第3章

Thismaybeeithergeneralreferringtothesumofthecausesthatactuponhimduringagivenperiod:orparticular，referringtotheactionofanyoneparticularcause，orsortofcause。

III。Butinthesamemindsuchandsuchcausesofpainorpleasurewillproducemorepainorpleasurethansuchorsuchothercausesofpainorpleasure:andthisproportionwillindifferentmindsbedifferent。Thedispositionwhichanyonehastohavetheproportioninwhichheisaffectedbytwosuchcauses，differentfromthatinwhichanothermanisaffectedbythesametwocauses，maybetermedthequalityorbiasofhissensibility。Oneman，forinstance，maybemostaffectedbythepleasuresofthetaste；anotherbythoseoftheear。Soalso，iftherebeadifferenceinthenatureorproportionoftwopainsorpleasureswhichtheyrespectivelyexperiencefromthesamecause；acasenotsofrequentastheformer。Fromthesameinjury，forinstance，onemanmayfeelthesamequantityofgriefandresentmenttogetherasanotherman:butoneofthemshallfeelagreatershareofgriefthanofresentment:theother，agreatershareofresentmentthanofgrief。

IV。Anyincidentwhichservesasacause，eitherofpleasureorofpain，maybetermedanexcitingcause:ifofpleasure，apleasurablecause:ifofpain，apainful，afflictive，ordolorificcause。

V。Nowthequantityofpleasure，orofpain，whichamanisliabletoexperienceupontheapplicationofanexcitingcause，sincetheywillnotdependaltogetheruponthatcause，willdependinsomemeasureuponsomeothercircumstanceorcircumstances:

thesecircumstances，whatsoevertheybe，maybetermedcircumstancesinfluencingsensibility。

VI。Thesecircumstanceswillapplydifferentlytodifferentexcitingcauses；insomuchthattoacertainexcitingcause，acertaincircumstanceshallnotapplyatall，whichshallapplywithgreatforcetoanotherexcitingcause。Butwithoutenteringforthepresentintothesedistinctions，itmaybeofusetosumupallthecircumstanceswhichcanbefoundtoinfluencetheeffectofanyexcitingcause。These，asonaformeroccasion，itmaybeaswellfirsttosumuptogetherintheconcisestmannerpossible，andafterwardstoallotafewwordstotheseparateexplanationofeacharticle。Theyseemtobeasfollows:1。Health。2。Strength。

3。Hardiness。4。Bodilyimperfection。5。Quantityandqualityofknowledge。

6。Strengthofintellectualpowers。7。Firmnessofmind。8。Steadinessofmind。9。Bentofinclination。10。Moralsensibility。

11。Moralbiases。12。Religioussensibility。13。

Religiousbiases。14。Sympatheticsensibility。15。Sympatheticbiases。

16。Antipatheticsensibility。17。Antipatheticbiases18。

Insanity。19。Habitualoccupations。20。Pecuniarycircumstances。21。

Connexionsinthewayofsympathy。22。Connexionsinthewayofantipathy。23。Radicalframeofbody。24。Radicalframeofmind。25。Sex。26。Age。27。Rank。28。Education。29。

Climate。30。Lineage。31。Government。32。Religiousprofession。

VII。1。Healthistheabsenceofdisease，andconsequentlyofallthosekindsofpainwhichareamongthesymptomsofdisease。Amanmaybesaidtobeinastateofhealthwhenheisnotconsciousofanyuneasysensations，theprimaryseatofwhichcanbeperceivedtobeanywhereinhisbody。Inpointofofgeneralsensibility，amanwhoisunderthepressureofanybodilyindisposition，or，asthephraseis，isinanillstateofhealth，islesssensibletotheinfluenceofanypleasurablecause，andmoresotothatofanyafflictiveone，thanifhewerewell。

VIII。2。Thecircumstanceofstrength，thoughinpointofcausalitycloselyconnectedwiththatofhealth，isperfectlydistinguishablefromit。Thesamemanwillindeedgenerallybestrongerinagoodstateofhealththaninabadone。Butoneman，eveninabadstateofhealth，maybestrongerthananothereveninagoodone。Weaknessisacommonconcomitantofdisease:butinconsequenceofhisradicalframeofbody，amanmaybeweakallhislifelong，withoutexperiencinganydisease。Health，aswehaveobserved，isprincipallyanegativecircumstance:strengthapositiveone。Thedegreeofaman"sstrengthcanbemeasuredwithtolerableaccuracy。

IX。3。Hardinessisacircumstancewhich，thoughcloselyconnectedwiththatofstrength，isdistinguishablefromit。Hardinessistheabsenceofirritability。Irritabilityrespectseitherpain，resultingfromtheactionofmechanicalcauses；ordisease，resultingfromtheactionofcausespurelyphysiological。Irritability，intheformersense，isthedispositiontoundergoagreaterorlessdegreeofpainupontheapplicationofamechanicalcause；suchasaremostofthoseapplicationsbywhichsimpleafflictivepunishmentsareinflicted，aswhipping，beating，andthelike。Inthelattersense，itisthedispositiontocontractdiseasewithgreaterorlessfacility，upontheapplicationofanyinstrumentactingonthebodybyitsphysiologicalproperties；asinthecaseoffevers，orofcolds，orotherinflammatorydiseases，producedbytheapplicationofdampair:ortoexperienceimmediateuneasiness，asinthecaseofrelaxationorchillinessproducedbyanoverorunderproportionofthematterofheat。

Hardiness，eveninthesenseinwhichitisopposedtotheactionofmechanicalcauses，isdistinguishablefromstrength。Theexternalindicationsofstrengtharetheabundanceandfirmnessofnothemuscularfibres:thoseofhardiness，inthissense，arethefirmnessofthemuscularfibres，andthecallosityoftheskin。

Strengthismorepeculiarlythegiftofnature:hardiness，ofeducation。Oftwopersonswhohavehad，theonetheeducationofagentleman，theother，thatofacommonsailor，thefirstmaybethestronger，atthesametimethattheotheristhehardier。

