第4章

Thosewhichareadventitious，areeitherpersonal，orexterior。Thepersonal，again，concerneitheraman"sdispositions，orhisactions。Thosewhichconcernhisdispositions，concerneitherhisbodyorhismind。Thosewhichconcernhisbodyarehealth，strength，hardiness，andbodilyimperfection。Thosewhichconcernhismind，again，concerneitherhisunderstandingorhisaffections。Totheformerheadbelongthecircumstancesofquantityandqualityofknowledge，strengthofunderstanding，andinsanity。Tothelatterbelongthecircumstancesoffirmnessofmind，steadiness，bentofinclination，moralsensibility，moralbiases，religioussensibility，religiousbiases，sympatheticsensibility，sympatheticbiases，antipatheticsensibility，andantipatheticbiases。Thosewhichregardhisactions，arehishabitualoccupations。

Thosewhichareexteriortohim，regardeitherthethingsorthepersonswhichheisconcernedwith；undertheformerheadcomehispecuniarycircumstances；underthelatter，hisconnexionsinthewayofsympathyandantipathy。

chapter07AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterVII

OfHumanActionsinGeneralI。Thebusinessofgovernmentistopromotethehappinessofthesociety，bypunishingandrewarding。Thatpartofitsbusinesswhichconsistsinpunishing，ismoreparticularlythesubjectofpenallaw。Inproportionasanacttendstodisturbthathappiness，inproportionasthetendencyofitispernicious，willbethedemanditcreatesforpunishment。Whathappinessconsistsofwehavealreadyseen:enjoymentofpleasures，securityfrompains。

II。Thegeneraltendencyofanactismoreorlesspernicious，accordingtothesumtotalofitsconsequences:thatis，accordingtothedifferencebetweenthesumofsuchasaregood，andthesumofsuchasareevil。

III。Itistobeobserved，thathere，aswellashenceforward，whereverconsequencesarespokenof，suchonlyaremeantasarematerial。Oftheconsequencesofanyact，themultitudeandvarietymustneedsbeinfinite:butsuchofthemonlyasarematerialareworthregarding。Nowamongtheconsequencesofanact，betheywhattheymay，suchonly，byonewhoviewstheminthecapacityofalegislator，canbesaidtobematerial(orofimportance)aseitherconsistofpainorpleasure，orhaveaninfluenceintheproductionofpainorpleasure。[1]

IV。Itisalsotobeobserved，thatintotheaccountoftheconsequencesoftheact，aretobetakennotsuchonlyasmighthaveensued，wereintentionoutofthequestion，butsuchalsoasdependupontheconnexiontheremaybebetweenthesefirst-mentionedconsequencesandtheintention。Theconnexionthereisbetweentheintentionandcertainconsequencesis，asweshallseehereafter，ameansofproducingotherconsequences。Inthisliesthedifferencebetweenrationalagencyandirrational。

V。Nowtheintention，withregardtotheconsequencesofanact，willdependupontwothings:1。Thestateofthewillorintention，withrespecttotheactitself。And，2。Thestateoftheunderstanding，orperceptivefaculties，withregardtothecircumstanceswhichitis，ormayappeartobe，accompaniedwith。Nowwithrespecttothesecircumstances，theperceptivefacultyissusceptibleofthreestates:consciousness，unconsciousness，andfalseconsciousness。Consciousness，whenthepartybelievespreciselythosecircumstances，andnoothers，tosubsist，whichreallydosubsist:unconsciousness，whenhefailsofperceivingcertaincircumstancestosubsist，which，however，dosubsist:

falseconsciousness，whenhebelievesorimaginescertaincircumstancestosubsist，whichintruthdonotsubsist。

VI。Ineverytransaction，therefore，whichisexaminedwithaviewtopunishment，therearefourarticlestobeconsidered:1。

Theactitself，whichisdone。2。Thecircumstancesinwhichitisdone。3。Theintentionalitythatmayhaveaccompaniedit。4。

Theconsciousness，unconsciousness，orfalseconsciousness，thatmayhaveaccompaniedit。

Whatregardstheactandthecircumstanceswillbethesubjectofthepresentchapter:whatregardsintentionandconsciousness，thatofthetwosucceeding。

VII。Therearealsotwootherarticlesonwhichthegeneraltendencyofanactdepends:andonthat，aswellasonotheraccounts，thedemandwhichitcreatesforpunishment。Theseare，1。

Theparticularmotiveormotiveswhichgavebirthtoit。2。

Thegeneraldispositionwhichitindicates。Thesearticleswillbethesubjectoftwootherchapters。

VIII。Actsmaybedistinguishedinseveralways，forseveralpurposes。

Theymaybedistinguished，inthefirstplace，intopositiveandnegative。

Bypositivearemeantsuchasconsistinmotionorexertion:bynegative，suchasconsistinkeepingatrest；thatis，inforbearingtomoveorexertone"sselfinsuchandsuchcircumstances。thus，tostrikeisapositiveact:nottostrikeonacertainoccasion，anegativeone。Positiveactsarestyledalsoactsofcommission；negative，actsofomissionorforbearance。

