第2章

Indeed，thereseemstobe，amongchildrenasamongprimitivepeoples，acertainreluctancetoascribelawstothemerehumanchoiceofthemselvesandtheirfellows。Theywishtoassignthemtoahighersourceandtothinkofthemashavinganunquestionablesanction。Sofarasmyownobservationgoes，evenAmericanboysprefertoreceiverulesfromtraditionorfromtheirelders，whentheycan。Nothingiseasierthanforaparent，ormentorofanykind，tobealawgivertochildren，ifonlyhehastheirconfidence，andifthelawsthemselvesproveworkable。Butthetestoflawissocialandpopular;itmustsuitthegeneralmind。If，forinstance，amantakesagroupofboyscamping，andhastheirconfidence，theywillgladlyreceive，(46)rulesfromhim，expecting，ofcourse，thattheywillbegoodrules。

Butiftheyprovetobeunreasonableandtroublesome，theywillsoonceasetowork。

Freedomisthatphaseofthesocialidealwhichemphasisesindividuality。

Thewholetowhichwebelongismadeupofdiverseenergieswhichenkindleoneanotherbyfriction;anditsvigorrequiresthatthesehaveplay。Thusthefierceimpulsesofambitionandpridemaybeasorganicasanythingelse梡rovidedtheyaresufficientlyhumanizedastotheirobjects梐ndaretobeinterferedwithonlywhentheybecomedestructiveoroppressive。

Moreover，wemustnotberequiredtoprovetoothersthebeneficenceofourpeculiarity，butshouldbeallowed，ifwewish，to“writewhimonthelintelsofthedoor-post。”Ourdesiresandpurposes，thoughsocialintheirultimatenature，areapttobeunacceptableonfirstappearance，andthemoresoinproportiontotheirvalue。Thuswefeelaneedtobeletalone，andsympathizewithasimilarneedinothers。

Thisissofamiliaraprinciple，especiallyamongEnglishandAmericans，towhosetemperamentandtraditionsitispeculiarlycongenial，thatI

neednotdiscussitatlength。Itisaphaseofidealismthatcomesmostvividlytoconsciousnesswhenformalandantiquatedsystemsofcontrolneedtobebrokenup，asintheeighteenthcentury。Itthenrepresentedtheappealtohumannatureasagainstoutwornmechanism。Ourwholesocialandpoliticalphilosophystillechoesthatconflict。

Thebearingofthisviewofhumannaturemayperhapsbemadeclearerbyconsideringitsrelationtothefamiliar，(47)butnowsomewhatdiscrediteddoctrineofNaturalRight。ThisistracedfromthespeculationsofGreekphilosophersdownthroughRomanjurisprudencetoHobbes，Locke，Rousseau，andothers，whogaveititsmodernformsandthroughwhoseworksitbecameafactorinmodernhistory。ItwasfamiliartoourforefathersandissetforthintheDeclarationofIndependence。

Accordingtoitsocietyismadeup，primarily，offreeindividuals，whomustbeheldtocreategovernmentandotherinstitutionsbyasortofimpliedcontract，yieldingupapartoftheirnaturalrightinordertoenjoythebenefitsoforganization。Butiftheorganizationdoesnotconferthesebenefits，then，asmostwritersheld，itiswrongandvoid，andtheindividualsmayproperlyreclaimtheirnaturalfreedom。

Nowinformthisdoctrineiswhollyatvariancewithevolutionarythought。

Tothelatter，societyisanorganicgrowth;thereisnoindividualapartfromsociety，nofreedomapartfromorganization，nosocialcontractofthesorttaughtbythesephilosophers。Initspracticalapplications，however，theteachingofnaturalrightisnotsoabsurdandobsoleteasissometimesimagined。Ifitistruethathumannatureisdevelopedinprimarygroupswhichareeverywheremuchthesame，andthattherealsospringsfromtheseacommonidealismwhichinstitutionsstrivetoexpress，wehaveagroundforsomewhatthesameconclusionsascomefromthetheoryofanaturalfreedommodifiedbycontract。Naturalfreedomwouldcorrespondroughlytotheidealsgeneratedandpartlyrealizedinprimaryassociation，thesocialcontracttothelimitationstheseidealsencounterinseekingalargerexpression。

(48)

Indeed，isitnottruethatthenaturalrightsofthisphilosophy梩herighttopersonalfreedom，therighttolabor，therighttoproperty，therighttoopencompetition梐reidealswhichinrealitysprangthenastheydonowlargelyfromwhatthephilosophersknewoftheactivitiesofmeninsmall，face-to-facegroups？

ThereluctancetogiveupidealslikethoseoftheDeclarationofIndependence，withoutsomethingequallysimpleandhumantotaketheirplace，ishealthyandneednotlookfarfortheoreticaljustification。

Theideaofthegerminalcharacterofprimaryassociationisonethatisfastmakingitswayineducationandphilanthropy。Aswelearnthatmanisaltogethersocialandneverseentrulyexceptinconnectionwithhisfellows，wefixourattentionmoreandmoreongroupconditionsasthesource，forbetterorworse，ofpersonalcharacter，andcometofeelthatwemustworkontheindividualthroughthewebofrelationsinwhichheactuallylives。

Theschool，forinstance，mustformawholewiththerestoflife，usingtheideasgeneratedbythelatterasthestarting-pointofitstraining。

Thepublicopinionandtraditionsofthescholarsmustberespectedandmadeanallyofdiscipline。Children’sassociationsshquldbefosteredandgoodobjectssuggestedfortheiractivity。

Inphilanthropyitisessentialthattheunityofthefamilyberegardedanditsnaturalbondsnotweakenedforthesakeoftransientbenefittotheindividual。Children，especially，mustbeprotectedfromthedestructivekindnesswhichinculcatesirresponsibilityintheparent。Ingeneraltheheartofreformisincontroloftheconditions，(49)whichactuponthefamilyandneighborhood。Whenthehousing，forexample，isofsuchacharacterastomakeahealthyhomelifeimpossible，theboysandgirlsaredriventothestreets，themenintosaloons，andthussocietyisdiseasedatitssource。

Withouthealthyplay，especiallygroupplay，humannaturecannotrightlydevelop，andtopreservethis，inthemidstofthecrowdingandaggressivecommercialismofourcities，iscomingtobeseenasaspecialneedofthetime。Democracy，itisnowheld，mustrecognizeasoneofitsessentialfunctionstheprovisionofamplespacesandapparatusforthispurpose，withenoughjudicioussupervisiontoensuretheascendancyofgoodplaytraditions。Andwiththismustgothesuppressionofchildlaborandotherinhumaneconditions。

Fruitfulattentionisbeinggiventoboys’fellowshipsor“gangs。”Itappears梐sanyonewhorecallshisownboyhoodmighthaveanticipated梩hatnearlyallthejuvenilepopulationbelongtosuchfellowships，andputanardent，thoughoftenmisdirected，idealismintothem。“Almosteveryboyinthetenement-housequartersofthedistrict，“saysRobertA。Woods，speakingofBoston，“isamemberofagang。Theboywhodoesnotbelongisnotonlytheexceptionbuttheveryrareexception。”[10]Incrowdedneighborhoods，wheretherearenoplaygroundsandstreetsportsareunlawful，thehumannatureofthesegangsmusttakeasemi-criminaldirection;butwithbetteropportunitiesandguidanceitturnsquiteasnaturallytowholesomesportandsocialservice。Accordinglysocialsettlementsandsimilaragenciesareconvertinggangsinto，(50)clubs，withthebestresults;andthereisalsocomingtobearegularorganizationofvoluntaryclubsinaffiliationwiththepublicschools。

Itismuchthesameinthecountry。Ineveryvillageandtownshipinthelaud，Isuppose，thereareoneormoregroupsofpredatoryboysandhoydenishgirlswhosemischiefisonlytheresultofill-directedenergy。

Ifeachofthesecouldreceivealittlesympatheticattentionfromkindredbutwiserspirits，atleasthalfofthecrimeandviceofthenextgenerationwouldalmostcertainlybedoneawaywith。

Endnotes，Thoreau，AWeekontheConcordandMerrimackRivers，283。CharitiesandtheCommons，Aug。3，1907。Anticalupa，Chepiuchetuttel’altrebestiehaipreda。Purgatorio，xx，10。1Samuel，15：33。Vol。i，540ff。TheCityWilderness，116。Boys’Self-GoverningClubs，4，5。CharitiesandtheCommons，Aug。3，1907，abridged。JohnGrahamBrooks，TheSocialUnrest，135。TheCityWilderness，113。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter5：TheExtensionofPrimary，Ideals，CHAPTERV，THEEXTENSIONOFPRIMARYIDEALS

PRIMARYIDEALSUNDERLIEDEMOCRACYANDCHRISTIANITY——

WHYTHEYARENOTACHIEVEDONALARGERSCALE——WHATTHEYREQUIREFROMPERSONALITY——

FROMSOCIALMECHANISM——THEPRINCIPLEOFCOMPENSATION

ITwillbefoundthatthosesystemsoflargeridealismwhicharemosthumanandsoofmostenduringvalue，arebasedupontheidealsofprimarygroups。Take，forinstance，thetwosystemsthathavemostvitalityatthepresenttime梔emocracyandChristianity。