X。4。Bybodilyimperfectionmaybeunderstoodthatconditionwhichapersonisin，whoeitherstandsdistinguishedbyanyremarkabledeformity，orwantsanyofthosepartsorfaculties，whichtheordinaryrunofpersonsofthesamesexandagearefurnishedwith:who，forinstance，hasahare-lip，isdeaf，orhaslostahand。Thiscircumstance，likethatofill-health，tendsingeneraltodiminishmoreorlesstheeffectofanypleasurablecircumstance，andtoincreasethatofanyafflictiveone。Theeffectofthiscircumstance，however，admitsofgreatvariety:inasmuchasthereareagreatvarietyofwaysinwhichamanmaysufferinhispersonalappearance，andinhisbodilyorgansandfaculties:

allwhichdifferenceswillbetakennoticeofintheirproperplaces。

XI。5。Somuchforcircumstancesbelongingtotheconditionofthebody:

wecomenowtothosewhichconcerntheconditionofthemind:theuseofmentioningthesewillbeseenhereafter。Inthefirstplacemaybereckonedthequantityandqualityoftheknowledgethepersoninquestionhappenstopossess:thatis，oftheideaswhichhehasactuallyinstoresreadyuponoccasiontocalltomind:meaningsuchideasasareinsomewayorotherofaninterestingnature:thatis，ofanatureinsomewayorothertoinfluencehishappiness，orthatofothermen。Whentheseideasaremany，andofimportance，amanissaidtobeamanofknowledge；whenfew，ornotofimportance，ignorant。

XII。6。Bystrengthofintellectualpowersmaybeunderstoodthedegreeoffacilitywhichamanexperiencesinhisendeavourstocalltomindaswellsuchideasashavebeenalreadyaggregatedtohisstockofknowledge，asanyothers，which，uponanyoccasionthatmayhappen，hemayconceiveadesiretoplacethere。

Itseemstobeonsomesuchoccasionasthisthatthewordspartsandtalentsarecommonlyemployed。Tothisheadmaybereferredtheseveralqualitiesofreadinessofapprehension，accuracyandtenacityofmemory，strengthofattention，clearnessofdiscernment，amplitudeofcomprehension，vividityandrapidityofimagination。Strengthofintellectualpowers，ingeneral，seemstocorrespondprettyexactlytogeneralstrengthofbody:asanyofthesequalitiesinparticulardoestoparticularstrength。

XIII。7。Firmnessofmindontheonehand，andirritabilityontheother，regardtheproportionbetweenthedegreesofefficacywithwhichamanisacteduponbyanexcitingcause，ofwhichthevaluelieschieflyinmagnitude，andoneofwhichthevaluelieschieflyinpropinquity。Amanmaybesaidtobeofafirmmind，whensmallpleasuresorpains，whicharepresentornear，donotaffecthim，inagreaterproportiontotheirvalue，thangreaterpleasuresorpains，whichareuncertainorremote；Ofanirritablemind，whenthecontraryisthecase。

XIV。8。Steadinessregardsthetimeduringwhichagivenexcitingcauseofagivenvaluecontinuestoaffectamaninnearlythesamemanneranddegreeasatfirst，noassignableexternaleventorchangeofcircumstancesinterveningtomakeanalterationinitsforce。

XV。9。Bythebentofaman"sinclinationsmaybeunderstoodthepropensityhehastoexpectpleasureorpainfromcertainobjects，ratherthanfromothers。Aman"sinclinationsmaybesaidtohavesuchorsuchabent，when，amongsttheseveralsortsofobjectswhichaffordpleasureinsomedegreetoallmen，heisapttoexpectmorepleasurefromoneparticularsort，thanfromanotherparticularsort，ormorefromanygivenparticularsort，thananothermanwouldexpectfromthatsort；orwhen，amongsttheseveralsortsofobjects，whichtoonemanaffordpleasure，whilsttoanothertheyaffordnone，heisapttoexpect，ornottoexpect，pleasurefromanobjectofsuchorsuchasort:soalsowithregardtopains。Thiscircumstance，thoughintimatelyconnectedwiththatofthebiasofaman"ssensibility，isnotundistinguishablefromit。Thequantityofpleasureorpain，whichonanygivenoccasionamanmayexperiencefromanapplicationofanysort，maybegreatlyinfluencedbytheexpectationshehasbeenusedtoentertainofpleasureorpainfromthatquarter；butitwillnotbeabsolutelydeterminedbythem:forpleasureorpainmaycomeuponhimfromaquarterfromwhichhewasnotaccustomedtoexpectit。

XVI。10。Thecircumstancesofmoral，religious，sympathetic，andantipatheticsensibility，whencloselyconsidered，willappeartobeincludedinsomesortunderthatofbentofinclination。

Onaccountoftheirparticularimportancetheymay，however，beworthmentioningapart。Aman"smoralsensibilitymaybesaidtobestrong，whenthepainsandpleasuresofthemoralsanctionshowgreaterinhiseyes，incomparisonwithotherpleasuresandpains(andconsequentlyexertastrongerinfluence)thanintheeyesofthepersonsheiscomparedwith；inotherwords，whenheisactedonwithmorethanordinaryefficacybythesenseofhonour:itmaybesaidtobeweak，whenthecontraryisthecase。

XVII。11。Moralsensibilityseemstoregardtheaverageeffectorinfluenceofthepainsandpleasuresofthemoralsanction，uponallsortsofoccasionstowhichitisapplicable，orhappenstobeapplied。Itregardstheaverageforceorquantityoftheimpulsesthemindreceivesfromthatsourceduringagivenperiod。

Moralbiasregardstheparticularactsonwhich，uponsomanyparticularoccasions，theforceofthatsanctionislookeduponasattaching。Itregardsthequalityordirectionofthoseimpulses。Itadmitsofasmanyvarieties，therefore，astherearedictateswhichthemoralsanctionmaybeconceivedtoissueforth。Amanmaybesaidtohavesuchorsuchamoralbias，ortohaveamoralbiasinfavourofsuchorsuchanaction，whenhelooksuponitasbeingofthenumberofthoseofwhichtheperformanceisdictatedbythemoralsanction。

XVIII。12。Whathasbeensaidwithregardtomoralsensibility，maybeapplied，mutatismutandis，toreligious。