IX。Suchacts，again，asarenegative，mayeitherbeabsolutelyso，orrelatively:absolutely，whentheyimportthenegationofallpositiveagencywhatsoever；forinstance，nottostrikeatall:

relatively，whentheyimportthenegationofsuchorsuchaparticularmodeofagency；forinstance，nottostrikesuchapersonorsuchathing，orinsuchadirection。

X。Itistobeobserved，thatthenatureoftheact，whetherpositiveornegative，isnottobedeterminedimmediatelybytheformofthediscoursemadeuseoftoexpressit。Anactwhichispositiveinitsnaturemaybecharacterizedbyanegativeexpression:

thus，nottobeatrest，isasmuchastosaytomove。Soalsoanact，whichisnegativeinitsnature，maybecharacterizedbyapositiveexpression:thus，toforbearoromittobringfoodtoapersonincertaincircumstances，issignifiedbythesingleandpositivetermtostarve。

XI。Inthesecondplace，actsmaybedistinguishedintoexternalandinternal。Byexternal，aremeantcorporalacts；actsofthebody:byinternal，mentalacts；actsofthemind。Thus，tostrikeisanexternalorexterioract:tointendtostrike，aninternalorinteriorone。

XII。Actsofdiscourseareasortofmixtureofthetwo:externalacts，whicharenowaysmaterial，norattendedwithanyconsequences，anyfartherthanastheyservetoexpresstheexistenceofinternalones。Tospeaktoanothertostrike，towritetohimtostrike，tomakesignstohimtostrike，areallsomanyactsofdiscourse。

XIII。Third，actsthatareexternalmaybedistinguishedintotransitiveandintransitive。Actsmaybecalledtransitive，whenthemotioniscommunicatedfromthepersonoftheagenttosomeforeignbody:thatis，tosuchaforeignbodyonwhichtheeffectsofitareconsideredasbeingmaterial；aswhereamanrunsagainstyou，orthrowswaterinyourface。Actsmaybecalledintransitive，whenthemotioniscommunicatedtonootherbody，onwhichtheeffectsofitareregardedasmaterial，thansomepartofthesamepersoninwhomitoriginated，aswhereamanruns，orwasheshimself。

XIV。Anactofthetransitivekindmaybesaidtobeinitscommencement，orinthefirststageofitsprogress，whilethemotionisconfinedtothepersonoftheagent，andhasnotyetbeencommunicatedtoanyforeignbody，onwhichtheeffectsofitcanbematerial。Itmaybesaidtobeinitstermination，ortobeinthelaststageofitsprogress，assoonasthemotionorimpulsehasbeencommunicatedtosomesuchforeignbody。Itmaybesaidtobeinthemiddleorintermediatestageorstagesofitsprogress，whilethemotion，havingpassedfromthepersonoftheagent，hasnotyetbeencommunicatedtoanysuchforeignbody。Thus，assoonasamanhaslifteduphishandtostrike，theactheperformsinstrikingyouisinitscommencement:

assoonashishandhasreachedyou，itisinitstermination。Iftheactbethemotionofabodywhichisseparatedfromthepersonoftheagentbeforeitreachestheobject，itmaybesaid，duringthatinterval，tobeinitsintermediateprogress，oringradumediativo:asinthecasewhereamanthrowsastoneorfiresabulletatyou。

XV。Anactoftheintransitivekindmaybesaidtobeinitscommencement，whenthemotionorimpulseisasyetconfinedtothememberororganinwhichitoriginated；andhasnotyetbeencommunicatedtoanymemberororganthatisdistinguishablefromtheformer。Itmaybesaidtobeinitstermination，assoonasithasbeenappliedtoanyotherpartofthesameperson。

Thus，whereamanpoisonshimself，whileheisliftingupthepoisontohismouth，theactisinitscommencement:assoonasithasreachedhislips，itisinitstermination。

XVI。Inthethirdplace，actsmaybedistinguishedintotransientandcontinued。Thus，tostrikeisatransientact:tolean，acontinuedone。Tobuy，atransientact:tokeepinone"spossession，acontinuedone。

XVII。Instrictnessofspeechthereisadifferencebetweenacontinuedactandarepetitionofacts。Itisarepetitionofacts，whenthereareintervalsfilledupbyactsofdifferentnatures:acontinuedact，whentherearenosuchintervals。Thus，tolean，iscontinuedact:tokeepstriking，arepetitionofacts。