Theaspirationsofidealdemocracy梚ncluding，ofcourse，socialism，andwhateverelsemaygobyaspecialname梐rethosenaturallyspringingfromtheplaygroundorthelocalcommunity;embracingequalopportunity，fairplay，theloyalserviceofallinthecommongood，freediscussion，andkindnesstotheweak。Thesearerenewedeverydayintheheartsofthepeoplebecausetheyspringfromandarecorroboratedbyfamiliarandhomelyexperience。Moreover，moderndemocracyasahistoricalcurrentisapparentlytraceablebacktothevillagecommunitylifeoftheTeutonictribesofnorthernEurope，fromwhichitdescendsthroughEnglishconstitutionallibertyandtheAmericanandFrenchrevolutionstoitsbroadanddeepchannelsofthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies。

(52)AndChristianity，asasocialsystem，isbaseduponthefamily，itsidealsbeingtraceabletothedomesticcircleofaJudaeancarpenter。Godisakindfather;menandwomenarebrothersandsisters;

weareallmembersoneofanother，doingaswewouldbedonebyandreferring。MIthingstotheruleoflove。Insofarasthechurchhasdepartedfromtheseprinciplesithasprovedtransient;theseendurebecausetheyarehuman。

Butwhyisitthathumannatureisnotmoresuccessfulinachievingtheseprimaryaims？Theyappeartobesimpleandreasonable，andoneaskswhytheyaresolittlerealized，whywearenot，infact，amoralwhole，ahappyfamily。

Itisnotbecausewedonotwishit。Therecanbenodoubt，Ishouldsay，that，leavingasideacomparativelyfewabnormalindividuals，whoseinfluenceissmall，meningeneralhaveanaturalallegiancetothecommunityideal，andwouldgladlyseeitcarriedoutonalargeaswellasasmallscale。Andnearlyallimaginativeandaspiringpersonsviewitwithenthusiasm，andwoulddevotethemselvestoitwithsomeardorandsacrificeiftheysawclearlyhowtheycoulddosowitheffect。Itiseasytoimaginetypesofpuremalignityinpeopleofwhomwehavelittleknowledge，butwhoevercametoknowanyoneintimatelywithoutfindingthathehadsomewhereinhimtheimpulsesofamanandabrother？

Thefailuretorealizetheseimpulsesinpracticeis，ofcourse，dueinparttomoralweaknessofapersonalcharacter，tothefactthatourhighernaturehasbutanimperfectandtransientmasteryofourlower，sothatwenever，(53)liveuptoourideals。Butgoingbeyondthisandlookingatthematterfromthestandpointofthelargermind，thecauseoffailureisseentobethedifficultyoforganization。Evenifourintentionswerealwaysgood，weshouldnotsucceed，because，tomakegoodintentionseffective，theymustbeextendedintoasystem。Inattemptingtodothisourconstructivepowerisusedupandouridealsconfusedanddiscouraged。

Weareevenledtocreateakindofinstitutionswhich，thoughgoodincertainaspects，maybrutalizeorossifytheindividual，sothatprimaryidealisminhimisalmostobliterated。Thecreationofamoralorderonanever-growingscaleisthegreathistoricaltaskofmankind，andthemagnitudeofitexplainsallshortcomings。

Frompersonalitythebuildingofamoralorderrequiresnotonlygoodimpulsesbutcharacterandcapacity。Theidealmustbeworkedoutwithsteadfastness，self-control，andintelligence。Evenfamiliesandfellowships，thoughusuallyonahigherlevelthanmoreelaboratestructures，oftenbreakdown，andcommonlyfromlackofcharacterintheirmembers。

Butifitisinsufficienthere，howmuchlesswillitsufficeforarighteousstate。Ourneworderoflife，withitsgreatextensionofstructureanditsprincipleoffreedom，isaneverseverertestofthepoliticalandmoralfibreofmankind，ofitspowertoholditselftogetherinvast，efficient，plasticwholes。Whateverracesorsocialsystemsfailtoproducethisfibremustyieldascendancytothosewhichsucceed。

Thisstrongerpersonalitydependsalsoupontraining;

andwhateverpeoplessucceedinbeingrighteousona，(54)greatscalewilldosoonlybyaddingtonaturalcapacityaneducationsuitedtothegrowingdemandsofthesituation梠neatthesametimebroadandspecial，technicalandhumane。Therecanbenomoralorderthatdoesnotliveinthemindoftheindividual。

Besidespersonality梠rrathercorrelativewithittheremustbeanadequatemechanismofcommunicationandorganization。Insmallgroupstherequirementsofstructurearesosimpleastomakelittletrouble，butinproportionasthewebofrelationsextendsanddiversifies，theybecomemoreandmoredifficulttomeetwithoutsacrificinghumannature;

sothat，otherthingsequal，thefreedomandrealunityofthesystemarelikelytovaryinverselywithitsextent。Itisonlybecauseotherthingshavenotremainedequal，becausethemechanismhasbeenimproved，thatithasbecomepossible，inameasure，toreconcilefreedomwithextent。

Communicationmustbefullandquickinordertogivethatpromptnessinthegive-and-takeofsuggestionsuponwhichmoralunitydepends。Gestureandspeechensurethisintheface-to-facegroup;butonlytherecentmarvellousimprovementofcommunicativemachinerymakesafreemindonagreatscaleevenconceivable。Ifthereisnomeansofworkingthoughtandsentimentintoawholebyreciprocation，theunityofthegroupcannotbeotherthaninertandunhuman。Thiscausealonewouldaccountforthelackofextendedfreedomprevioustothenineteenthcentury。

Theremustalsobeformsandcustomsofrationalorganization，throughwhichhumannaturemayexpressitself，(55)inanorderlyandeffectivemanner。Evenchildrenlearntheneedofregulardiscussionanddecision，whileallbodiesofadultsmeetingfordeliberationfindthattheycanthinkorganicallyonlybyobservanceoftheruleswhichhavebeenworkedoutforsuchoccasions。

Andifwearetohavegreatandstablenations，itiseasytoseethattheserulesofordermustbecomeabodyoflawandcustomincludingmost，ifnotall，ofthefamiliarinstitutionsofsociety。Theseareaproductofprogressiveinvention，trial，andsurvivalasmuchastherailroadorthefactory，andtheyhaveinthelongrunthesamepurpose，thatofthefullerexpressionofhumannatureinasocialsystem。

Asmightbeexpectedfromtheseconditions，thereisaprincipleofcompensationatworkinthegrowthofthelargermind。Themorebettermentthereis，themoreofvitalforce，ofhumanreason，feeling，andchoice，goesintoit;and，asthesearelimited，improvementinonerespectisapttobeoffset，atleastinpartortemporarily，bydelayorretrogressioninothers。

Thusarapidimprovementinthemeansofcommunication，asweseeinourowntime，suppliesthebasisforalargerandfreersociety，andyetitmay，bydisorderingsettledrelations，andbyfixingattentiontoomuchuponmechanicalphasesofprogress，bringinconditionsofconfusionandinjusticethataretheoppositeoffree。

Averygeneralfactofearlypoliticalhistoryisdeteriorationbygrowth。Thesmallstatecannotescapeitsdestinyaspartofalargerworld，butmustexpandorperish。Itgrowsinsize，power，anddiversitybythenecessities，(56)ofitsstruggleforexistence梐sdidRome，Athens，andahundredotherstates梑utinsodoingsacrificeshumannaturetomilitaryexpediencyanddevelopsamechanicalordespoticstructure。This，inthelongrun，producesweakness，decay，andconquest，orperhapsrevoltandrevolution。Therequirementsofhumannature梑othdirect，asexpressedinsocialidealism，andindirect，asfeltintheultimateweaknessandfailureofsystemswhichdisregardthem梐reirrepressible。Gradually，therefore，throughimprovementandthroughthesurvivalofhighertypesinconflict，atypeoflargerstructureisdevelopedwhichlesssacrificestheserequirements。

Muchofwhatisunfreeandunhumaninourmodernlifecomesfrommereinadequacyofmentalandmoralenergytomeettheaccumulatingdemandsuponit。Inmanyquartersattentionandeffortmustbelacking，and：wherethisisthecasesocialrelationsfalltoalowplane？justasateacherwhohastoomuchtodonecessarilyadoptsamechanicalstyleofinstruction。Sowhatwecall“redtape“prevailsingreatclericalofficesbecausemuchbusinessisdonebypersonsofsmallability，whocanworkonlyunderrule。Andgreatbureaucraticsystems，liketheRussianEmpire，areofmuchthesamenature。

Ingeneralthewrongsofthesocialsystemcomemuchmorefrominadequacythanfromillintention。Itisindeednottobeexpectedthatallrelationsshouldbefullyrationalandsympathetic;wehavetobecontentwithinfusingreasonandsympathyintowhatismostvital。

Society，then，asamoralorganism，isaprogressivecreation，tentativelywroughtoutthroughexperiment，struggle，andsurvival。Notonlyindividualsbutideas，(57)institutions，nations，andracesdotheirworkuponitandperish。Itsideals，thoughsimpleinspirit，areachievedthroughendlesselaborationofmeans。