XIX。13。Whathasbeensaidwithregardtomoralbiases，mayalsobeapplied，mutatismutandis，toreligiousbiases。

XX。14。Bysympatheticsensibilityistobeunderstoodthepropensitythatamanhastoderivepleasurefromthehappiness，andpainfromtheunhappiness，ofothersensitivebeings。Itisthestronger，thegreatertheratioofthepleasureorpainhefeelsontheiraccountistothatofthepleasureorpainwhich(accordingtowhatappearstohim)theyfeelforthemselves。

XXI。15。Sympatheticbiasregardsthedescriptionofthepartieswhoaretheobjectsofaman"ssympathy:andoftheactsorothercircumstancesoforbelongingtothosepersons，bywhichthesympathyisexcited。Thesepartiesmaybe，1。Certainindividuals。2。Anysubordinateclassofindividuals。3。Thewholenation。4。Humankindingeneral。5。Thewholesensitivecreation。Accordingastheseobjectsofsympathyaremorenumerous，theaffection，bywhichthemanisbiased，maybesaidtobethemoreenlarged。

XXII。16，17。Antipatheticsensibilityandantipatheticbiasesarejustthereverseofsympatheticsensibilityandsympatheticbiases。Byantipatheticsensibilityistobeunderstoodthepropensitythatamanhastoderivepainfromthehappiness，andpleasurefromtheunhappiness，ofothersensitivebeings。

XXIII。18。Thecircumstanceofinsanityofmindcorrespondstothatofbodilyimperfection。Itadmits，however，ofmuchlessvariety，inasmuchasthesoulis(foraughtwecanperceive)oneindivisiblething，notdistinguishable，likethebody，intoparts。

Whatlesserdegreesofimperfectionthemindmaybesusceptibleof，seemtobecomprisableunderthealready-mentionedheadsofignorance，weaknessofmind，irritability，orunsteadiness；

orundersuchothersasarereducibletothem。Thosewhicharehereinviewarethoseextraordinaryspeciesanddegreesofmentalimperfection，which，wherevertheytakeplace，areasconspicuousandasunquestionableaslamenessorblindnessinthebody:

operatingpartly，itshouldseem，byinducinganextraordinarydegreeoftheimperfectionsabovementioned，partlybygivinganextraordinaryandpreposterousbenttotheinclinations。

XXIV。19。Undertheheadofaman"shabitualoccupations，aretobeunderstood，onthisoccasion，aswellthosewhichhepursuesforthesakeofprofit，asthosewhichhepursuesforthesakeofpresentpleasure。Theconsiderationoftheprofititselfbelongstotheheadofaman"specuniarycircumstances。Itisevident，thatifbyanymeansapunishment，oranyotherexcitingcause，hastheeffectofputtingitoutofhispowertocontinueinthepursuitofanysuchoccupation，itmustonthataccountbemuchthemoredistressing。Aman"shabitualoccupations，thoughintimatelyconnectedinpointofcausalitywiththebentofhisinclinations，arenottobelookeduponaspreciselythesamecircumstance。

Anamusement，orchannelofprofit，maybetheobjectofaman"sinclinations，whichhasneverbeenthesubjectofhishabitualoccupations:foritmaybe，thatthoughhewishedtobetakehimselftoit，heneverdid，itnotbeinginhispower:

acircumstancewhichmaymakeagooddealofdifferenceintheeffectofanyincidentbywhichhehappenstobedebarredfromit。

XXV。20。Undertheheadofpecuniarycircumstances，Imeantobringtoviewtheproportionwhichaman"smeansbeartohiswants:thesumtotalofhismeansofeverykind，tothesumtotalofhiswantsofeverykind。Aman"smeansdependuponthreecircumstances:1。Hisproperty。2。Theprofitofhislabour。3。Hisconnexionsinthewayofsupport。Hiswantsseemtodependuponfourcircumstances。1。Hishabitsofexpense。2。Hisconnexionsinthewayofburthen。3。Anypresentcasualdemandhemayhave。4。Thestrengthofhisexpectation。Byaman"spropertyistobeunderstood，whateverhehasinstoreindependentofhislabour。Bytheprofitofhislabouristobeunderstoodthegrowingprofit。Astolabour，itmaybeeitherofthebodyprincipally，orofthemindprincipally，orofbothindifferently:

nordoesitmatterinwhatmanner，noronwhatsubject，itbeapplied，soitproduceaprofit。Byaman"sconnexionsinthewayofsupport，aretobeunderstoodthepecuniaryassistances，ofwhateverkind，whichheisinawayofreceivingfromanypersonswho，onwhateveraccount，andinwhateverproportion，hehasreasontoexpectshouldcontributegratistohismaintenance:suchashisparents，patrons，andrelations。Itseemsmanifest，thatamancanhavenoothermeansthanthese。Whatheuses，hemusthaveeitherofhisown，orfromotherpeople:iffromotherpeople，eithergratisorforaprice。Astohabitsofexpense，itiswellknown，thataman"sdesiresaregovernedinagreatdegreebyhishabits。Manyarethecasesinwhichdesire(andconsequentlythepainofprivationconnectedwithit)wouldnotevensubsistatall，butforpreviousenjoyment。Byaman"sconnexionsinthewayofburthen，aretobeunderstoodwhateverexpensehehasreasontolookuponhimselfasboundtobeatinthesupportofthosewhobylaw，orthecustomsoftheworld，arewarrantedinlookinguptohimforassistance；suchaschildren，poorrelations，superannuatedservants，andanyotherdependentswhatsoever。Astopresentcasualdemand，itismanifest，thatthereareoccasionsonwhichagivensumwillbeworthinfinitelymoretoamanthanthesamesumwouldatanothertime:

where，forexample，inacaseofextremity，amanstandsinneedofextraordinarymedicalassistance:orwantsmoneytocarryonalaw-suit，onwhichhisalldepends:orhasgotalivelihoodwaitingforhiminadistantcountry，andwantsmoneyforthechargesofconveyance。Insuchcases，anypieceofgoodorillfortune，inthepecuniaryway，mighthaveaverydifferenteffectfromwhatitwouldhaveatanyothertime。Withregardtostrengthofexpectation；whenonemanexpectstogainortokeepathingwhichanotherdoesnot，itisplainthecircumstanceofnothavingitwillaffecttheformerverydifferentlyfromthelatter；who，indeed，commonlywillnotbeaffectedbyitatall。