XVIII。Thereisadifference，again，betweenarepetitionofacts，andahabitorpractice。Thetermrepetitionofactsmaybeemployed，lettheactsinquestionbeseparatedbyeversuchshortintervals，andletthesumtotalofthemoccupyeversoshortaspaceoftime。Thetermhabitisnotemployedbutwhentheactsinquestionaresupposedtobeseparatedbylong-continuedintervals，andthesumtotalofthemtooccupyaconsiderablespaceoftime。Itisnot(forinstance)thedrinkingeversomanytimes，noreversomuchatatime，inthecourseofthesamesitting，thatwillconstituteahabitofdrunkenness:itisnecessarythatsuchsittingsthemselvesbefrequentlyrepeated。Everyhabitisarepetitionofacts；or，tospeakmorestrictly，whenamanhasfrequentlyrepeatedsuchandsuchactsafterconsiderableintervals，heissaidtohaveperseveredinorcontractedahabit:

buteveryrepetitionofactsisnotahabit。

XIX。Fourth，actsmaybedistinguishedintoindivisibleanddivisible。

Indivisibleactsaremerelyimaginary:theymaybeeasilyconceived，butcanneverbeknowntobeexemplified。Suchasaredivisiblemaybeso，withregardeithertomatterortotomotion。Anactindivisiblewithregardtomatter，isthemotionorrestofonesingleatomofmatter。Anactindivisible，withregardtomotion，isthemotionofanybody，fromonesingleatomofspacetothenexttoit。

Fifth，actsmaybedistinguishedintosimpleandcomplex:simple，suchastheactofstriking，theactofleaning，ortheactofdrinking，aboveinstanced:complex，consistingeachofamultitudeofsimpleacts，which，thoughnumerousandheterogeneous，deriveasortofunityfromtherelationtheybeartosomecommondesignorend；suchastheactofgivingadinner，theactofmaintainingachild，theactofexhibitingatriumph，theactofbearingarms，theactofholdingacourt，andsoforth。

XX。Ithasbeeneverynowandthenmadeaquestion，whatitisinsuchacasethatconstitutesoneact:whereoneacthasended，andanotheracthasbegun:whetherwhathashappenedhasbeenoneactormany。Thesequestions，itisnowevident，mayfrequentlybeanswered，withequalpropriety，inoppositeways:

andiftherebeanyoccasionsonwhichtheycanbeansweredonlyinoneway，theanswerwilldependuponthenatureoftheoccasion，andthepurposeforwhichthequestionisproposed。Amaniswoundedintwofingersatonestroke——Isitonewoundorseveral？Amanisbeatenat12o"clock，andagainat8minutesafter12——Isitonebeatingorseveral？Youbeatoneman，andinstantlyinthesamebreathyoubeatanother——Isthisonebeatingorseveral？Inanyofthesecasesitmaybeone，perhaps，astosomepurposes，andseveralastoothers。Theseexamplesaregiven，thatmenmaybeawareoftheambiguityoflanguage:andneitherharassthemselveswithunsolvabledoubts，noroneanotherwithinterminabledisputes。

XXI。Somuchwithregardtoactsconsideredinthemselves:wecomenowtospeakofthecircumstanceswithwhichtheymayhavebeenaccompanied。Thesemustnecessarilybetakenintotheaccountbeforeanythingcanbedeterminedrelativetotheconsequences。Whattheconsequencesofanactmaybeuponthewholecanneverotherwisebeascertained:itcanneverbeknownwhetheritisbeneficial，orindifferent，ormischievous。

Insomecircumstanceseventokillamanmaybeabeneficialact:inothers，tosetfoodbeforehimmaybeaperniciousone。

XXII。Nowthecircumstancesofanact，are，what？Anyobjects(orentities)

whatsoever。Takeanyactwhatsoever，thereisnothinginthenatureofthingsthatexcludesanyimaginableobjectfrombeingacircumstancetoit。Anygivenobjectmaybeacircumstancetoanyother。

XXIII。Wehavealreadyhadoccasiontomakementionforamomentoftheconsequencesofanact:theseweredistinguishedintomaterialandimmaterial。Inlikemannermaythecircumstancesofitbedistinguished。Nowmaterialityisarelativeterm:

appliedtotheconsequencesofanact，itborerelationtopainandpleasure:appliedtothecircumstances，itbearsrelationtotheconsequences。Acircumstancemaybesaidtobematerial，whenitbearsavisiblerelationinpointofcausalitytotheconsequences:immaterial，whenitbearsnosuchvisiblerelation。

XXIV。Theconsequencesofanactareevents。Acircumstancemayberelatedtoaneventinpointofcausalityinanybeoneoffourways:1。Inthewayofcausationorproduction。2。Inthewayofderivation。3。Inthewayofcollateralcondition。4。Inthewayofconjunctinfluence。Itmaybesaidtoberelatedtotheeventinthewayofcausation。whenitisofthenumberofthosethatcontributetotheproductionofsuchevent:inthewayofderivation，whenitisofthenumberoftheeventstotheproductionofwhichthatinquestionhasbeencontributory:inthewayofcollateralconnexion，wherethecircumstanceinquestion，andtheeventinquestion，withoutbeingeitheroftheminstrumentalintheproductionoftheother，arerelated，eachofthem，tosomecommonobject，whichhasbeenconcernedintheproductionofthemboth:

inthewayofconjunctinfluence，when，whetherrelatedinanyotherwayornot，theyhavebothofthemconcurredintheproductionofsomecommonconsequence。

