemaimstobealargerorganizationofmoralunity，andsofarasitisso，inthefeelingoftheindividual，itfostersthisopenanddownrightattitudetowardhisfellows。Inidea，andlargelyinfact，weareacommonwealth，ofwhicheachoneisamemberbyhiswillandintelligence，aswellasbynecessity，andwithwhich，accordingly，thehumansentimentofloyaltyamongthosewhoaremembersoneofanotherisnaturallyinforce。Theverydisgustwithwhich，inamatterlikeassessmentfortaxation，mencontemplatetheincompatibilitythatsometimesexistsbetweentruthandfairness，isatributetotheprevailingsentimentofsincerity。

Anartificialsystem，thatisonewhich，howeversolid，(183)itshiddenfoundations梐ndofcourseallsystemsrestonfactofsomesort梔oesnotvisiblyflowfromprinciplesoftruthandfairness，failstoarousethisloyaltyofpartnership。Onemaybedevotedtoit，buthisdevotionwillbebasedratheronreverenceforsomethingabovehimthanonasenseofparticipation，andwillcallforsubmissionratherthanforstraightforwarddealing。ItwouldseemthatIyingandservilityarenaturalintheattitudeofasubjecttowardamaster，thatistowardasuperiorbutuncomprehendingpower;whiletruthisgeneratedinsympathy。

Tyrannymaybesaidtomakefalsehoodavirtue，andincontemporaryRussia，forinstance，stealthandevasionarethenecessaryandjustifiablemeansofpursuingtheaimsofhumannature。

Anotherreasonfortheassociationoffreedomwithtruthisthattheformerisatraininginthesenseofsocialcauseandeffect;thefreeplayofhumanforcesbeingaconstantdemonstrationofthepowerofrealityasagainstsham。Themoremenexperimentintelligentlywithlife，themoretheycometobelieveindefinitecausationandthelessintrickery。Freedommeanscontinuousexperiment，aconstanttestingoftheindividualandofallkindsofsocialideasandarrangements。Ittends，then，toasocialrealism;“Heropeneyesdesirethetruth。”ThebestpeopleIknowarepervadedbythefeelingthatlifeissorealthatitisnotworthwhiletomakebelieve。“Knightsoftheunshieldedheart，“theydesirenothingsomuchastoescapefromallpretenseandpruderyandconfrontthingsastheyreallyare梒onfidentthattheyarenotirremediablybad。Ireadinacurrentnewspaperthat，(184)“brutal，unvarnished，carelessfranknessistheposeofthenewtypeofgirl。Shehasnotbeendevelopedinaschoolofevasion。Topretendyougaveahundreddollarsforagownwhenyoureallygavefiftyforit，isasorryjestforherandawasteoftime……Ifsheownstothenewgownshetellsyouitscost，thenameoftheinexpensivedressmakerwhomadeit，andjustwheresheeconomizedinitsprice。”

Thereisatributetotruthintheverycynicismandshamelessnesswithwhichflagitiouspoliticiansandfinanciersdeclareanddefendtheirpractices。

LikeNapoleonorMacchiavellitheyhaveatleastcastoffsuperstitionandaredealingwithreality，thoughtheyapprehenditonlyinalowandpartialaspect。Iftheylie，theydosodeliberately，scientifically，withaviewtoproducingacertaineffectuponpeoplewhomtheyregardasfools。

Itonlyneedsthatthisrationalspiritshouldallyitselfwithhighersentimentanddeeperinsightinorderthatitshouldbecomeasourceofvirtue。

Iwillnothereinquireminutelyhowfarorinwhatsensehonestyisthebestpolicy，butitissafetosaythatthemorelifeisorganizeduponabasisoffreedomandjusticethemoretruththereisintheproverb。