Part2

XXVI。21。Undertheheadofaman"sconnexionsinthewayofsympathy，Iwouldbringtoviewthenumberanddescriptionofthepersonsinwhosewelfarehetakessuchaconcern，asthattheideaoftheirhappinessshouldbeproductiveofpleasure，andthatoftheirunhappinessofpaintohim:

forinstance，aman"swife，hischildren，hisparents，hisnearrelations，andintimatefriends。Thisclassofpersons，itisobvious，willforthemostpartincludethetwoclassesbywhichhispecuniarycircumstancesareaffected:those，towit，fromwhosemeanshemayexpectsupport，andthosewhosewantsoperateonhimasaburthen。Butitisobvious，thatbesidesthese，itmayverywellincludeothers，withwhomhehasnosuchpecuniaryconnexion:andevenwithregardtothese，itisevidentthatthepecuniarydependence，andtheunionofaffections，arecircumstancesperfectlydistinguishable。Accordingly，theconnexionshereinquestion，independentlyofanyinfluencetheymayhaveonaman"specuniarycircumstances，haveaninfluenceontheeffectofanyexcitingcauseswhatsoever。Thetendencyofthemistoincreaseaman"sgeneralsensibility；toincrease，ontheonehand，thepleasureproducedbyallpleasurablecauses；ontheother，thepainproducedbyallafflictiveones。

Whenanypleasurableincidenthappenstoaman，henaturally，inthefirstmoment，thinksofthepleasureitwillaffordimmediatelytohimself:presentlyafterwards，however(exceptinafewcases，whichisnotworthwhileheretoinsiston)hebeginstothinkofthepleasurewhichhisfriendswillfeelupontheircomingtoknowofit:andthissecondarypleasureiscommonlynomeanadditiontotheprimaryone。

Firstcomestheself-regardingpleasure:thencomestheideaofthepleasureofsympathy，whichyousupposethatpleasureofyourswillgivebirthtointhebosomofyourfriend:andthisideaexcitesagaininyoursanewpleasureofsympathy，groundeduponhis。Thefirstpleasureissuingfromyourownbosom，asitwerefromaradiantpoint，illuminatesthebosomofyourfriend:reverberatedfromthence，itisreflectedwithaugmentedwarmthtothepointfromwhenceitfirstproceeded:andsoitiswithpains。

Nordoesthiseffectdependwhollyuponaffection。Amongnearrelations，althoughthereshouldbenokindness，thepleasuresandpainsofthemoralsanctionarequicklypropagatedbyapeculiarkindofsympathy:noarticle，eitherofhonourordisgrace，canwellfalluponaman，withoutextendingtoacertaindistancewithinthecircleofhisfamily。Whatreflectshonouruponthefather，reflectshonourupontheson:whatreflectsdisgrace，disgrace。

Thecauseofthissingularandseeminglyunreasonablecircumstance(thatis，itsanalogytotherestofthephenomenaofthehumanmind，)belongsnottothepresentpurpose。Itissufficientiftheeffectbebeyonddispute。

XXVII。22。Ofaman"sconnexionsinthewayofantipathy，thereneedsnotanythingveryparticulartobeobserved。Happilythereisnoprimevalandconstantsourceofantipathyinahumannature，asthereisofsympathy。Therearenopermanentsetsofpersonswhoarenaturallyandofcoursetheobjectsofantipathytoaman，astherearewhoaretheobjectsofthecontraryaffection。Sources，however，buttoomany，ofantipathy，areapttospringupuponvariousoccasionsduringthecourseofaman"slife:andwhenevertheydo，thiscircumstancemayhaveaveryconsiderableinfluenceontheeffectsofvariousexcitingcauses。Asontheonehand，apunishment，forinstance，whichtendstoseparateamanfromthosewithwhomheisconnectedinthewayofsympathy，soontheotherhand，onewhichtendstoforcehimintothecompanyofthosewithwhomheisconnectedinthewayofantipathy，will，onthataccount，besomuchthemoredistressing。Itistobeobserved，thatsympathyitselfmultipliesthesourcesofantipathy。Sympathyforyourfriendgivesbirthtoantipathyonyourpartagainstallthosewhoareobjectsofantipathy，aswellastosympathyforthosewhoareobjectsofsympathytohim。Inthesamemannerdoesantipathymultiplythesourcesofsympathy；thoughcommonlyperhapswithratheralessdegreeofefficacy。Antipathyagainstyourenemyisapttogivebirthtosympathyonyourparttowardsthosewhoareobjectsofantipathy，aswellastoantipathyagainstthosewhoareobjectsofsympathy，tohim。

XXVIII。23。Thusmuchforthecircumstancesbywhichtheeffectofanyexcitingcausemaybeinfluenced，whenapplieduponanygivenoccasion，atanygivenperiod。Butbesidesthesesuperveningincidents，thereareothercircumstancesrelativetoaman，thatmayhavetheirinfluence，andwhichareco-evaltohisbirth。

Inthefirstplace，itseemstobeuniversallyagreed，thatintheoriginalframeortextureofeveryman"sbody，thereisasomethingwhich，independentlyofallsubsequentlyinterveningcircumstances，rendershimliabletobeaffectedbycausesproducingbodilypleasureorpain，inamannerdifferentfromthatinwhichanothermanwouldbeaffectedbythesamecauses。Tothecatalogueofcircumstancesinfluencingaman"ssensibility，wemaythereforeaddhisoriginalorradicalframe，texture，constitution，ortemperamentofbody。

XXIX。24。Inthenextplace，itseemstobeprettywellagreed，thatthereissomethingalsointheoriginalframeortextureofeveryman"smind，which，independentlyofallexteriorandsubsequentlyinterveningcircumstances，andevenofhisradicalframeofbody，makeshimliabletobedifferentlyaffectedbythesameexcitingcauses，fromwhatanothermanwouldbe。Tothecatalogueofcircumstancesinfluencingaman"ssensibility，wemaythereforefurtheraddhisoriginalorradicalframe，texture，constitutionortemperamentofmind。