XXV。Anexamplemaybeofuse。Intheyear1628，Villiers，DukeofBuckingham，favouriteandministerofCharlesI。ofEngland，receivedawoundanddied。ThemanwhogaveithimwasoneFelton，who，exasperatedatthemaladministrationofwhichthatministerwasaccused，wentdownfromLondontoPortsmouth，whereBuckinghamhappenedthentobe，madehiswayintohisanti-chamber，andfindinghimbusilyengagedinconversationwithanumberofpeopleroundhim，gotclosetohim，drewaknifeandstabbedhim。Intheeffort，theassassin"shatfelloff，whichwasfoundsoonafter，and，uponsearchinghim，thebloodyknife。Inthecrownofthehatwerefoundscrapsofpaper，withsentencesexpressiveofthepurposehewascomeupon。Herethen，supposetheeventinquestionisthewoundreceivedbyBuckingham:Felton"sdrawingouthisknife，hismakinghiswayintothechamber，hisgoingdowntoPortsmouth，hisconceivinganindignationattheideaofBuckingham"sadministration，thatadministrationitself，Charles"sappointingsuchaminister，andsoon，higherandhigherwithoutend，aresomanycircumstances，relatedtotheeventofBuckingham"sreceivingthewound，inthewayofcausationorproduction:thebloodinessoftheknife，acircumstancerelatedtothesameeventinthewayofderivation:thefindingofthehatupontheground，thefindingthesentencesinthehat，andthewritingthem，somanycircumstancesrelatedtoitinthewayofcollateralconnexion:andthesituationandconversationsofthepeopleaboutBuckingham，werecircumstancesrelatedtothecircumstancesofFelton"smakinghiswayintotheroom，goingdowntoPortsmouth，andsoforth，inthewayofconjunctinfluence；inasmuchastheycontributedincommontotheeventofBuckingham"sreceivingthewound，bypreventinghimfromputtinghimselfuponhisguarduponthefirstappearanceoftheintruder。

XXVI。Theseseveralrelationsdonotallofthemattachuponaneventwithequalcertainty。Inthefirstplace，itisplain，indeed，thateveryeventmusthavesomecircumstanceorother，andintruth，anindefinitemultitudeofcircumstances，relatedtoitinthewayofproduction:itmustofcoursehaveastillgreatermultitudeofcircumstancesrelatedtoitinthewayofcollateralconnexion。Butitdoesnotappearnecessarythateveryeventshouldhavecircumstancesrelatedtoitinthewayofderivation:

northereforethatitshouldhaveanyrelatedtoitinthewayofconjunctinfluence。Butofthecircumstancesofallkindswhichactuallydoattachuponanevent，itisonlyaverysmallnumberthatcanbediscoveredbytheutmostexertionofthehumanfaculties:itisastillsmallernumberthateveractuallydoattractournotice:whenoccasionhappens，moreorfewerofthemwillbediscoveredbyamaninproportiontothestrength，partlyofhisintellectualpowers，partlyofhisinclination。Itappearsthereforethatthemultitudeanddescriptionofsuchofthecircumstancesbelongingtoanact，asmayappeartobematerial，willbedeterminedbytwoconsiderations:1。Bythenatureofthingsthemselves。

2。Bythestrengthorweaknessofthefacultiesofthosewhohappentoconsiderthem。

XXVII。Thusmuchitseemednecessarytopremiseingeneralconcerningacts，andtheircircumstances，previouslytotheconsiderationoftheparticularsortsofactswiththeirparticularcircumstances，withwhichweshallhavetodointhebodyofthework。Anactofsomesortorotherisnecessarilyincludedinthenotionofeveryoffense。Togetherwiththisact，underthenotionofthesameoffense，areincludedcertaincircumstances:whichcircumstancesenterintotheessenceoftheoffense，contributebytheirconjunctinfluencetotheproductionofitsconsequences，andinconjunctionwiththeactarebroughtintoviewbythenamebywhichitstandsdistinguished。Theseweshallhaveoccasiontodistinguishhereafterbythenameofcriminativecircumstances。Othercircumstancesagainenteringintocombinationwiththeactandtheformersetofcircumstances，areproductiveofstillfartherconsequences。Theseadditionalconsequences，iftheyareofthebeneficialkind，bestow，accordingtothevaluetheybearinthatcapacity，uponthecircumstancestowhichtheyowetheirbirththeappellationofexculpativeorextenuativecircumstances:ifofthemischievouskind，theybestowonthemtheappellationofaggravativecircumstances。Ofallthesedifferentsetsofcircumstances，thecriminativeareconnectedwiththeconsequencesoftheoriginaloffence，inthewayofproduction；withtheact，andwithoneanother，inthewayofconjunctinfluence:theconsequencesoftheoriginaloffensewiththem，andwiththeactrespectively，inthewayofderivation:theconsequencesofthemodifiedoffense，withthecriminative，exculpative，andextenuativecircumstancesrespectively，inthewayalsoofderivation:thesedifferentsetsofcircumstances，withtheconsequencesofthemodifiedactoroffense，inthewayofproduction:andwithoneanother(inrespectoftheconsequencesofthemodifiedactoroffense)inthewayofconjunctinfluence。Lastly，whatevercircumstancescanbeseentobeconnectedwiththeconsequencesoftheoffense，whetherdirectlyinthewayofderivation，orobliquelyinthewayofcollateralaffinity(towit，invirtueofitsbeingconnected，inthewayofderivation，withsomeofthecircumstanceswithwhichtheystandconnectedinthesamemanner)bearamaterialrelationtotheoffenseinthewayofevidence，theymayaccordinglybestyledevidentiarycircumstances，andmaybecomeofuse，bybeingheldforthuponoccasionassomanyproofs，indications，orevidencesofitshavingbeencommitted。