Whenthegeneralstateofthingsisanarchical，asinthetimeofMacchiavelli，rationalismmayleadtothecynicaluseoffalsehoodasthetoolsuitedtothematerial;norisitdeniablethatthisisoftenthecaseatthepresentday。Butmoderndemocracyaimstoorganizejustice，andinsofarasitsucceedsitcreatesamediuminwhichtruthtendstosurviveandfalsehoodtoperish。Weallwishto，(185)liveinsuchamedium：thereisnothingmoregratefulthantheconvictionthattheorderofthingsissincere，isfoundedonrealityofsomesort;andinagoodmeasuretheAmerican，forinstance，doeshavethisconviction。Itmakesdemocracyasoftcouchforthesoul：onecanlethimselfgoanddoesnothavetomakebelieve;presenceisnopartofthesystem;beyourrealselfandyouwillfindyourrightplace。“IknowhowthegreatbasementofallpowerIsfrankness，andatruetonguetotheworld;

AndhowintriguingsecrecyisproofOffearandweakness，andahollowstate。”Anartificialsystemmustmaintainitselfbysuppressingthefreeplayofsocialforcesandinculcatingitsownartificialideasinplaceofthosederivedfromexperience。Freeassociation，freespeech，freethinking，insofarastheytouchuponmattersvitaltoauthority，areandalwayshavebeenputdownundersuchsystems，andthismeansthatthewholemindofthepeopleisemasculated，asthemindofItalywasbySpanishruleandreligiousreactionintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturies。“Orientalmendacity“isascribedtotheinsecurityoflifeandpropertyunderarbitraryrule;butitisnotmerelylifeandpropertythatareaffected。Theveryideaoftruthandreasoninhumanaffairscanhardlyprevailunderasystemwhichaffordsnoobservationtocorroborateit。Thefactthatindiplomacy，forinstance，thereisagrowingbeliefthatitpaystobesimpleandhonest，Itaketobeareflectionofthefactthattheinternationalsystem，basedmoreandmoreonintelligentpublicopinion，is，(186)graduallycomingtobeamediuminwhichtruthisfittolive。

Perhapssomethingofthishostilitytotruthwilllingerinallestablishments，howevertheymaybehumanized：theyallinvolveakindofvestedinterestincertainideaswhichisnotfavorabletoentirefrankness。Itsometimesappearsthatonewhowouldbequitehonestandstandforhumannatureshouldavoidnotonlyreligious，politicalandeducationalallegiance，butlaw，journalism，andallpositionswhereonehastospeakaspartofaninstitution。

Asarulethegreatseersandthinkershavestoodasmuchasidefrominstitutionsasthenatureofthehumanmindpermits。

Stillanotherreasonforthekeenersenseoftruthinourdayistheneedtoeconomizeattention。Insocietieswherelifeisdull，fiction，circumlocutionandelaborateformsofintercourseserveasasortofpastime;

andthefirstarousesnoresentmentunlesssomedefiniteinjuryisattemptedbyit。AlthoughtheChineseareuprightinkeepingtheirpecuniaryengagements，wearetoldthatmeretruthisnotvaluedbythem，andisnotinculcatedbytheirclassicmoralists。SoinItalythepeopleseemtothinkthatacourteousandencouraginglieiskinderthanthebaretruth，aswhenamanwillpretendtogiveyouinformationwhenheknowsnothingaboutthematter。Astrenuouscivilizationlikeoursmakesoneintolerantofallthis。Itisnotthatwearealwayshurried;butwearesooftenmadetofeelthelimitationsofourattentionthatwedisliketowasteit。Thoughtislife，andwewishtogetthemostrealityforagivenoutlayofitthatistobe，(187)had。WewishtocomeatoncetotheRealThing，whetheritbeabusinesspropositionorthemostsubtletheory。

Anothersentimentfavoredbythetimesissocialcourageandhopefulness，adispositiontopushforwardwithconfidenceregardingthefuturebothoftheindividualandofsocietyatlarge。Thatthisattitudeistheprevalentone，inAmericandemocracyatleast，nearlyallobserversareagreed。“