XXX。Itseemsprettycertain，allthiswhile，thataman"ssensibilitytocausesproducingpleasureorpain，evenofmind，maydependinaconsiderabledegreeuponhisoriginalandacquiredframeofbody。Butwehavenoreasontothinkthatitcandependaltogetheruponthatframe:since，ontheonehand，weseepersonswhoseframeofbodyisasmuchalikeascanbeconceived，differingveryconsiderablyinrespectoftheirmentalframe:

and，ontheotherhand，personswhoseframeofmindisasmuchalikeascanbeconceived，differingveryconspicuouslyinregardtotheirbodilyframe。

XXXI。Itseemsindisputablealso，thatthedifferentsetsofaexternaloccurrencesthatmaybefallamaninthecourseofhislife，willmakegreatdifferencesinthesubsequenttextureofhismindatanygivenperiod:yetstillthosedifferencesarenotsolelytobeattributedtosuchoccurrences。Equallyfarfromthetruthseemsthatopiniontobe(ifanysuchbemaintained)whichattributesalltonature，andthatwhichattributesalltoeducation。

Thetwocircumstanceswillthereforestillremaindistinct，aswellfromoneanother，asfromallothers。

XXXII。Distincthoweverastheyare，itismanifest，thatatnoperiodintheactivepartofaman"slifecantheyeitherofthemmaketheirappearancebythemselves。Alltheydoistoconstitutethelatentground-workwhichtheothersuperveningcircumstanceshavetoworkuponandwhateverinfluencethoseoriginalprinciplesmayhave，issochangedandmodified，andcoveredover，asitwere，bythoseothercircumstances，asnevertobeseparatelydiscernible。Theeffectsoftheoneinfluenceareindistinguishablyblendedwiththoseoftheother。

XXXIII。Theemotionsofthebodyarereceived，andwithreason，asprobableindicationsofthetemperatureofthemind。Buttheyarefarenoughfromconclusive。Amanmayexhibit，forinstance，theexteriorappearancesofgrief，withoutreallygrievingatall，oratleastinanythingneartheproportioninwhichheappearstogrieve。OliverCromwell，whoseconductindicatedaheartmorethanordinarilycallous，wasasremarkablyprofuseintears(Hume"sHistory)。Manymencancommandtheexternalappearancesofsensibilitywithverylittlerealfeeling。Thefemalesexcommonlywithgreaterfacilitythanthemale:hencetheproverbialexpressionofawoman"stears。Tohavethiskindofcommandoverone"sself，wasthecharacteristicexcellenceoftheoratorofancienttimes，andisstillthatoftheplayerinourown。

XXXIV。Theremainingcircumstancesmay，withreferencetothosealreadymentioned，betermedsecondaryinfluencingcircumstances。Thesehaveaninfluence，itistrue，onthequantumorbiasofaman"ssensibility，butitisonlybymeansoftheotherprimaryones。Themannerinwhichthesetwosetsofcircumstancesareconcerned，issuchthattheprimaryonesdothebusiness，whilethesecondaryonesliemostopentoobservation。Thesecondaryones，therefore，arethosewhicharemostheardof；onwhichaccountitwillbenecessarytotakenoticeofthem:

atthesametimethatitisonlybymeansoftheprimaryonesthattheirinfluencecanbeexplained；whereastheinfluenceoftheprimaryoneswillbeapparentenough，withoutanymentionofthesecondaryones。

XXXV。25。Amongsuchoftheprimitivemodificationsofthecorporealframeasmayappeartoinfluencethequantumandbiasofsensibility，themostobviousandconspicuousarethosewhichconstitutethesex。Inpointofquantity，thesensibilityofthefemalesexappearsingeneraltobegreaterthanthatofthemale。

Thehealthofthefemaleismoredelicatethanthatofthemale:inpointofstrengthandhardinessofbody，inpointofquantityandqualityofknowledge，inpointofstrengthofintellectualpowers，andfirmnessofmind，sheiscommonlyinferior:moral，religious，sympathetic，andantipatheticsensibilityarecommonlystrongerinherthaninthemale。Thequalityofherknowledge，andthebentofherinclinations，arecommonlyinmanyrespectsdifferent。Hermoralbiasesarealso，incertainrespects，remarkablydifferent:chastity，modesty，anddelicacy，forinstance，areprizedmorethancourageinawoman:courage，morethananyofthosequalities，inaman。Thereligiousbiasesinthetwosexesarenotapttoberemarkablydifferent；exceptthatthefemaleisrathermoreinclinedthanthemaletosuperstition；thatis，toobservancesnotdictatedbytheprincipleofutility；adifferencethatmaybeprettywellaccountedforbysomeofthebefore-mentionedcircumstances。Hersympatheticbiasesareinmanyrespectsdifferent；forherownoffspringalltheirliveslong，andforchildreningeneralwhileyoung，heraffectioniscommonlystrongerthanthatofthemale。Heraffectionsareapttobelessenlarged:seldomexpandingthemselvessomuchastotakeinthewelfareofhercountryingeneral，muchlessthatofmankind，orthewholesensitivecreation:seldomembracinganyextensiveclassordivision，evenofherowncountrymen，unlessitbeinvirtueofhersympathyforsomeparticularindividualsthatbelongtoit。Ingeneral，herantipathetic，aswellassympatheticbiasesareapttobelessconformabletotheprincipleofutilitythanthoseofthemale；owingchieflytosomedeficiencyinpointofknowledge，discernment，andcomprehension。Herhabitualoccupationsoftheamusingkindareapttobeinmanyrespectsdifferentfromthoseofthemale。Withregardtoherconnexionsinthewayofsympathy，therecanbenodifference。Inpointofpecuniarycircumstances，accordingtothecustomsofperhapsallcountries，sheisingenerallessindependent。

XXXVI。26。Ageisofcoursedividedintodiversperiods，ofwhichthenumberandlimitsarebynomeansuniformlyascertained。Onemightdistinguishit，forthepresentpurpose，into，1。Infancy。2。Adolescence。3。Youth。4。Maturity。5。