chapter08AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterVIII

OfIntentionalityI。Somuchwithregardtothetwofirstofthearticlesuponwhichtheeviltendencyofanactionmaydepend:viz。theactitself，andthegeneralassemblageofthecircumstanceswithwhichitmayhavebeenaccompanied。Wecomenowtoconsiderthewaysinwhichtheparticularcircumstanceofintentionmaybeconcernedinit。

II。First，then，theintentionorwillmayregardeitheroftwoobjects:

1。Theactitself:or，2。Itsconsequences。Oftheseobjects，thatwhichtheintentionregardsmaybestyledintentional。Ifitregardstheact，thentheactmaybesaidtobeintentional:iftheconsequences，soalsothenmaytheconsequences。Ifitregardsboththeactandconsequences，thewholeactionmaybesaidtobeintentional。Whicheverofthosearticlesisnottheobjectoftheintention，mayofcoursebesaidtobeunintentional。

III。Theactmayveryeasilybeintentionalwithouttheconsequences；

andoftenisso。Thus，youmayintendtotouchamanwithoutintendingtohurthim:andyet，astheconsequencesturnout，youmaychancetohurthim。

IV。Theconsequencesofanactmayalsobeintentional，withouttheact"sbeingintentionalthroughout；thatis，withoutitsbeingintentionalineverystageofit:butthisisnotsofrequentacaseastheformer。Youintendtohurtaman，suppose，byrunningagainsthim，andpushinghimdown:andyouruntowardshimaccordingly:

butasecondmancominginonasuddenbetweenyouandthefirstman，beforeyoucanstopyourself，yourunagainstthesecondman，andbyhimpushdownthefirst。

V。Buttheconsequencesofanactcannotbeintentional，withouttheact"sbeingitselfintentionalinatleastthefirst，stage。Iftheactbenotintentionalinthefirststage，itisnoactofyours:thereisaccordinglynointentiononyourparttoproducetheconsequences:thatistosay，theindividualconsequences。Alltherecanhavebeenonyourpartisadistantintentiontoproduceotherconsequences，ofthesamenature，bysomeactofyours，atafuturetime:orelse，withoutanyintention，abarewishtoseesucheventtakeplace。Thesecondman，suppose，runsofhisownaccordagainstthefirst，andpusheshimdown。Youhadintentionsofdoingathingofthesamenature:viz。Torunagainsthim，andpushhimdownyourself；butyouhaddonenothinginpursuanceofthoseintentions:theindividualconsequencesthereforeoftheact，whichthesecondmanperformedinpushingdownthefirst，cannotbesaidtohavebeenonyourpartintentional。

VI。Second。Aconsequence，whenitisintentional，mayeitherbedirectlyso，oronlyobliquely。Itmaybesaidtobedirectlyorlineallyintentional，whentheprospectofproducingitconstitutedoneofthelinksinthechainofcausesbywhichthepersonwasdeterminedtodotheact。Itmaybesaidtobeobliquelyorcollaterallyintentional，when，althoughtheconsequencewasincontemplation，andappearedlikelytoensueincaseoftheact"sbeingperformed，yettheprospectofproducingsuchconsequencedidnotconstitutealinkintheaforesaidchain。

VII。Third。Anincident，whichisdirectlyintentional，mayoreitherbeultimatelyso，oronlymediately。Itmaybesaidtobeultimatelyintentional，whenitstandslastofallexterioreventsintheaforesaidchainofmotives；insomuchthattheprospectoftheproductionofsuchincident，couldtherebeacertaintyofitstakingplace，wouldbesufficienttodeterminethewill，withouttheprospectofitsproducinganyother。Itmaybesaidtobemediatelyintentional，andnomore，whenthereissomeotherincident，theprospectofproducingwhichformsasubsequentlinkinthesamechain:insomuchthattheprospectofproducingtheformerwouldnothaveoperatedasamotive，butforthetendencywhichitseemedtohavetowardstheproductionofthelatter。