Letanyone，“saysDr。LymanAbbott，“standononeofourgreathighwaysandwatchthecountenancesofthepassers-by;thelanguagewrittenonmostofthemisthatofeagerness，ambition，expectation，hope。”[4]Thereissomethingruthlessaboutthisheadlongoptimism，whichisapttodenyandneglectfailureanddespair，ascertainreligioussectsofthedaydenyandneglectphysicalinjury;butitanswersitspurposeofsustainingthecombatants。Itspringsfromaconditioninwhichtheindividual，notsupportedinanyoneplacebyarigidsystem，isimpelledfromchildhoodtotrusthimselftothecommoncurrentoflife，tomakeexperiments，toacquireahabitofventureandaworkingknowledgeofsocialforces。Thestateofthingsinstigatesendeavor，and，asarule，rewardsitsufficientlytokeepupone’scourage，whileoccasionalfailureatleasttakesawaythatvaguedreadoftheunknownwhichisoftenworsethanthereality。

Lifeisnaturalandvivid，notthewax-worksofanartificialorder，andhasthatenliveningeffectthatcomesfrombeingthrownbackuponhumannature。Arealpessimism梠newhichdespairsofthegeneraltrend，(188)ofthings梚srareandwithoutmuchinfluence，eventherevolutionarysectsmaintainingthatthechangestheydesireareinthelineofanaturalevolution。Discontentisaffirmativeandconstructiveratherthanstagnant：

itworksoutprogrammesandhopefullyagitatesfortheirrealization。ThereisakindofpietyandtrustinGodtobeseenintheconfidencewithwhichsmallbodiesofmenanticipatethesuccessofprinciplestheybelievetoberight。

Endnotes，Bagehot’sphrase。SeehisPhysicsandPolitics。SeeJamesBryce，TheAmericanCommonwealth，chap。87。Ephesians，iv，25。InShaler’sUnitedStates，ii，594。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter17：TheTrendofSentiment，(continued)，CHAPTERXVII，THETRENDOFSENTIMENT——(CONTINUED)

NATUREOFTHESENTIMENTOFBROTHERHOOD——FAVOREDBYCOMMUNICATION

ANDSETTLEDPRINCIPLES——HOWFARCONTEMPORARYLIFEFOSTERSIT——HOWFAR

UNCONGENIALTOIT——GENERALOUTCOMEINTHISREGARD——THESPIRITOFSERVICE——

THETRENDOFMANNERS——BROTHERHOODINRELATIONTOCONFLICT——BLAME——

DEMOCRACYANDCHRISTIANITY

THEsentimentofmutualkindnessorbrotherhoodisasimpleandwidespreadthing，belongingnotonlytomanineverystageofhisdevelopment，butextending，inacrudeform，overagreatpartofanimallife。PrinceKropotkin，inhisMutualAidaFactorinEvolution，hascollectedillustrationsofitsuniversalityandsignificance。“……thenecessityofcommunicatingimpressions，“hesays，“ofplaying，ofchattering，orofsimplyfeelingtheproximityofotherkindredlivingbeingspervadesnature，andis，asmuchasanyotherphysiologicalfunction，adistinctivefeatureoflifeandimpressionability。”[1]Darwinperceived，whatKropotkinandothershaveillustratedwithconvincingfulness，thatthisfusingkindlinessunderliesallhigherphasesofevolution，andisessentialtothecooperativelifeinwhichthoughtandpoweraredeveloped。Thepopularnotionthatkindlysentimentcanonlybeahindrancetothesurvivalofthefittestisasomewhatperniciousmisapprehension。