Decline。6。Decrepitude。Itwerelosttimetostoponthepresentoccasiontoexamineitateachperiod，andtoobservetheindicationsitgives，withrespecttotheseveralprimarycircumstancesjustreviewed。Infancyanddecrepitudearecommonlyinferiortotheotherperiods，inpointofhealth，strength，hardiness，andsoforth。Ininfancy，onthepartofthefemale，theimperfectionsofthatsexareenhanced:onthepartofthemale，imperfectionstakeplacemostlysimilarinquality，butgreaterinquantity，tothoseattendingthestatesofadolescence，youth，andmaturityinthefemale。Inthestageofdecrepitudebothsexesrelapseintomanyoftheimperfectionsofinfancy。Thegeneralityoftheseobservationsmayeasilybecorrecteduponaparticularreview。

XXXVII。27。Station，orrankinlife，isacircumstance，that，amongacivilizedpeople，willcommonlyundergoamultiplicityofvariations。Cæ；terisParibus，thequantumofsensibilityappearstobegreaterinthehigherranksofmenthaninthelower。Theprimarycircumstancesinrespectofwhichthissecondarycircumstanceisapttoinduceorindicateadifference，seemprincipallytobeasfollows:1。QuantityandQualityofknowledge。

2。Strengthofmind。3。Bentofinclination。4。Moralsensibility。5。Moralbiases。6。Religioussensibility。7。Religiousbiases。8。Sympatheticsensibility。9。Sympatheticbiases。10。

Antipatheticsensibility。11。Antipatheticbiases。12。Habitualoccupations。

13。Natureandproductivenessofaman"smeansoflivelihood。14。Connexionsimportingprofit。15。Habitofexpense。

16。Connexionsimportingburthen。Amanofacertainrankwillfrequentlyhaveanumberofdependentsbesidesthosewhosedependencyistheresultofnaturalrelationship。Astohealth，strength，andhardiness，ifrankhasanyinfluenceonthesecircumstances，itisbutinaremotewaychieflybytheinfluenceitmayhaveonitshabitualoccupations。

XXXVIII。28。Theinfluenceofeducationisstillmoreextensive。Educationstandsuponafootingsomewhatdifferentfromthatofthecircumstancesofage，sex，andrank。Thesewords，thoughtheinfluenceofthecircumstancestheyrespectivelydenoteexertsitselfprincipally，ifnotentirely，throughthemediumofcertainoftheprimarycircumstancesbeforementioned，present，however，eachofthemacircumstancewhichhasaseparateexistenceofitself。Thisisnotthecasewiththewordeducation:

whichmeansnothinganyfartherthanasitservestocalluptoviewsomeoneormoreofthoseprimarycircumstances。

Educationmaybedistinguishedintophysicalandmental；theeducationofthebodyandthatofthemind:mental，again，intointellectualandmoral；thecultureoftheunderstanding，andthecultureoftheaffections。Theeducationamanreceives，isgiventohimpartlybyothers，partlybyhimself。Byeducationthennothingmorecanbeexpressedthantheconditionamanisininrespectofthoseprimarycircumstances，asresultingpartlyfromthemanagementandcontrivanceofothers，principallyofthosewhointheearlyperiodsofhislifehavehaddominionoverhim，partlyfromhisown。Tothephysicalpartofhiseducation，belongthecircumstancesofhealth，strength，andhardiness:sometimes，byaccident，thatofbodilyimperfection；aswherebyintemperanceornegligenceanirreparablemischiefhappenstohisperson。

Totheintellectualpart，thoseofquantityandqualityofknowledge，andinsomemeasureperhapsthoseoffirmnessofmindandsteadiness。Tothemoralpart，thebentofhisinclinations，thequantityandqualityofhismoral，religious，sympathetic，andantipatheticsensibility:toallthreebranchesindiscriminately，butunderthesuperiorcontrolofexternaloccurrences，hishabitualrecreations，hisproperty，hismeansoflivelihood，hisconnexionsinthewayofprofitandofburthen，andhishabitsofexpense。Withrespectindeedtoallthesepoints，theinfluenceofeducationismodified，inamannermoreorlessapparent，bythatofexterioroccurrences；andinamannerscarcelyatallapparent，andaltogetheroutofthereachofcalculation，bytheoriginaltextureandconstitutionaswellofhisbodyasofhismind。

XXXIX。29。Amongtheexternalcircumstancesbywhichtheinfluenceofeducationismodified，theprincipalarethosewhichcomeundertheheadofclimate。Thiscircumstanceplacesitselfinfront，anddemandsaseparatedenomination，notmerelyonaccountofthemagnitudeofitsinfluence，butalsoonaccountofitsbeingconspicuoustoeverybody，andofitsapplyingindiscriminatelytogreatnumbersatatime。Thiscircumstancedependsforitsessenceuponthesituationofthatpartoftheearthwhichisinquestion，withrespecttothecoursetakenbythewholeplanetinitsrevolutionroundthesun:butforitsinfluenceitdependsupontheconditionofthebodieswhichcomposetheearth"ssurfaceatthatpart，principallyuponthequantitiesofsensibleheatatdifferentperiods，anduponthedensity，andpurity，anddrynessormoistureofthecircumambientair。Ofthesooftenmentionedprimarycircumstances，therearefewofwhichtheproductionisnotinfluencedbythissecondaryone；partlybyitsmanifesteffectsuponthebody；partlybyitslessperceptibleeffectsuponthemind。Inhotclimatesmen"shealthisapttobemoreprecariousthanincold:theirstrengthandhardinessless:

theirvigour，firmness，andsteadinessofmindless:andthenceindirectlytheirquantityofknowledge:thebentoftheirinclinationsdifferent:

mostremarkablysoinrespectoftheirsuperiorpropensitytosexualenjoyments，andinrespectoftheearlinessoftheperiodatwhichthatpropensitybeginstomanifestitself:

theirsensibilitiesofallkindsmoreintense:theirhabitualoccupationssavouringmoreofsloththanofactivity:theirradicalframeofbodylessstrong，probably，andlesshardy:theirradicalframeofmindlessvigorous，lessfirm，lesssteady。