VIII。Fourth。Whenanincidentisdirectlyintentional，itmayeitherbeexclusivelyso，orinexclusively。Itmaybesaidtobeexclusivelyintentional，whennootherbutthatveryindividualincidentwouldhaveansweredthepurpose，insomuchthatnootherincidenthadanyshareindeterminingthewilltotheactinquestion。Itmaybesaidtohavebeeninexclusively(orconcurrently)intentional，whentherewassomeotherincident，theprospectofwhichwasactinguponthewillatthesametime。

IX。Fifth。Whenanincidentisinexclusivelyintentional，itmaybeeitherconjunctivelyso，disjunctively，orindiscriminately。Itmaybesaidtobeconjunctivelyintentionalwithregardtosuchotherincident，whentheintentionistoproduceboth:

disjunctively，whentheintentionistoproduceeithertheoneortheotherindifferently，butnotboth:indiscriminately，whentheintentionisindifferentlytoproduceeithertheoneortheother，orboth，asitmayhappen。

X。Sixth。Whentwoincidentsaredisjunctivelyintentional，theymaybesowithorwithoutpreference。Theymaybesaidtobesowithpreference，whentheintentionis，thatoneoftheminparticularshouldhappenratherthantheother:withoutpreference，whentheintentionisequallyfulfilled，whicheverofthemhappens。

XI。Oneexamplewillmakeallthisclear。WilliamII。kingofEngland，beingoutastag-hunting，receivedfromSirWalterTyrrelawound，ofwhichhedied(Hume"sHistory)。Letustakethiscase，anddiversifyitwithavarietyofsuppositions，correspondenttothedistinctionsjustlaiddown。

I。Firstthen，Tyrreldidnotsomuchasentertainathoughtoftheking"sdeath；or，ifhedid，lookeduponitasaneventofwhichtherewasnodanger。Ineitherofthesecasestheincidentofhiskillingthekingwasaltogetherunintentional。

2。Hesawastagrunningthatway，andhesawthekingridingthatwayatthesametime:whatheaimedatwastokillthestag:

hedidnotwishtokilltheking:atthesametimehesaw，thatifheshot，itwasaslikelyheshouldkillthekingasthestag:yetforallthatheshot，andkilledthekingaccordingly。Inthiscasetheincidentofhiskillingthekingwasintentional，butobliquelyso。

3。Hekilledthekingonaccountofthehatredheborehim，andfornootherreasonthanthepleasureofdestroyinghim。Inthiscasetheincidentoftheking"sdeathwasnotonlydirectlybutultimatelyintentional。

4。Hekilledtheking，intendingfullysotodo；notforanyhatredheborehim，butforthesakeofplunderinghimwhendead。Inthiscasetheincidentoftheking"sdeathwasdirectlyintentional，butnotultimately:itwasmediatelyintentional。

5。Heintendedneithermorenorlessthantokilltheking。Hehadnootheraimnorwish。Inthiscaseitwasexclusivelyaswellasdirectlyintentional:exclusively，towit，withregardtoeveryothermaterialincident。

6。SirWaltershotthekingintherightleg，ashewaspluckingathornoutofitwithhislefthand。Hisintentionwas，byshootingthearrowintohislegthroughhishand，tocripplehiminboththoselimbsatthesametime。Inthiscasetheincidentoftheking"sbeingshotinthelegwasintentional:andthatconjunctivelywithanotherwhichdidnothappen；viz。hisbeingshotinthehand。

7。TheintentionofTyrrelwastoshootthekingeitherinthehandorintheleg，butnotinboth；andratherinthehandthanintheleg。Inthiscasetheintentionofshootinginthehandwasdisjunctivelyconcurrent，withregardtotheotherincident，andthatwithpreference。

8。Hisintentionwastoshootthekingeitherinthelegorthehand，whichevermighthappen:butnotinboth。Inthiscasetheintentionwasinexclusive，butdisjunctivelyso:yetthat，however，withoutpreference。

9。Hisintentionwastoshootthekingeitherinthelegorthehand，orinboth，asitmighthappen。Inthiscasetheintentionwasindiscriminatelyconcurrent，withrespecttothetwoincidents。

XII。Itistobeobserved，thatanactmaybeunintentionalinanystageorstagesofit，thoughintentionalinthepreceding:and，ontheotherhand，itmaybeintentionalinanystageorstagesofit，andyetunintentionalinthesucceeding。Butwhetheritbeintentionalornoinanyprecedingstage，isimmaterial，withrespecttotheconsequences，soitbeunintentionalinthelast。Theonlypoint，withrespecttowhichitismaterial，istheproof。Themorestagestheactisunintentionalin，themoreapparentitwillcommonlybe，thatitwasunintentionalwithrespecttothelast。Ifaman，intendingtostrikeyouonthecheek，strikesyouintheeye，andputsitout，itwillprobablybedifficultforhimtoprovethatitwasnothisintentiontostrikeyouintheeye。Itwillprobablybeeasier，ifhisintentionwasreallynottostrikeyou，orevennottostrikeatall。