Itwillbemyfurtherendeavortothrowsomelightuponthisstrivingwholebyconsideringcertainphasesofitsorganization，suchasCommunication，PublicOpinion，Sentiment，Classes，andInstitutions;

alwaystryingtoseethewholeinthepart，thepartinthewhole，andhumannatureinboth。

CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter6：TheSignificanceof，Communication，CHAPTERVI

THESIGNIFICANCEOFCOMMUNICATION，MEANINGOFCOMMUNICATION——ITSRELATIONTOHUMAN

NATURE——TOSOCIETYATLARGE

BYCommunicationisheremeantthemechanismthroughwhichhumanrelationsexistanddevelop梐llthesymbolsofthemind，togetherwiththemeansofconveyingthemthroughspaceandpreservingthemintime。

Itincludestheexpressionoftheface，attitudeandgesture，thetonesofthevoice，words，writing，printing，railways，telegraphs，telephones，andwhateverelsemaybethelatestachievementintheconquestofspaceandtime。Allthesetakentogether，intheintricacyoftheiractualcombination，makeupanorganicwholecorrespondingtotheorganicwholeofhumanthought;

andeverythinginthewayofmentalgrowthhasanexternalexistencetherein。

Themorecloselyweconsiderthismechanismthemoreintimatewillappearitsrelationtotheinnerlifeofmankind，andnothingwillmorehelpustounderstandthelatterthansuchconsideration。

Thereisnosharplinebetweenthemeansofcommunicationandtherestoftheexternalworld。Inasenseallobjectsandactionsaresymbolsofthemind，andnearlyanythingmaybeusedasasign梐sI

maysignifythemoonorasquirreltoachildbymerelypointingatit，or，(62)byimitatingwiththevoicethechatteroftheoneordrawinganoutlineoftheother。Butthereisalso，almostfromthefirst，aconventionaldevelopmentofcommunication，springingoutofspontaneoussignsbutsoonlosingevidentconnectionwiththem，asystemofstandardsymbolsexistingforthemerepurposeofconveyingthought;anditisthiswehavechieflytoconsider。

Withoutcommunicationtheminddoesnotdevelopatruehumannature，butremainsinanabnormalandnondescriptstateneitherhumannorproperlybrutal。ThisismovinglyillustratedbythecaseofHelenKeller，who，asalltheworldknows，wascutoffateighteenmonthsfromthecheerfulwaysofmenbythelossofsightandhearing;anddidnotrenewtheconnectionuntilshewasnearlysevenyearsold。Althoughhermindwasnotwhollyisolatedduringthisperiod，sincesheretainedtheuseofaconsiderablenumberofsignslearnedduringinfancy，yetherimpulseswerecrudeanduncontrolled，andherthoughtsounconnectedthatsheafterwardrememberedalmostnothingthatoccurredbeforetheawakeningwhichtookplacetowardthecloseofherseventhyear。

Thestoryofthatawakening，astoldbyherteacher，givesasvividapictureasweneedhaveofthesignificancetotheindividualmindofthegeneralfactandideaofcommunication。ForweeksMissSullivanhadbeenspellingwordsintoherhandwhichHelenhadrepeatedandassociatedwithobjects;butshehadnotyetgraspedtheideaoflanguageingeneral，thefactthateverythinghadaname，andthatthroughnamesshecouldshareher，(63)ownexperienceswithothers，andlearntheirs梩heideathatthereisfellowshipinthought。Thiscamequitesuddenly。

“Thismorning，“writesherteacher，“whileshewaswashing，shewantedtoknowthenameforwater……Ispelledw-a-t-e-randthoughtnomoreaboutituntilafterbreakfast。ThenitoccurredtomethatwiththehelpofthisnewwordImightsucceedinstraighteningoutthemug-milkdifficulty[aconfusionofideaspreviouslydiscussed]。Wewentoutintothepump-houseandImadeHelenholdhermugunderthepumpwhileIpumped。

AsthecoldwatergushedforthfillingthemugIspelledw-a-t-e-rinHelen’sfreehand。Thewordcomingsocloseuponthesensationofcoldwaterrushingoverherhandseemedtostartleher。Shedroppedthemugandstoodasonetransfixed。Anewlightcameintoherface。Shespelledwaterseveraltimes。

Thenshedroppedonthegroundandaskedforitsname，andpointedtothepumpandthetrellis，andsuddenlyturningroundsheaskedformyname。

Ispelled’teacher。’JustthenthenursebroughtHelen’slittlesisterintothepump-house，andHelenspelled’baby’andpointedtothenurse。

Allthewaybacktothehouseshewashighlyexcited，andlearnedthenameofeveryobjectshetouched，sothatinafewhoursshehadaddedthirtynewwordstohervocabulary“

ThefollowingdayMissSullivanwrites，“Helengotupthismorninglikearadiantfairy。Shehasflittedfromobjecttoobject，askingthenameofeverythingandkissingmeforverygladness。”Andfourdayslater，“Everythingmusthaveanamenow……Shedropsthesignsandpantomimesheusedbefore，sosoonasshehaswordstosupplytheirplace，andtheacquirementofanewwordaffordshertheliveliestpleasure。Andwenoticethatherfacegrowsmoreexpressiveeachday。”[1]

Thisexperienceisatypeofwhathappensmoregraduallytoallofus：itisthroughcommunicationthatwegetourhigherdevelopment。

Thefacesandconversationofourassociates;books，letters，travel，arts，andthelike，(64)byawakeningthoughtandfeelingandguidingthemincertainchannels，supplythestimulusandframeworkforallourgrowth。

Inthesameway，ifwetakealargerviewandconsiderthelifeofasocialgroup，weseethatcommunication，includingitsorganizationintoliterature，art，andinstitutions，istrulytheoutsideorvisiblestructureofthought，asmuchcauseaseffectoftheinsideorconsciouslifeofmen。Allisonegrowth：thesymbols，thetraditions，theinstitutionsareprojectedfromthemind，tobesure，butintheveryinstantoftheirprojection，andthereafter，theyreactuponit，andinasensecontrolit，stimulating，developing，andfixingcertainthoughtsattheexpenseofotherstowhichnoawakeningsuggestioncomes。Bytheaidofthisstructuretheindividualisamembernotonlyofafamily，aclass，andastate，butofalargerwholereachingbacktoprehistoricmenwhosethoughthasgonetobuilditup。Inthiswholehelivesasinanelement，drawingfromitthematerialsofhisgrowthandaddingtoitwhateverconstructivethoughthemayexpress。

Thusthesystemofcommunicationisatool，aprogressiveinvention，whoseimprovementsreactuponmankindandalterthelifeofeveryindividualandinstitution。Astudyoftheseimprovementsisoneofthebestwaysbywhichtoapproachanunderstandingofthementalandsocialchangesthatareboundupwiththem;becauseitgivesatangibleframeworkforourideas梛ustasonewhowishedtograsptheorganiccharacterofindustryandcommercemightwellbeginwithastudyoftherailwaysystemandoftheamountandkindofcommoditiesitcarries，(65)proceedingthencetothemoreabstracttransactionsoffinance。

Andwhenwecometothemodernera，especially，wecanunderstandnothingrightlyunlessweperceivethemannerInwhichtherevolutionincommunicationhasmadeanewworldforus。SointhepagesthatfollowIshallaimtoshowwhatthegrowthofintercourseimpliesinthewayofsocialdevelopment，inquiringparticularlyintotheeffectofrecentchanges。

Endnotes，TheStoryofMyLife，316，317。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter7：TheGrowthofCommunication，CHAPTERVII

THEGROWTHOFCOMMUNICATION，PRE-VERBALCOMMUNICATION——THERISEOFSPEECH——ITSMENTAL

ANDSOCIALFUNCTION——THEFUNCTIONOFWRITING——PRINTINGANDTHEMODERN

WORLD——THENON-VERBALARTS

THEchiefmeansofwhatwemaycallpre-verbalcommunicationaretheexpressionoftheface梕speciallyofthemobileportionsabouttheeyesandmouth梩hepitch，inflection，andemotionaltoneofthevoice;andthegesturesoftheheadandlimbs。Allofthesebeginininvoluntarymovementsbutarecapableofbecomingvoluntary，andallareeagerlypracticedandinterpretedbychildrenlongbeforetheylearntospeak。Theyareimmediatelyjoinedtoactionandemotion：theinflectionsofthevoice，forinstance，playuponthechild’sfeelingsasdirectlyasmusic，andareinterpretedpartlybyaninstinctivesensibility。Ihaveheardachildseventeenmonthsoldusinghervoicesoexpressively，thoughinarticulately，thatitsounded，alittlewayoff，asifshewerecarryingonananimatedconversation。

Andgesture，suchasreachingoutthehand，bendingforward，turningawaythehead，and;thelike，springsdirectlyfromtheideasandfeelingsitrepresents。

Thehumanface，“theshapeandcolorofamindandlife，“isakindofepitomeofsociety，andifonecouldonlyreadallthatiswritteninthecountenancesofmenastheypasshemightfindagreatdealofsociologyinthem。He-