Thissentimentflourishesmostinprimarygroups，where，aswehaveseen，itcontributestoanidealofmoralunityofwhichkindnessisamainpart。Underitsin，(190)fluencetheI-feelingbecomesawe-feeling，whichseeks，nogoodthatisnotalsothegoodofthegroup。Andthehumanismofourtimestriveswithrenewedenergytomakethewe-feelingprevailalsointhelargerphasesoflife。“Wemustdemand，“saysawriterwholivesveryclosetotheheartofthepeople，[2]“thattheindividualshallbewillingtolosethesenseofpersonalachievement，andshallbecontenttorealizehisactivityonlyinconnectionwiththeactivityofthemany。”Huxleyatonetimefeltthissostronglyastosay，“IfIhad400poundsayearIwouldneverletmynameappeartoanythingIdidorshalldo。’[3]

Suchutterances，thoughsignificant，areone-sided，anditisperhapsmoreinthewayofrealprogresstodemand，notthatthesenseofpersonalachievementshallbegivenup，butthatitshallbemorealliedwithfellow-feeling。

Thesortofambitioncongenialtothewe-feelingisonedirectedtowardthosecommonaimsinwhichthesuccessofoneisthesuccessofall，nottowardadmirationorriches。Materialgoods，onefeels，shouldnotbeappropriatedforprideorluxury，but，beinglimitedinamount，shouldbeusedinaconsciousnessofthegeneralneed，andapportionedbyrulesofjusticeframedtopromoteahigherlifeinthewhole。

Muchmightbesaidofthewe-feelingasjoy：Perchèquantosidicepiulinostro，Tantopossiedepiudibenciascuno，Epiudicaritateardeinquelchiostro。[4]

(191)Forthere，asmuchthemoreasonesaysOur，Somuchthemoreofgoodeachonepossesseth，Andmoreofcharityinthatcloisterburns。[5]Thereisnothingmorewholesomeorlesspursuedbycompunction。Tomingleouremotionswithfellowshipenlargesandsoothesthem;evenresentmentonbehalfofusislessranklingthanonbehalfofonlyme，andthereissomethingcheerfulinsufferingwronginfriendlycompany。Oneofthemostobviousthingsaboutselfishnessistheunhappinessofit，thelackofimaginativeexpatiation，oftheinspirationofworkingconsciouslywithavastwhole，of“theexhilarationandupliftwhichcomewhentheindividualsympathyandintelligenceiscaughtintotheforwardintuitivemovementofthemass。”[6]Fellowshipisthusagoodkindofjoyinthatitisindefinitelydiffusible;thoughbynomeansincapableofabuse，sinceitmaybecultivatedattheexpenseoftruth，sanityandindividuality。

Everythingthattendstobringmankindtogetherinlargerwholesofsympathyandunderstandingtendstoenlargethereachofkindlyfeeling。

Amongtheconditionsthatmostevidentlyhavethiseffectarefacilityofcommunicationandtheacceptanceofcommonprincipies。Thesepermitthecontactandfusionofmindsandtendtomouldthegroupintoamoralwhole。

Intimesofsettledprinciplesandofprogressintheartsofcommunicationtheideaofthebrotherhoodofmanhasanaturalgrowth;asithadundertheRomanEmpire。Ontheotherhand，itisdissipatedbywhateverbreaksup，(192)themoralunityandmakeshumaninterestsseeminconsistent。Notonlywar，butallkindsofdestructiveorunregulatedcompetition，inwhichthegoodofonepartyappearstobeaprivategoodgainedbytheharmofanother，arereflectedinthemindbyunkindlyfeeling。Whathumannatureneedsis梟otthedisappearanceofopposition，whichwouldbedeath梑utthesuppressionofdestructiveforms，andthecontrolofallformsbyprinciplesofjusticeandkindness，sothatmenmayfeelthatthegoodsurvives。

Asregardsthebearingofcontemporaryconditionsuponthespiritofbrotherhood，wefindforcesatworksoconflictingthatitiseasytoreachoppositeconclusions，accordingtothebiasoftheobserver。