XIII。Itisfrequenttohearmenspeakofagoodintention，ofabadintention；ofthegoodnessandbadnessofaman"sintention:

acircumstanceonwhichgreatstressisgenerallylaid。Itisindeedofnosmallimportance，whenproperlyunderstood:buttheimportofitistothelastdegreeambiguousandobscure。Strictlyspeaking，nothingcanbesaidtobegoodorbad，buteitherinitself；whichisthecaseonlywithpainorpleasure:oronaccountofitseffects；whichthecaseonlywiththingsthatarethecausesorpreventivesofpainandpleasure。Butinafigurativeandlessproperwayofspeech，athingmayalsobestyledgoodorbad，inconsiderationofitscause。Nowtheeffectsofanintentiontodosuchorsuchanact，arethesameobjectswhichwehavebeenspeakingofundertheappellationofitsconsequences:andthecausesofintentionarecalledmotives。Aman"sintentionthenonanyoccasionmaybestyledgoodorbad，withreferenceeithertotheconsequencesoftheact，orwithreferencetohismotives。Ifitbedeemedgoodorbadinanysense，itmustbeeitherbecauseitisdeemedtobeproductiveofgoodorofbadconsequences，orbecauseitisdeemedtooriginatefromagoodorfromabadmotive。Butthegoodnessorbadnessoftheconsequencesdependuponthecircumstances。Nowthecircumstancesarenoobjectsoftheintention。Amanintendstheact:andbyhisintentionproducestheact:butastothecircumstances，hedoesnotintendthem:hedoesnot，inasmuchastheyarecircumstancesofit，producethem。Ifbyaccidenttherebeafewwhichhehasbeeninstrumentalinproducing，ithasbeenbyformerintentions，directedtoformeracts，productiveofthosecircumstancesastheconsequences:atthetimeinquestionhetakesthemashefindsthem。Acts，withtheirconsequences，areobjectsofthewillaswellasoftheunderstanding:circumstances，assuch，areobjectsoftheunderstandingonly。Allhecandowiththese，assuch，istoknowornottoknowthem:inotherwords，tobeconsciousofthem，ornotconscious。

TothetitleofConsciousnessbelongswhatistobesaidofthegoodnessorbadnessofaman"sintention，asresultingfromtheconsequencesoftheact:andtotheheadofMotives，whatistobesaidofhisintention，asresultingfromthemotive。

chapter09AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterIX

OfConsciousnessI。Sofarwithregardtothewaysinwhichthewillorintentionmaybeconcernedintheproductionofanyincident:wecomenowtoconsiderthepartwhichtheunderstandingorperceptivefacultymayhaveborne，withrelationtosuchincident。

II。Acertainacthasbeendone，andthatintentionally:thatactwasattendedwithcertaincircumstances:uponthesecircumstancesdependedcertainofitsconsequences；andamongsttherest，allthosewhichwereofanaturepurelyphysical。

Nowthen，takeanyoneofthesecircumstances，itisplain，thataman，atthetimeofdoingtheactfromwhencesuchconsequencesensued，mayhavebeeneitherconscious，withrespecttothiscircumstance，orunconscious。Inotherwords，hemayeitherhavebeenawareofthecircumstance，ornotaware:itmayeitherhavebeenpresenttohismind，ornotpresent。Inthefirstcase，theactmaybesaidtohavebeenanadvisedact，withrespecttothatcircumstance:intheothercase，anunadvisedone。

III。Therearetwopoints，withregardtowhichanactmayhavebeenadvisedorunadvised:1。Theexistenceofthecircumstanceitself。2。Thematerialityofit。

IV。Itismanifest，thatwithreferencetothetimeoftheact，suchcircumstancemayhavebeeneitherpresent，past，orfuture。

V。Anactwhichisunadvised，iseitherheedless，ornotheedless。Itistermedheedless，whenthecaseisthoughttobesuch，thatapersonofordinaryprudence，ifpromptedbyanordinaryshareofbenevolence，wouldhavebeenlikelytohavebestowedsuchandsomuchattentionandreflectionuponthematerialcircumstances，aswouldhaveeffectuallydisposedhimtopreventthemischievousincidentfromtakingplace:notheedless，whenthecaseisnotthoughttobesuchasabovementioned。

VI。Again。Whetheramandidordidnotsupposetheexistenceormaterialityofagivencircumstance，itmaybethathedidsupposetheexistenceandmaterialityofsomecircumstance，whicheitherdidnotexist，orwhich，thoughexisting，wasnotmaterial。Insuchcasetheactmaybesaidtobemis-advised，withrespecttosuchimaginedcircumstance:anditmaybesaid，thattherehasbeenanerroneoussupposition，oramis-supposalinthecase。