(67)-reditarybias，familynurture，theprintoftheschool，currentopinion，contemporaryinstitutions，allarethere，drawnwithaveryfinepencil。IfonewishestogetarealhumaninsightintothetimesofHenrytheEighth，forexample，hecallhardlydobetterthantostudytheportraitdrawingsofHolbein;andsoofotherperiods，includingourown，whosetraitswouldappearconspicuouslyinacollectionofportraits。Manypeoplecandiscriminateparticularclasses，as，forinstance，clergymen，bytheirexpression，andnotafewwilltellwithmuchaccuracywhatchurchthelatterbelongtoandwhethertheyareofthelowerrankorinauthority。

Againthereisadifference，indescribable，perhaps，yetapparent，betweenthelookofAmericanandofEnglishyouths梥tillmoreofgirls梬hichreflectsthedifferingsocialsystems。

Thissortofcommunicationis，ofcourse，involuntary。Anartificialmechanismofcommunicationoriginateswhenmanbeginspurposelytoreproducehisowninstinctivemotionsandcries，orthesounds，forms，andmovementsoftheworldabouthim，inordertorecalltheideasassociatedwiththem。

Allkindsofconventionalcommunicationarebelievedtoberootedintheseprimitiveimitations，which，byaprocessnothardtoimagine，extendanddifferentiateintogesture，speech，writing，andthespecialsymbolsoftheartsandsciences;sothatthewholeexteriororganizationofthoughtrefersbacktothesebeginnings。

Wecanonlyconjecturethelifeofman，orofhishumanizingprogenitor，beforespeechwasachieved;butwemaysupposethatfacialexpression，inarticulatecriesandsongs，[1]

(68)andavarietyofimitativesoundsandactionsarousedsympathy，permittedthesimplerkindsofgeneralideastobeformed，andwerethemediumthroughwhichtraditionandconventionhadtheirearliestdevelopmentItisprobablethatartificialgesturelanguagewaswellorganizedbeforespeechhadmademuchheadway。Evenwithoutwordslifemayhavebeenanactiveandcontinuousmentalwhole，notdependentforitsunityuponmereheredity，butboundtogetherbysomeconsciouscommunityinthesimplersortsofthoughtandfeeling，andbythetransmissionandaccumulationofthesethroughtradition。Therewaspresumablycooperationandinstructionofacrudesortinwhichwasthegermoffutureinstitutions。

Noonewhohasobservedchildrenwillhaveanydifficultyinconjecturingthebeginningsofspeech，sincenearlyeverychildstartsintoinventalanguageforhimself，andonlydesistswhenhefindsthatthereisoneallready-madeforhim。Thereareasmanynaturalwords(ifwemaycallthemso)astherearefamiliarsoundswithdefiniteassociations，whethercomingfromhumanbeings，fromanimals，orfrominanimatenature。Thesethechildinstinctivelylovestoreproduceandcommunicate，atfirstinmeresportandsociability，then，asoccasionarises，withmoredefinitemeaning。Thismeaningiseasilyextendedbyvarioussortsofassociationofideas;thesoundsthemselvesarealteredandcombinedinusage;andthusspeechiswellbegun。

Manyhumbleinventorscontributetoitsgrowth，everyman，possibly，alteringtheheritageinproportionasheputshisindividualityintohisspeech。Variationsof，(69)ideaarepreservedinwordsorothersymbols，andsostoredupinacontinuingwhole，constantlygrowinginbulkanddiversity，whichis，aswehaveseen，nothinglessthantheoutsideorsensibleembodimentofhumanthought，inwhicheveryparticularmindlivesandgrows，drawingfromitthematerialofitsownlife，andcontributingtoitwhateverhigherproductitmaymakeoutofthatmaterial。

Awordisavehicle，aboatfloatingdownfromthepast，ladenwiththethoughtofmenweneversaw;andincomingtounderstanditweenternotonlyintothemindsofourcontemporaries，butintothegeneralmindofhumanitycontinuousthroughtime。Thepopularnotionoflearningtospeakisthatthechildfirsthastheideaandthengetsfromothersasoundtouseincommunicatingit;butacloserstudyshowsthatthisishardlytrueevenofthesimplestideas，andisnearlythereverseoftruthasregardsdevelopedthought。Inthatthewordusuallygoesbefore，Ieadingandkindlingtheidea梬eshouldnothavethelatterifu-edidnothavethewordfirst。“Thisway，“saystheword，“isaninterestingthought：

comeandfindit。”Andsoweareledontorediscoveroldknowledge。Suchwords，forinstance，asgood，right，truth，love，home，justice，beauty，freedom;arepowerfulmakersofwhattheystandfor。

Amindwithoutwordswouldmakeonlysuchfeebleanduncertainprogressasatravellersetdowninthemidstofawildernesswheretherewerenopathsorconveyancesandwithoutevenacompass。Amindwiththemislikethesametravellerinthemidstofcivilization，withbeatenroadsandrapidvehiclesreadytotakehiminanydirection，(70)wheremenhavebeenbefore。Asthetravellermustpassoverthegroundineithercase，sothemindmustpassthroughexperience，butifithaslanguageitfindsitsexperienceforeseen，mappedoutandinterpretedbyallthewisdomofthepast，sothatithasnotonlyitsownexperiencebutthatoftherace梛ustasthemoderntravellerseesnotonlytheoriginalcountrybutthecitiesandplantationsofmen。

Theprinciplethatappliestowordsappliesalsotoallstructuresthatarebuiltofwords，toliteratureandthemanifoldtraditionsthatitconveys。

AsthelinesofDanteare“foot-pathsforthethoughtofItaly，“sothesuccessfuleffortsofthemindineveryfieldarepreservedintheirsymbolsandbecomefoot-pathsbywhichothermindsreachthesamepoint。Andthisincludesfeelingaswellasdefiniteidea。Itisalmostthemostwonderfulthingaboutlanguagethatbysomethingintangibleinitsorderandmovementandintheselectionandcollocationofwords，itcantransmittheverysoulofaman，makinghispagelivewhenhisdefiniteideashaveceasedtohavevalue。InthiswayonegetsfromSirThomasBrowne，letussay，nothisconceitsandcredulities，buthishighandreligiousspirit，hovering，asitwere，overthepage。

Theachievementofspeechiscommonlyandproperlyregardedasthedistinctivetraitofman，asthegatebywhichheemergedfromhispre-humanstate。

Itmeansthat，likeHelenKeller，hehaslearnedthateverythinghas，ormayhave，aname，andsohasentereduponalifeofconsciousfellowshipinthought。Itnotonlypermittedtheriseofamorerationalandhumankindofthinkingandfeeling，butwasalsothebasisoftheearliestdefinite，(71)institutionsAwiderandfullerunityofthoughttookplaceineverygroupwhereitappeared。Ideasregardingthechiefinterestsofprimitivelife梙unting，warfare，marriage’feastingandthelike梬eredefined，communicatedandextended。Publicopinionnodoubtbegantoarisewithinthetribe，andcrystallizedintocurrentsayingswhichservedasrulesofthoughtandconduct;thefestalchants，iftheyexistedbefore，becamearticulateandhistorical。Andwhenanythoughtofspecialvaluewasachievedinthegroup，itdidnotperish，butwashandedonbytraditionandmadethebasisofnewgains。Inthiswayprimitivewisdomandrulewereperpetuated，enlargedandimproveduntil，inconnectionwithceremonialandothersymbols，theybecamesuchinstitutions，ofgovernment，marriage，religionandpropertyasarefoundineverysavagetribe。

Normustweforgetthatthisstateofthingsreacteduponthenaturalcapacitiesofman，perhapsbythedirectinheritanceofacquiredsocialhabitsandaptitudes，certainlybythesurvivalofthosewho，havingthese，weremorefittedthanotherstothriveinasociallife。Inthiswayman，ifhewashumanwhenspeechbegantobeused，rapidlybecamemoreso，andwentonaccumulatingasocialheritage。

Sothestudyofspeechrevealsatruthwhichwemayalsoreachinmanyotherways，namely，thatthegrowthoftheindividualmindisnotaseparategrowth，butratheradifferentiationwithinthegeneralmind。Ourpersonallife，sofaraswecanmakeout，hasitssourcespartlyincongenitaltendency，andpartlyinthestreamofcommunication，bothofwhichflowfromthecorporatelifeofthe，(72)race。Theindividualhasnobettergroundforthinkingofhimselfasseparatefromhumanitythanhehasforthinkingoftheselfheisto-dayasseparatefromtheselfhewasyesterday;thecontinuitybeingnomorecertainintheonecasethanintheother。Ifitbesaidthatheisseparatebecausehefeelsseparate，itmaybeansweredthattotheinfanteachmomentisseparate，andthatweknowourpersonallifetobeawholeonlythroughthegrowthofthoughtandmemory。Inthesamewaythesenseofalargerorsocialwholenessisperhapsmerelyaquestionofourgrowingintomorevividandintelligentconsciousnessofaunitywhichisalreadyclearenoughtoreflectiveobservation。

Itisthesocialfunctionofwriting，bygivingideasalastingrecord，tomakepossibleamorecertain，continuousanddiversifiedgrowthofthehumanmind。Itdoesfortheraceverymuchwhatitdoesfortheindividual。

Whenthestudenthasagoodthoughthewritesitdown，sothatitmayberecalledatwillandmadethestartingpointforabetterthoughtinthesamedirection;andsomankindatlargerecordsandcherishesitsinsights。