Part3

XL。30。Anotherarticleinthecatalogueofsecondarycircumstances，isthatofraceorlineage:thenationalraceorlineageamanissuesfrom。Thiscircumstance，independentlyofthatofclimate，willcommonlymakesomedifferenceinpointofradicalframeofmindandbody。Amanofnegrorace，borninFranceorEngland，isaverydifferentbeing，inmanyrespects，fromamanofFrenchorEnglishrace。AmanofSpanishrace，borninMexicoorPeru，isatthehourofhisbirthadifferentsortofbeing，inmanyrespects，fromamanoftheoriginalMexicanorPeruvianrace。Thiscircumstance，asfarasitisdistinctfromclimate，rank，andeducation，andfromthetwojustmentioned，operateschieflythroughthemediumofmoral，religious，sympathetic，andantipatheticbiases。

XLI。31。Thelastcircumstancebutone，isthatofgovernment:thegovernmentamanlivesunderatthetimeinquestion；orratherthatunderwhichhehasbeenaccustomedmosttolive。Thiscircumstanceoperatesprincipallythroughthemediumofeducation:themagistrateoperatinginthecharacterofatutoruponallthemembersofthestate，bythedirectionhegivestotheirhopesandtotheirfears。Indeedunderasolicitousandattentivegovernment，theordinarypreceptor，nayeventheparenthimself，isbutadeputy，asitwere，tothemagistrate:whosecontrollinginfluence，differentinthisrespectfromthatoftheordinarypreceptor，dwellswithamantohislife"send。Theeffectsofthepeculiarpowerofthemagistrateareseenmoreparticularlyintheinfluenceitexertsoverthequantumandbiasofmen"smoral，religious，sympathetic，andantipatheticsensibilities。Underawell-constituted，orevenunderawell-administeredthoughill-constitutedgovernment，men"smoralsensibilityiscommonlystronger，andtheirmoralbiasesmoreconformabletothedictatesofutility:theirreligioussensibilityfrequentlyweaker，buttheirreligiousbiaseslessunconformabletothedictatesofutility:theirsympatheticaffectionsmoreenlarged，directedtothemagistratemorethantosmallpartiesortoindividuals，andmoretothewholecommunitythantoeither:theirantipatheticsensibilitieslessviolent，asbeingmoreobsequioustotheinfluenceofwell-directedmoralbiases，andlessapttobeexcitedbythatofill-directedreligiousones:theirantipatheticbiasesmoreconformab]etowell-directedmoralones，moreapt(inproportion)tobegroundedonenlargedandsympatheticthanonnarrowandself-regardingaffections，andaccordingly，uponthewhole，moreconformabletothedictatesofutility。

XLII。32。Thelastcircumstanceisthatofreligiousprofession:thereligiousprofessionamanisof:thereligiousfraternityofwhichheisamember。Thiscircumstanceoperatesprincipallythroughthemediumofreligioussensibilityandreligiousbiases。Itoperates，however，asanindicationmoreorlessconclusive，withrespecttoseveralothercircumstances。Withrespecttosome，scarcelybutthroughthemediumofthetwojustmentioned:thisisthecasewithregardtothequantumandbiasofaman"smoral，sympathetic，andantipatheticsensibility:perhapsinsomecaseswithregardtoquantityandqualityofknowledge，strengthofintellectualpowers，andbentofinclination。Withrespecttoothers，itmayoperateimmediatelyofitself:thisseemstobethecasewithregardtoaman"shabitualoccupations，pecuniarycircumstances，andconnexionsinthewayofsympathyandantipathy。Amanwhopaysverylittleinwardregardtothedictatesofthereligionwhichhefindsitnecessarytoprofess，mayfinditdifficulttoavoidjoiningintheceremoniesofit，andbearingapartinthepecuniaryburthensitimposes。Bytheforceofhabitandexamplehemayevenbeledtoentertainapartialityforpersonsofthesameprofession，andaproportionableantipathyagainstthoseofarivalone。Inparticular，theantipathyagainstpersonsofdifferentpersuasionsisoneofthelastpointsofreligionwhichmenpartwith。Lastly，itisobvious，thatthereligiousprofessionamanisofcannotbuthaveaconsiderableinfluenceonhiseducation。But，consideringtheimportofthetermeducation，tosaythisisperhapsnomorethansayinginotherwordswhathasbeensaidalready。

XLIII。Thesecircumstances，allormanyofthem，willneedtobeattendedtoasoftenasuponanyoccasionanyaccountistakenofanyquantityofpainorpleasure，asresultingfromanycause。

Hasanypersonsustainedaninjury？theywillneedtobeconsideredinestimatingthemischiefoftheoffense……Issatisfactiontobemadetohim？theywillneedtobeattendedtoinadjustingthequantumofthatsatisfaction。Istheinjurertobepunished？

theywillneedtobeattendedtoinestimatingtheforceoftheimpressionthatwillbemadeonhimbyanygivenpunishment。

XLIV。Itistobeobserved，thatthoughtheyseemallofthem，onsomeaccountorother，tomeritaplaceinthecatalogue，theyarenotallofequaluseinpractice。Differentarticlesamongthemareapplicabletodifferentexcitingcauses。Ofthosethatmayinfluencetheeffectofthesameexcitingcause，someapplyindiscriminatelytowholeclassesofpersonstogether；beingapplicabletoall，withoutanyremarkabledifferenceindegree:thesemaybedirectlyandprettyfullyprovidedforbythelegislator。Thisisthecase，forinstance，withtheprimarycircumstancesofbodilyimperfection，andinsanity:withthesecondarycircumstanceofsex:perhapswiththatofage:atanyratewiththoseofrank，ofclimate，oflineage，andofreligiousprofession。

Others，howevertheymayapplytowholeclassesofpersons，yetintheirapplicationtodifferentindividualsaresusceptibleofperhapsanindefinitevarietyofdegrees。Thesecannotbefullyprovidedforbythelegislator；but，astheexistenceofthem，ineverysortofcase，iscapableofbeingascertained，andthedegreeinwhichtheytakeplaceiscapableofbeingmeasured，provisionmaybemadeforthembythejudge，orotherexecutivemagistrate，towhomtheseveralindividualsthathappentobeconcernedmaybemadeknown。Thisisthecase，1。Withthecircumstanceofhealth。2。Insomesortwiththatofstrength。3。