Theenlargementofconsciousnesshasbroughtabroadeningofsentimentinalldirections。Asarulekindlyfeelingfollowsunderstanding，andtherewasneversuchopportunityandencouragementtounderstandasthereisnow。Distantpeoples桼ussians，ChineseandSouthSeaIslanders;alienatedclasses梒riminals，vagrants，idiotsandtheinsane，arebroughtclosetous，andthenaturalcuriosityofmanabouthisfellowsisexploitedandstimulatedbythepress。Indeed，thedecriedhabitofreadingthenewspaperscontributesmuchtoageneralwe-feeling，sincethenewspaperisareservoirofcommonplacethoughtofwhicheveryonepartakes梐ndwhichheknowshemayimputetoeveryoneelse梡ervadingtheworldwithaconsciouscommunityofsentimentwhich：tendstowardkindliness。

Evenmorepotent，perhaps，istheindirectactionof，(193)communicationinmakingitpossibletoorganizeallphasesoflifeonalargerscaleandonamorehumanbasis;inpromotingdemocracyandbreakingdowncaste。Undera~democraticsystemthemasseshavemeansofself-expression;theyvote，strike，andprinttheirviews。Theyhavepower，andthis，atbottom，isthesourceofallrespectandconsideration。

Peopleofotherclasseshavetothinkofthem，feelwiththemandrecognizethemasofacommonhumanity。Moreover，intendingtowipeoutconventionaldistinctionsandleaveonlythosethatarefunctional，democracyfostersthenotionofanorganicwhole，fromwhichallderiveandinwhichtheyfindtheirvalue。Asenseofcommonnatureandpurposeisthusnourished，aconsciousunityofactionwhichgivesthesenseoffellowship。Itcomestobeassumedthatmenareofthesamestuff，andakindofuniversalsympathy梟otincompatiblewithopposition梚sspreadabroad。Itisrealizedthat“therearediversitiesofgiftsbutthesamespirit。”

Ontheotherhand，ourlifeisfullofaconfusionwhichoftenleavestheindividualconsciousonlyofhisseparateness，engagedinastrugglewhich，sofarashesees，hasnomorerelationtojusticeandthecommongoodthanadog-fight。Whetherhewinorlosemakes，inthiscase，littledifferenceastotheeffectuponhisgeneralviewoflife：heinfersthattheworldisaplacewhereonemusteithereatorbeeaten;theideaofthebrotherhoodofmanappearstobeanenervatingsentimentalism，andthetruephilosophythatofthestruggleforexistence，whichheunderstandsinabrutalsenseoppositetotherealteachingofscience。Nothingcouldbemoreuncongenialtothewe，(194)feelingthanthisview，whichunfortunateexperiencehaspreparedmanytoembrace，takingfromlife，asitdoes，itsbreadthandhopefulness，thejoyandinspirationofworkinglnavastandfriendlywhole。

Probablymostofusareundertheswayofbothofthesetendencies。Wefeelthenewidealism，thesweepandexhilarationofdemocracy，butwepractice，nevertheless，athriftyexploitationofalltheprivateadvantageswecandecentlylayourhandson;norhavewethemoralvigortoworkoutanyreconciliationoftheseprinciples。Experienceshows，Ithink，thatuntilahighersentiment，likebrotherlykindness，attainssomedefiniteorganizationandprogramme，sothatmenarehelduptoit，itisremarkablyineffectiveincheckingselfishactivities。

Peopledriftonandoninlowercourses，whichatbottomtheydespiseanddislike，simplybecausetheylackenergyandinitiativetogetoutofthem。

Howtrueitisthatmanyofuswouldliketobemadetobebetterthanweare。Ihaveseenpromisingidealistsgrownarrow，greedyandsensual梐ndofcourseunhappy梐stheyprosperedintheworld;fornoreason，apparently，butlackofdefinitestimulationtoahigherlife。Thereisfirmgroundfortheopinionthathumannatureispreparedforahigherorganizationthanwehaveworkedout。