Untilwritingisachievedtheaccumulationofideasdependsuponoraltradition，thecapacityofwhichismeasuredbytheinterestandmemoryofthepeoplewhotransmitit。Itmust，therefore，confineitselfchieflytoideasandsentimentsforwhichthereisasomewhatgeneralandconstantdemand，suchaspopularstories條iketheHomerianlegends梒hants，proverbs，maximsandthelike。Itistruethattraditionbecomesmoreorlessspecializedinfamiliesandcastes梐swesee，forinstance，inthewide，(73)spreadexistenceofahereditarypriesthood梑utthisspecializationcannotbeveryelaborateorverysecureinitscontinuance。Therecanhardlybe，withoutwriting，anyscienceoranydiversifiedliterature。Theserequireameansbywhichimportantideascanhepassedonunimpairedtomendistantintimeandspacefromtheirauthors。Wemaysafelypronounce，withGibbon，that’’withoutsomespeciesofwritingnopeoplehaseverpreservedthefaithfulannalsoftheirhistory，evermadeanyconsiderableprogressintheabstractsciences，oreverpossessed，inanytolerabledegreeofperfection，theusefulandagreeableartsoflife。”[2]

Norcanstableandextendedgovernmentbeorganizedwithoutit，forsuchgovernmentrequiresaconstitutionofsomesort，adefiniteandpermanentbodyoflawandcustom，embracingthewisdomofthepastregardingthemaintenanceofsocialorder。

Itisquitethesamewithreligioussystems。ThehistoricalreligionsarebaseduponScriptures，theessentialpartofwhichistherecordedteachingofthefounderandhisimmediatedisciples，andwithoutsucharecordChristianity，BuddhismorMohammedanismcouldneverhavebeenmorethanasmallandtransientsect。Theremaywellhavebeenmenofreligiousgeniusamongourilliterateforefathers，butitwasimpossiblethattheyshouldfoundenduringsystems。

Thewholestructureandprogressofmodernlifeevidentlyrestsuponthepreservation，inwriting，oftheachievementsoftheantiquemind，upontherecords，especially，ofJudea，GreeceandRome。Toinquirewhat，(74)weshouldhavebeenwithoutthesewouldbelikeaskingwhatweshouldhavebeenifourparentshadnotexisted。Writingmadehistorypossible，andthemanofhistorywithhiscomplexinstitutions。Itenabledarapidandsecureenlargementofthathumannaturewhichhadpreviouslybeenconfinedwithinsmallandunstablegroups。

Ifwriting，bygivingthoughtpermanence，broughtintheearliercivilization，printing，bygivingitdiffusionopenedthedoorsofthemodernworld。

Beforeitsadventaccesstotherecordsoftheracewaslimitedtoalearnedclass，whothusheldakindofmonopolyofthetraditionsuponwhichthesocialsystemrested。ThroughouttheearlierMiddleAges，forexample，theclergy，orthatsmallportionoftheclergywhowereeducated，occupiedthispositioninEurope，andtheirsystemwastheoneanimateandwide-reachingmentalorganizationoftheperiod。Formanycenturiesitwasrareforalayman，ofwhateverrank，toknowhowtosignhisname。

ThroughtheLatinlanguage，writtenandspoken，whichwouldapparentlyhaveperishedhaditnotbeenfortheChurch，thelargercontinuityandcooperationofthehumanmindwasmaintained。Thosewhocouldreadithadacommonliteratureandavaguesenseofunityandbrotherhood。Romanideaswerepreserved，howeverimperfectly，andanidealRomelivedinthePapacyandtheEmpire。Education，naturally，wascontrolledbytheclergy，whowerealsointrustedwithpoliticalcorrespondenceandtheframingoflaws。

Asiswellknowntheysomewhatrecastthetraditionsintheirowninterest，andwereaidedbytheircontrolofthecommu，(75)-nicatingmediuminbecomingthedominantpowerinEurope。

Printingmeansdemocracy，becauseitbringsknowledgewithinthereachofthecommonpeople;andknowledge，inthelongrun，issuretomakegooditsclaimtopower。Itbringstotheindividualwhateverpartintheheritageofideasheisfittoreceive。Theworldofthought，andeventuallytheworldofaction，comesgraduallyundertheruleofatruearistocracyofintelligenceandcharacter，inplaceofanartificialonecreatedbyexclusiveopportunity。

Everywherethespreadofprintingwasfollowedbyageneralawakeningduetotheunsettlingsuggestionswhichitscatteredabroad。Politicalandreligiousagitation，bynomeansunknownbefore，wasimmenselystimulated，andhascontinuedunabatedtothepresenttime。“Thewholeofthismovement，“

saysMr。H。C。Lea，speakingoftheliberalagitationsoftheearlysixteenthcentury，“hadbeenrenderedpossiblebytheinventionofprinting，whichfacilitatedsoenormouslythediffusionofintelligence，whichenabledpublicopiniontoformandexpressitself，andwhich，bybringingintocommunicationmindsofsimilarwaysofthinking，affordedopportunityforcombinedaction。”“When，therefore，onOctober31，1517，Luther’sfatefultheseswerehungonthechurchdooratWittenberg，theywere，ashetellsus，knowninafortnightthroughoutGermany;andinamonththeyhadreachedRomeandwerebeingreadineveryschoolandconventinEurope梐resultmanifestlyimpossiblewithouttheaidoftheprintingpress。”[3]

(76)Theprintedpageisalsothedoorbywhichtheindividual，inourowntime，entersthelargerroomsoflifeAgoodbook，“thepreciouslifebloodofamasterspiritstoreduponpurposetoalifebeyondlife，“[4]isalmostalwaysthechannelthroughwhichuncommonmindsgetincitementandaidtoliftthemselvesintothehigherthoughtthatotheruncommonmindshavecreated。“Instudyweholdconversewiththewise，inactionusuallywiththefoolish“[5]Whilethemassofmankindaboutusisevercommonplace，thereisalways，inourday，amoreselectsocietynotfarawayforonewhocravesit，andamanlikeAbrahamLincoln，whosebirthwouldhavemeanthopelessserfdomafewcenturiesago，maygetfromhalfadozenbooksaspirationswhichleadhimouttoauthorityandbeneficence。

Whilespokenlanguage，alongwiththewritingandprintingbywhichitispreservedanddisseminated，inthemaincurrentofcommunication，therearefromthestartmanysidechannels。

Thusamongsavageorbarbarouspeoplesweeverywherefind，besidegesturelanguage，theuseofamultitudeofothersymbols，suchastheredarrowforwar，thepipeofpeace，signalfires，notchedsticks，knottedcords，totems，and，amongnationsmoreadvancedinculture，coats-of-arms，flagsandaninfinitediversityofsymbolicritual。Thereis，indeed，aworldofsignsoutsideoflanguage，mostofwhich，however，wemaypassby，sinceitsgeneralnatureisobviousenough。

(77)

Theartsofpainting，sculpture，music，andarchitecture。consideredascommunication，havetwosomewhatdifferentfunctions：First，asmerepictureorimagewriting，conveyingideasthatcouldalsobeconveyed(thoughwithadifference)inwords;and，second，asthcvehicleofpeculiarphasesofsentimentincommunicableinanyotherway。Thesetwowereoften，indeedusually，combinedintheartofthepast。Inmoderntimestheformer，becauseofthediffusionofliteracy，hasbecomeofsecondaryimportanceOfthepicture-writingfunctionthemosaics，incolorsonagoldground，thatcovertheinnerwallsofSt。Mark’satVeniceareafamiliarinstance。

Theysetforthinsomewhatrudefigures，helpedoutbysymbols，thewholesystemofChristiantheologyasitwasthenunderstood。Theywerethusanilluminatedbookofsacredlearningthroughwhichthepeopleenteredintothereligioustradition。ThesametraditionisillustratedinthesculptureofthecathedralsofChartresandRheims，togetherwithmuchothermatter梥ecularhistory，typifiedbyfiguresofthekingsofFrance;

moralphilosophy，withvirtuesand_ices，rewardsandpunishments;andemblemsofhusbandryandhandicraft。Alongwiththesesculptureswentthepicturedwindows，thesacredrelics梬hich，asGibbonsays，“fixedandinflamedthedevotionofthefaithful“[6]梩hemusic，andtheelaboratepageantsandritual;allworkingtogetherasonerichsign，inwhichwasincarnatedtheideallifeofthetimes。

Asubtlerfunctionofthenon-verbalartsistocommunicatematterthatcouldnotgobyanyotherroad，(78)especiallycertainsortsofsentimentwhicharethusper。petuatedanddiflused。

Oneofthesimplestandmostfruitfulexamplesofthisisthedepictionofhumanformsandfaceswhichembody！asifbylivingpresence，thenoblerfeelingsandapirationsofthetime。Suchworks，inpaintingorsculpture，retmainassymbolsbytheaidofwhichlikesentimentsgrowupinthemindsofwhomsoeverbecomefamiliarwiththemSentimentiscumulativeinhumanhistoryinthesamemannerasthought，thoughlessdefinitelyandsurely，andChristianfeeling，asitgrewandflourishedintheMiddleAges，wasfosteredbypaintingasmuch，perhaps，asbytheScriptures。