Scarcelywiththatofhardiness:stilllesswiththoseofquantityandqualityofknowledge，strengthofintellectualpowers，firmnessorsteadinessofmind；exceptinasfarasaman"scondition，inrespectofthosecircumstances，maybeindicatedbythesecondarycircumstancesofsex，age，orrank:hardlywiththatofbentofinclination，exceptinasfarasthatlatentcircumstanceisindicatedbythemoremanifestoneofhabitualoccupations:hardlywiththatofaman"smoralsensibilityorbiases，exceptinasfarastheymaybeindicatedbyhissex，age，rank，andeducation:

notatallwithhisreligioussensibilityandreligiousbiases，exceptinasfarastheymaybeindicatedbythereligiousprofessionhebelongsto:notatallwiththequantityorqualityofhissympatheticorantipatheticsensibilities，exceptinasfarastheymaybepresumedfromhissex，age，rank，education，lineage，orreligiousprofession。Itisthecase，however，withhishabitualoccupations，withhispecuniarycircumstances，andwithhisconnexionsinthewayofsympathy。Ofothers，again，eithertheexistencecannotbeascertained，orthedegreecannotbemeasured。These，therefore，cannotbetakenintoaccount，eitherbythelegislatorortheexecutivemagistrate。Accordingly，theywouldhavenoclaimtobetakennoticeof，wereitnotforthosesecondarycircumstancesbywhichtheyareindicated，andwhoseinfluencecouldnotwellbeunderstoodwithoutthem。Whatthesearehasbeenalreadymentioned。

XLV。Ithasalreadybeenobserved，thatdifferentarticlesinthislistofcircumstancesapplytodifferentexcitingcauses:thecircumstanceofbodilystrength，forinstance，hasscarcelyanyinfluenceofitself(whateveritmayhaveinaroundaboutway，andbyaccident)ontheeffectofanincidentwhichshouldincreaseordiminishthequantumofaman"sproperty。Itremainstobeconsidered，whattheexcitingcausesarewithwhichthelegislatorhastodo。Thesemay，bysomeaccidentorother，beanywhatsoever:butthosewhichhehasprincipallytodo，arethoseofthepainfulorafflictivekind。Withpleasurableoneshehaslittletodo，exceptnowandthenbyaccident:thereasonsofwhichmaybeeasilyenoughperceived，atthesametimethatitwouldtakeuptoomuchroomtounfoldthemhere。Theexcitingcauseswithwhichhehasprincipallytodo，are，ontheonehand，themischievousacts，whichitishisbusinesstoprevent；ontheotherhand，thepunishments，bytheterrorofwhichitishisendeavourtopreventthem。Nowofthesetwosetsofexcitingcauses，thelatteronlyisofhisproduction:beingproducedpartlybyhisownspecialappointment，partlyinconformitytohisgeneralappointment，bythespecialappointmentofthejudge。

Forthelegislator，therefore，aswellasforthejudge，itisnecessary(iftheywouldknowwhatitistheyaredoingwhentheyareappointingpunishment)tohaveaneyetoallthesecircumstances。Forthelegislator，lest，meaningtoapplyacertainquantityofpunishmenttoallpersonswhoshallputthemselvesinagivenpredicament，heshouldunawaresapplytosomeofthosepersonsmuchmoreormuchlessthanhehimselfintended；forthejudge，lest，inapplyingtoaparticularpersonaparticularmeasureofpunishment，heshouldapplymuchmoreormuchlessthanwasintended，perhapsbyhimself，andatanyratebythelegislator。

Theyoughteachofthem，therefore，tohavebeforehim，ontheonehand，alistoftheseveralcircumstancesbywhichsensibilitymaybeinfluenced；

ontheotherhand，alistoftheseveralspeciesanddegreesofpunishmentwhichtheypurposetomakeuseof:andthen，bymakingacomparisonbetweenthetwo，toformadetailedestimateoftheinfluenceofeachofthecircumstancesinquestion，upontheeffectofeachspeciesanddegreeofpunishment。

Therearetwoplansorordersofdistribution，eitherofwhichmightbepursuedinthedrawingupthisestimate。Theoneistomakethenameofthecircumstancetakethelead，andunderittorepresentthedifferentinfluencesitexertsovertheeffectsoftheseveralmodesofpunishment:theotheristomakethenameofthepunishmenttakethelead，andunderittorepresentthedifferentinfluenceswhichareexertedovertheeffectsofitbytheseveralcircumstancesabovementioned。Nowofthesetwosortsofobjects，thepunishmentisthattowhichtheintentionofthelegislatorisdirectedinthefirstinstance。Thisisofhisowncreation，andwillbewhatsoeverhethinksfittomakeit:theinfluencingcircumstanceexistsindependentlyofhim，andiswhatitiswhetherhewillorno。Whathehasoccasiontodoistoestablishacertainspeciesanddegreeofpunishment:anditisonlywithreferencetothatpunishmentthathehasoccasiontomakeanyinquiryconcerninganyofthecircumstanceshereinquestion。Thelatterofthetwoplansthereforeisthatwhichappearsbyfarthemostusefulandcommodious。Butneitherupontheonenortheotherplancananysuchestimatebedeliveredhere。

XLVI。Oftheseveralcircumstancescontainedinthiscatalogue，itmaybeofusetogivesomesortofanalyticview；inorderthatitmaybethemoreeasilydiscoveredifanywhichoughttohavebeeninsertedareomitted；andthat，withregardtothosewhichareinserted，itmaybeseenhowtheydifferandagree。

Inthefirstplace，theymaybedistinguishedintoprimaryandsecondary:

thosemaybetermedprimary，whichoperateimmediatelyofthemselves:thosesecondary，whichoperatenotbutbythemediumoftheformer。Tothislatterheadbelongthecircumstancesofsex，age，stationinlife，education，climate，lineage，government，andreligiousprofession:therestareprimary。

Theseagainareeitherconnateoradventitious:thosewhichareconnate，areradicalframeofbodyandradicalframeofmind。