AndsoGreeksculpture，fromthetimeofthehumanistsdownthroughWinckelmannandGoethetothepresentday，hasbeenachannelbywhichGreeksentimenthasflowedintomodernlife。

Thisrecordofhumanfeelinginexpressiveformsandfaces，asinthemadonnasandsaintsofRaphael，iscalledbysomecritics“illustration“;

andtheydistinguishitfrom“decoration，“whichincludesallthoseelementsinaworkofartwhichexistnottotransmitsomethingelsebutfortheirownmoreimmediatevalue，suchasbeautyofcolor，form，compositionandsuggestedmovement。Thislatteriscommunicationalso，appealingtovividbutotherwiseinarticulatephasesofhumaninstinct。Eachartcanconveyauniquekindofsentimentandhas“itsownpeculiarandincommunicablesensuouscharm，itsownspecialmodeofreachingtheimagination。”Inapicturethemostcharacteristicthingis“thattruepictorialquality……theinventiveorcreativehandlingofpurelineandcolor，which，asalmostalwaysinDutchpainting，as，(79)oftenalsointheworksofTitianorVeronese，isquiteindependentofanythingdefinitelypoeticalinthesubjectitaccompanies。”inmusic“themusicalcharm梩hatessentialmusic，whichpresentsnowords，nomatterofsentimentorthought，separablefromthespecialforminwhichitisconveyedtous。”{[7]Andsowitharchitecture，anartpeculiarlyclosetosocialorganization，sothatinmanycases梐sinthePlaceofVenice梩hespiritofasocialsystemhasbeenvisiblyraisedupinstone。

Itneedsnoargument，Isuppose，toshowthattheseartsarenolessessentialtothegrowthofthehumanspiritthanliteratureorgovernment。

Endnotes，Ontheprobabilitythatsongprecededspeech，seeDarwin，DescentofMan，chap。19。DeclineandFall，Milman-Smithedition，i，354。TheCambridgeModernHistory，i，684，685。Milton，Areopagitiea。Bacon，AntithetaonStudies。DeclineandFall，Milman-Smithedition，iii，428。WalterPater，EssayontheSchoolofGiorgione。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter8：ModernCommunication：

EnlargementandAnimation，CHAPTERVIII

MODERNCOMMUNICATION：

ENLARGEMENTANDANIMATION，CHARACTEROFRECENTCHANGES——THEIRGENERALEFFECT——THE

CHANGEINTHEUNITEDSTATES——ORGANIZEDGOSSIP——PUBLICOPINION，DEMOCRACY，INTERNATIONALISM——THEVALUEOFDIFFUSION——ENLARGEMENTOFFEELING——

CONCLUSION

THE，changesthathavetakenplacesincethebeginningofthenineteenthcenturyaresuchastoconstituteanewepochincommunication，andinthewholesystemofsociety。Theydeserve，therefore，carefulconsiderationnotsomuchintheirmechanicalaspect，whichisfamiliartoeveryone，asintheiroperationuponthelargermind。

Ifoneweretoanalyzethemechanismofintercourse，hemight，perhaps，distinguishfourfactorsthatmainlycontributetoitsefficiency，namely：

Expressiveness，ortherangeofideasandfeelingsitiscompetenttocarry。

Permanenceofrecord，ortheovercomingoftime。

Swiftness，ortheovercomingofspace。

Diffusion，oraccesstoallclassesofmen。

Nowwhilegainshavenodoubtbeenmadeinexpressiveness，asintheenlargementofourvocabularytoembracetheideasofmodernscience;andeveninpermanenceofrecord，forscientificandotherspecialpurposes;Netcertainlythelongstepsofrecenttimeshavebeenmade，(81)inthedirectionofswiftnessanddiffusion。FormostpurposesourspeechisnobetterthanintheageofElizabeth，ifsogood;butwhatfacilitywehavegainedintheapplicationofit！Thecheapeningofprinting，permittinganinundationofpopularbooks，magazinesaridnewspapers，hasbeensupplementedbytheriseofthemodernpostalsystemandtheconquestofdistancebyrailroads，telegraphsandtelephones。

Andalongwiththeseextensionsofthespokenorwrittenwordhavecomenewartsofreproduction，suchasphotography，photo-engraving，phonographyandthelike梠fgreatersocialimportthanwerealize梑ywhichnewkindsofimpressionfromthevisibleoraudibleworldmaybefixedanddisseminated。

Itisnottoomuchtosaythatthesechangesarethebasis，fromamechanicalstandpoint，ofnearlyeverythingthatischaracteristicinthepsychologyofmodernlife。Inageneralwaytheymeantheexpansionofhumannature，thatistosay，ofitspowertoexpressitselfinsocialwholes。Theymakeitpossibleforsocietytobeorganizedmoreandmoreonthehigherfacultiesofman，onintelligenceandsympathy，ratherthanonauthority，caste，androutine。Theymeanfreedom，outlook，indefinitepossibility。Thepublicconsciousness，insteadofbeingconfinedasregardsitsmoreactivephasestolocalgroups，extendsbyevenstepswiththatgive-and-takeofsuggestionsthatthenewintercoursemakespossible，untilwidenations，andfinallytheworlditself，maybeincludedinonelivelymentalwhole。

Thegeneralcharacterofthischangeiswellexpressed，(82)bythetwowordsenlargementandanimation。Socialcontactsareextendedinspaceandquickenedintime，andinthesamedegreethementalunitytheyimplybecomeswiderandmorealert。

Theindividualisbroadenedbycomingintorelationwithalargerandmorevariouslife，andheiskeptstirredup，sometimestoexcess，bythemultitudeofchangingsuggestionswhichthislifebringstohim。

Fromwhateverpointofviewwestudymodernsocietytocompareitwiththepastortoforecastthefuture，weoughttokeepatleastasubconsciousnessofthisradicalchangeinmechanism，withoutallowingforwhichnothingelsecanbeunderstood。

IntheUnitedStates，forinstance，atthecloseoftheeighteenthcentury，publicconsciousnessofanyactivekindwasconfinedtosmalllocalities。Travelwasslow，uncomfortableandcostly，andpeopleundertakingaconsiderablejourneyoftenmadetheirwillsbeforehand。Thenewspapers，appearingweeklyinthelargertowns，wereentirelylackinginwhatweshouldcallnews;andthenumberofletterssentduringayearinallthethirteenstateswasmuchlessthanthatnowhandledbytheNewYorkofficeinasingleday。Peoplearefarmorealiveto-daytowhatisgoingoninChina，ifithappenstointerestthem，thantheywerethentoeventsahundredmilesaway。Theisolationofevenlargetownsfromtherestoftheworld，andtheconsequentintroversionofmen’smindsuponlocalconcerns，wassomethingwecanhardlyconceive。Inthecountry“theenvironmentofthefarmwastheneighborhood;theenvironmentofthevillage，(83)wastheencirclingfarmsandthelocaltradition;……fewconventionsassembledfordiscussionandcommonaction;educationalcentresdidnotradiatetheshockofanewintellectuallifetoeveryhamlet;

federationsandunionsdidnotbindmen，nearandremote，intothatfellowshipthatmakesonecompositetypeofmanyhumansorts。Itwasanageofsects，intolerantfromlackofacquaintance。”[1]

Thechangetothepresentregimeofrailroads，telegraphs，dailypapers，telephonesandtheresthasinvolvedarevolutionineveryphaseoflife;incommerce，inpolitics，ineducation，eveninmeresociabilityandgossip？thisrevolutionalwaysconsistinginanenlargementandquickeningofthekindoflifeinquestion。

Probablythereisnothinginthisnewmechanismquitesopervasiveandcharacteristicasthedailynewspaper，whichisasvehementlypraisedasitisabused，andinbothcaseswithgoodreason。Whatastrangepracticeitis，whenyouthinkofit，thatamanshouldsitdowntohisbreakfasttableand，insteadofconversingwithhiswife，andchildren，holdbeforehisfaceasortofscreenonwhichisinscribedaworld-widegossip！

Theessentialfunctionofthenewspaperis，ofcourse，toserveasabulletinofimportantnewsandamediumfortheinterchangeofideas，throughtheprintingofinterviews，letters，speechesandeditorialcomment。Inthiswayitisindispensabletotheorganizationofthepublicmind。

Thebulkofitsmatter，however，isbestdescribedby，(84)thephraseorganizedgossip。Thesortofintercoursethatpeopleformerlycarriedonatcross-roadstoresorIoverthebackfence，hasnowattainedthedignityofprintandanimposingsystem。Thatweabsorbafloodofthisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatourmindsaredegenerate’butmerelythatwearegratifyinganoldappetiteinanewway。HenryJamesspeakswithaseveritynaturaltoliterarysensibilityof“theubiquitousnewspaperface，withitsmeremonstrosityanddeformityoffeature，andthevastopenmouth，adjustedastothechatterofBedlam，thatflingstheflood-gatesofvulgarityfartherback[inAmerica]thananywhereelseonearth。”[2]Butafterallisitanymorevulgarthantheolderkindofgossip？Nodoubtitseemsworseforventuringtosharewithliteraturetheuseoftheprintedword。

Thatthebulkofthecontentsofthenewspaperisofthenatureofgossipmaybeseenbynotingthreetraitswhichtogetherseemtomakeafairdefinitionofthatword。Itiscopious，designedtooccupy，withoutexerting，themind。Itconsistsmostlyofpersonalitiesandappealstosuperficialemotion。Itisuntrustworthy梕xceptuponafewmattersofmomentwhichthepublicarelikelytofollowupandverify。Thesetraitsanyonewhoiscuriousmaysubstantiatebyastudyofhisownmorningjournal。

Thereisabetterandaworsesidetothisenlargementofgossip。Ontheformerwemayreckonthefactthatitpromotesawidespreadsociabilityandsenseofcommunity;weknowthatpeoplealloverthecountryarelaughingatthesamejokesorthrillingwiththesamemildexcitementoverthefoot-ballgame，andweabsorbaconviction，(85)thattheyaregoodfellowsmuchlikeourselves。Italsotendspowerfully，throughthefearofpublicity，toenforceapopular，somewhatvulgar，butsoundandhumanstandardofmorality。Ontheotherhanditfosterssuperficialityandcommonplaceineverysphereofthoughtandfeeling，andis，ofcourse，theantithesisofliteratureandofallhighorfinespiritualachievement。Itstandsfordiffusionasopposedtodistinction。

Inpoliticscommunicationmakespossiblepublicopinion，which，whenorganized，isdemocracy。Thewholegrowthofthis，andofthepopulareducationandenlightenmentthatgowithit，isimmediatelydependentuponthetelegraph，thenewspaperandthefastmail，fortherecanbenopopularminduponquestionsoftheday，overwideareas，exceptasthepeoplearepromptlyinformedofsuchquestionsandareenabledtoexchangeviewsregardingthem。

Ourgovernment，undertheConstitution，wasnotoriginallyademocracy，andwasnotintendedtobesobythementhatframedit。Itwasexpectedtobearepresentativerepublic，thepeoplechoosingmenofcharacterandwisdom，whowouldproceedtothecapital，informthemselvesthereuponcurrentquestions，anddeliberateanddecideregardingthem。

Thatthepeoplemightthinkandactmoredirectlywasnotforeseen。TheConstitutionisnotdemocraticinspirit，and，asMr。Brycehasnoted，[3]mightunderdifferentconditionshavebecomethebasisofanaristocraticsystem。

Thatanysystemcouldhaveheldeventheoriginal，(86)thirteenstatesinfirmunionwithouttheadventofmoderncommunicationisverydoubtful。Politicalphilosophy，fromPlatotoMontesquieu，hadtaughtthatfreestatesmustbesmall，andFredericktheGreatissaidtohaveridiculedtheideaofoneextendingfromMainetoGeorgia。“Alargeempire，“saysMontesquieu，“supposesadespoticauthorityinthepersonwhogoverns。Itisnecessarythatthequicknessoftheprince’sresolutionsshouldsupplythedistanceoftheplacestheyaresentto。”[4]

Democracyhasarisenhere，asitseemstobearisingeverywhereinthecivilizedworld，not，chiefly，becauseofchangesintheformalconstitution，butastheoutcomeofconditionswhichmakeitnaturalforthepeopletohareandtoexpressaconsciousnessregardingquestionsoftheday。ItissaidbythosewhoknowChinathatwhilethatcountrywasatwarwithJapanthemajorityoftheChinesewereunawarethatawarwasinprogress。Suchignorancemakestheswayofpublicopinionimpossible;

andconversely，itseemslikelythatnostate，havingavigorouspeople，canlongescapethatswayexceptbyrepressingtheinterchangeofthought。

Whenthepeoplehaveinformationanddiscussiontheywillhaveawill，andthismustsoonerorlatergetholdoftheinstitutionsofsociety。

Oneisoftenimpressedwiththethoughtthatthereoughttobesomewidernameforthemodernmovementthandemocracy，somenamewhichshouldmoredistinctlysuggesttheenlargementandquickeningofthegeneralmind，ofwhichtheformalruleofthepeopleisonlyoneamongmanymanifestations。Thecurrentofnewlifethatissweepingwithaugmentingforcethroughtheolder，(87)structuresofsociety，nowcarryingthemaway，nowleavingthemoutwardlyundisturbed，hasnoadequatename。

Populareducationisaninseparablepartofallthis：

theindividualmusthaveatleastthoseartsofreadingandwritingwithoutwhichhecanhardlybeavitalmemberoftheneworganism。Andthatfurtherdevelopmentofeducation，rapidlybecomingaconsciousaimofmodernsociety，whichstrivestogivetoeverypersonaspecialtraininginpreparationforwhateverfunctionhemayhaveaptitudefor，isalsoaphaseofthefreerandmoreflexibleorganizationofmentalenergy。Thesameenlargementrunsthroughalllife，includingfashionandothertrivialorfugitivekindsofintercourse。Andthewidestphaseofall，uponwhosemomentousnessIneednotdwell，isthatriseofaninternationalconsciousness，inliterature，inscienceand，finally，inpolitics，whichholdsoutatrustworthypromiseoftheindefiniteenlargementofjusticeandamity。

Thisunificationoflifebyafreercourseofthoughtisnotonlycontemporaneous，overcomingspace，butalsohistorical，bringingthepastintothepresent，andmakingeverynotableachievementoftheraceapossiblefactorinitscurrentlife梐swhen，byskilfulreproductiontheworkofamediaevalpainterisbroughthometopeopledwellingfivehundredyearslaterontheothersideoftheglobe。Ourtimeisoneof“largediscourse，lookingbeforeandafter。“

Thereareremarkablepossibilitiesinthisdiffusivevigor。

Never，certainly，weregreatmassesofmensorapidlyrisingtohigherlevelsasnow。Therearethe，(88)samefacilitiesfordisseminatingimprovementinmindandmannersasinmaterialdevices;andthenewcommunicationhasspreadlikemorninglightovertheworld，awakening，enlightening，enlarging，andfillingwithexpectation。Humannaturedesiresthegood，whenitonceperceivesit，andinallthatiseasilyunderstoodandimitatedgreatheadwayismaking。

Noristhere，asIshalltrytoshowlater，anygoodreasontothinkthattheconditionsarepermanentlyunfavorabletotheriseofspecialandselecttypesofexcellence。Thesamefacilityofcommunicationwhichanimatesmillionswiththeemulationofcommonmodels，alsomakesiteasyformorediscriminatingmindstouniteinsmallgroupsThegeneralfactisthathumannatureissetfree;intimeitwillnodoubtjustifyitsfreedom。

Theenlargementaffectsnotonlythoughtbutfeeling，favoringthegrowthofasenseofcommonhumanity，ofmoralunity，betweennations，racesandclasses。Amongmembersofacommunicatingwholefeelingmaynotalwaysbefriendly，butitmustbe，inasense，sympathetic，involvingsomeconsciousnessoftheother’spointofview。Eventheanimositiesofmodernnationsareofahumanandimaginativesort，nottheblindanimalhostilityofamoreprimitiveage。Theyareresentments，andresentmeet，asCharlesLambsays，isofthefamilyoflove。

Therelationsbetweenpersonsorcommunitiesthatarewithoutmutualunderstandingarenecessarilyonalowplane。Theremaybeindifference，orablindangerduetointerference，ortheremaybeagood-naturedtolerance;butthereisnoconsciousnessofacommonnaturetowarm，(89)upthekindlysentiments。Areallyhumanfellow-feelingwasancientlyconfinedwithinthetribe，menoutsidenotbeingfeltasmembersofacommonwhole。Thealienwascommonlytreatedasamoreorlessusefulordangerousanimal——destroyed，despoiledorenslaved。Eveninthesedayswecarelittleaboutpeoplewhoselifeisnotbroughthometousbysomekindofsympatheticcontact。WemayreadstatisticsofthemiserablelifeoftheItaliansandJewsinNewYorkandChicago;ofbadhousing，sweatshopsandtuberculosis;butwecarelittlemoreaboutthemthanwedoaboutthesufferersfromtheBlackDeath，unlesstheirlifeisrealizedtousinsomehumanway，eitherbypersonalcontact，orbypicturesandimaginativedescription。

Andwearegettingthisatthepresenttime。Theresourcesofmoderncommunicationareusedinstimulatingandgratifyingourinterestineveryphaseofhumanlife。Russians，Japanese，Filipinos，fishermen，miners，millionaires，criminals，trampsandopium-eatersarebroughthometous。Thepresswellunderstandsthatnothinghumanisalientousifitisonlymadecomprehensible。

Withamindenlargedandsuppledbysuchtraining，themanofto-dayinclinestolookforacommonnatureeverywhereandtodemandthatthewholeworldshallbebroughtundertheswayofcommonprinciplesofkindnessandjustice。Hewantstoseeinternationalstrifeallayed？

insuchaway，however，asnottopreventtheexpansionofcapableracesandthesurvivalofbettertypes;hewishesthefrictionofclassesreducedandeachinterestfairlytreated梑utwithoutcheckingindividualityandenterprise。Therewasneversogeneralaneagernessthat，(90)righteousnessshouldprevail;thechiefmatterofdisputeisupontheprinciplesunderwhichitmaybeestablished。

Theworkofcommunicationinenlarginghumannatureispartlyimmediate，throughfacilitatingcontact，butevenmoreitisindirect，throughfavoringtheincreaseofintelligence，thedeclineofmechanicalandarbitraryformsoforganization，andtheriseofamorehumanetypeofsociety。Historymayberegardedasarecordofthestruggleofmantorealizehisaspirationsthroughorganization;andthenewcommunicationisanefficienttoolforthispurpose。Assumingthatthehumanheartandconscience，restrictedonlybythedifficulties-oforganization，isthearbiterofwhatinstitutionsaretobecome，wemayexpectthefacilityofintercoursetobethestarting-pointofaneraofmoralprogress。

Endnotes，W。L。Anderson，TheCountryTown，209，210。TheMannersofAmericanWomen，Harper’sBazaar，May，1907。TheAmericanCommonwealth，chap。26。TheSpiritofLaws，bookviii，chap。19。，CharlesHortonCooley：SocialOrganization：Chapter9：ModernCommunication：

Individuality，CHAPTERIX

MODERNCOMMUNICATION：INDIVIDUALITY，THEQUESTION——WHYCOMMUNICATIONSHOULDFOSTERINDIVIDUALITY——

THECONTRARYORDEAD-LEVELTHEORY——RECONCILIATIONOFTHESEVIEWS——

THEOUTLOOKASREGARDSINDIVIDUALITY

ITisaquestionofutmostinterestwhetherthesechangesdoordonotcontributetotheindependenceandproductivityoftheindividualmind。

Dotheyfosteraself-reliantpersonality，capableatneedofpursuinghighandrareaims，orhavetheyratheralevellingtendency，repressiveofwhatisoriginalandcharacteristic？Thereareinfactoppositeopinionsregardingthismatter，insupportofeitherofwhichnumerousexpressionsbywritersofsomeweightmightbecollected。

Fromonepointofviewitwouldappearthatthenewcommunicationoughttoencourageindividualityofallkinds;itmakesiteasiertogetawayfromagivenenvironmentandtofindsupportinonemorecongenial。Theworldhasgrownmorevariousandatthesametimemoreaccessible，sothatonehavinganaturalbentshouldbethemoreabletofindinfluencestonourishit。Ifhehasaturn，say，forentomology，hecanreadily，throughjournals，correspondenceandmeetings，getintouchwithagroupofmensimilarlyinclined，andwithacongenial，(92)tradition。Andsowithanysectofreligion，orpolitics，orart，orwhatnot;ifthereareinthecivilizedworldafewlike-mindedpeopleitiscomparativelyeasyforthemtogettogetherinspiritandencourageoneanotherintheirpeculiarity。

Itisasimpleandrecognizedprincipleofdevelopmentthatanenlargedlifeintheorganismcommonlyinvolvesgreaterdifferentiationinitsparts。

Thatthesocialenlargementofrecenttimeshasingeneralthischaracterseemsplain，andhasbeensetforthinmuchdetailbysomewriters，notablybyHerbertSpencer。Many，indeed，findthecharacteristicevilofthenewerainanextremeindividuality，asomewhatanarchicdifferentiationandworkingatcrosspurposes。“Probablytherewasneveranytime，“saysProfessorMackenzie，“inwhichmentendedtobesounintelligibletoeachotherastheyarenow，onaccountofthediversityoftheobjectswithwhichtheyareengaged，andofthepointsofviewatwhichtheystand。”[1]

Ontheotherhandwehavewhatwemaycallthedeadleveltheory，ofwhichDeTocqueville，inhisDemocracyinAmerica，wasapparentlythechiefauthor。Modernconditions，accordingtothis，breakdownalllimitstothespreadofideasandcustoms。Greatpopulationsarebroughtintoonementalwhole，throughwhichmovementsofthoughtrunbyacontagionlikethatofthemob;andinsteadoftheindividualitywhichwasfosteredbyformerobstacles，wehaveauniversalassimilation。Eachlocality，itispointedout，hadformerlyitspeculiaraccent，(93)andmodeofdress;whilenowdialectsaredisappearing，andalmostthesamefashionsprevailthroughoutthecivilizedworld。Thisuniformityinexternalsisheldtobeonlytheoutwardandvisiblesignofacorrespondinglevelingofideas。People，itissaid，haveapassiontobealike，whichmodernappliancesenablethemtogratify。AlreadyintheeighteenthcenturyDr。Johnsoncomplainedthat“commercehasleftthepeoplenosingularities，“

andinourdaymanyholdwithJohnBurroughsthat，“Constantintercommunication，thefrictionoftravel，ofstreets，ofbooks，ofnewspapers，makeusallalike;weare，asitwere，allpebblesuponthesameshore，washedbythesamewaves。”[2]

Thekeytothismatter，inmyjudgment，istoperceivethattherearetwokindsofindividuality，oneofisolationandoneofchoice，andthatmodernconditionsfosterthelatterwhiletheyeffacetheformer。Theytendtomakeliferationalandfreeinsteadoflocalandaccidental。Theyenlargeindefinitelythecompetitionofideas，andwhateverhasoweditspersistencemerelytolackofcomparisonislikelytogo，whilethatwhichisreallycongenialtothechoosingmindwillbeallthemorecherishedandincreased。Humannatureisenfranchised，andworksonalargerscaleasregardsbothitsconformitiesanditsnon-conformities。

Somethingofthismaybeseeninthecontrastbetweentownandcountry，thelatterhavingmoreoftheindividualityofisolation，theformerofchoice。“Theruralenvironment，’saysMr。R。L。Hartt，speakingofcountry，(94)villagesinNewEngland，“ispsychicallyextravagant。Ittendstoextremes。Amancarrieshimselfouttohislogicalconclusions;hebecomesaconcentratedessenceofhimself。”[3]ItravelledsomeyearsagoamongthemountainsofNorthCarolina，atthattimewhollyunreachedbymodernindustryandcommunication，andnoticedthatnotonlywasthedialectoftheregionasawholedistinctfromthatofneighboringpartsofthecountry，butthatevenadjoiningvalleysoftenshowedmarkeddifferences。

Evidentlythissortoflocalindividuality，characteristicofanilliteratepeoplelivingontheirowncorn，porkandneighborhoodtraditions，canhardlysurvivethenewcommunication。

Itmustbesaid，however，thatrurallifehasotherconditionsthatfosterindividualityinamorewholesomewaythanmereisolation，andarearealadvantageinthegrowthofcharacter。Amongthesearecontrolovertheimmediateenvironment，thehabitofface-to-facestrugglewithnature，andcomparativesecurityofeconomicposition。Allthesecontributetotheself-relianceuponwhichthefarmingpeoplejustlypridethemselves。

Inthecitywefindanindividualitylesspicturesquebutperhapsmorefunctional。Thereismorefacilityfortheformationofspecializedgroups，andsoforthefosteringofspecialcapacities。Notwithstandingthedinofcommunicationandtrade，thecitiesare，forthisreason，thechiefseatsofproductiveoriginalityinart，scienceandletters。

Thedifferenceisanalogoustothatbetweenthedevelopmentofnaturalspeciesonislandsorotherisolatedareas，(95)andonawideandtraversablecontinent。Theformerproducesmanyquaintspecies，likethekangaroos，whichdisappearwhenbroughtintocontactwithmorecapabletypes;butthecontinentbynomeansbringsaboutuniformity。

Itengenders，rather，acomplexorganismofrelatedspeciesandvarieties，eachofwhichiscomparativelyperfectinitsspecialway;andhasbecomesothroughtheveryfactofawiderstruggleforexistence。

So，easycommunicationofideasfavorsdifferentiationofarationalandfunctionalsort，asdistinguishedfromtherandomvariationsfosteredbyisolation。Anditmustberememberedthatanysortisrationalandfunctionalthatreallycommendsitselftothehumanspirit。Evenrevoltfromanascendanttypeiseasiernowthanformerly，becausetherebelcanfortifyhimselfwiththetriumphantrecordsofthenon-conformersofthepast。

Itis，then，probablethatlocalpeculiarityofspeechandmanner，andothercuriousandinvoluntarysortsofindividuality，willdiminish。Andcertainlyagreatdealisthuslostinthewayoflocalcolorandatmosphere，oftheracyflavorofisolatedpersonalitiesandunconsciouspicturesqueness-

ofsocialtypes。Thediversitiesofdress，languageandculture，whichweredevelopedinEuropeduringtheMiddleAges，wheneachlittlebaronywasthechannelofpeculiartraditions，canhardlyreappear。Norcanweexpect，inmoderncities，thesortofarchitecturalindividualitywefindinthoseofItaly，builtwheneachvillagewasadistinctpoliticalandsocialunit。Heine，speakingofScott，longagoreferredto“thegreatpaincausedbythelossofnationalcharacteristicsinconse，(96)-quenceofthespreadofthenewerculture梐painwhichnowquiversintheheartofallpeoples。”

Butthemorevitalindividuality，thecultivationbyspecialgroupsofpeculiarphasesofknowledge，artorconduct，ofanythingundertheheavensinfactthatafewpeoplemayagreetopursue，willapparentlybeincreasedSinceuniformityischeapandconvenient，wemayexpectitinallmatterswhereinmendonotspeciallycaretoassertthemselves。

Wehaveitindressanddomesticarchitecture，forinstance，justsofaraswearewillingtotakethesethingsready-made;butwhenwebegintoputourselvesintothemweproducesomethingdistinctive。