VII。Nowacircumstance，theexistenceofwhichisthuserroneouslysupposed，maybematerialeither，1。Inthewayofprevention:or，2。Inthatofcompensation。Itmaybesaidtobematerialinthewayofprevention，whenitseffectortendency，haditexisted，wouldhavebeentopreventtheobnoxiousconsequences:

inthewayofcompensation，whenthateffectortendencywouldhavebeentoproduceotherconsequences，thebeneficialnessofwhichwouldhaveout-weighedthemischievousnessoftheothers。

VIII。Itismanifestthat，withreferencetothetimeoftheact，suchimaginarycircumstancemayineithercasehavebeensupposedeithertobepresent，past，orfuture。

IX。Toreturntotheexampleexhibitedintheprecedingchapter。

10。Tyrrelintendedtoshootinthedirectioninwhichheshot；buthedidnotknowthatthekingwasridingsonearthatway。Inthiscasetheactheperformedinshooting，theactofshooting，wasunadvised，withrespecttotheexistenceofthecircumstanceoftheking"sbeingsonearridingthatway。

11。Heknewthatthekingwasridingthatway:butatthedistanceatwhichthekingwas，heknewnotoftheprobabilitytherewasthatthearrowwouldreachhim。Inthiscasetheactwasunadvised，withrespecttothematerialityofthecircumstance。

12。Somebodyhaddippedthearrowinpoison，withoutTyrrel"sknowingofit。Inthiscasetheactwasunadvised，withrespecttotheexistenceofapastcircumstance。

13。AttheveryinstantthatTyrreldrewthebow，thekingbeingscreenedfromhisviewbythefoliageofsomebushes，wasridingfuriously，insuchmannerastomeetthearrowinadirectline:

whichcircumstancewasalsomorethanTyrrelknewof。Inthiscasetheactwasunadvised，withrespecttotheexistenceofapresentcircumstance。

14。Thekingbeingatadistancefromcourt，couldgetnobodytodresshiswoundtillthenextday；ofwhichcircumstanceTyrrelwasnotaware。Inthiscasetheactwasunadvised，withrespecttowhatwasthenfuturecircumstance。

15。Tyrrelknewoftheking"sbeingridingthatway，ofhisbeingsonear，andsoforth；butbeingdeceivedbythefoliageofthebushes，hethoughthesawabankbetweenthespotfromwhichheshot，andthattowhichthekingwasriding。Inthiscasetheactwasmis-advised，proceedingonthemis-supposalofapreventivecircumstance。

16。Tyrrelknewthateverythingwasasabove，norwashedeceivedbythesuppositionofanypreventivecircumstance。Buthebelievedthekingtobeanusurper:andsupposedhewascominguptoattackapersonwhomTyrrelbelievedtobetherightfulking，andwhowasridingbyTyrrel"sside。Inthiscasetheactwasalsomis-advised，butproceededonthemis-supposalofacompensativecircumstance。

X。Letusobservetheconnexionthereisbetweenintentionalityandconsciousness。Whentheactitselfisintentional，andwithrespecttotheexistenceofallthecircumstancesadvised，asalsowithrespecttothematerialityofthosecircumstances，inrelationtoagivenconsequence，andthereisnomis-supposalwithregardtoanypreventivecircumstance，thatconsequencemustalsobeintentional:inotherwords；advisedness，withrespecttothecircumstances，ifclearfromthemis-supposalofanypreventivecircumstance，extendstheintentionalityfromtheacttotheconsequences。Thoseconsequencesmaybeeitherdirectlyintentional，oronlyobliquelyso:butatanyratetheycannotbutbeintentional。

XI。Togoonwiththeexample。IfTyrrelintendedtoshootinthedirectioninwhichthekingwasridingup，andknewthatthekingwascomingtomeetthearrow，andknewtheprobabilitytherewasofhisbeingshotinthatsamepartinwhichhewasshot，orinanotherasdangerous，andwiththatsamedegreeofforce，andsoforth，andwasnotmisledbytheerroneoussuppositionofacircumstancebywhichtheshotwouldhavebeenpreventedfromtakingplace，oranysuchotherpreventivecircumstance，itisplainhecouldnotbuthaveintendedtheking"sdeath。Perhapshedidnotpositivelywishit；butforallthat，inacertainsenseheintendedit。

XII。Whatheedlessnessisinthecaseofanunadvisedact，rashnessisinthecaseofamisadvisedone。Amisadvisedactthenmaybeeitherrashornotrash。Itmaybetermedrash，whenthecaseisthoughttobesuch，thatapersonofordinaryprudence，ifpromptedbyanordinaryshareofbenevolence，wouldhaveemployedsuchandsomuchattentionandreflectiontotheimaginedcircumstance，as，bydiscoveringtohimthenonexistence，improbability，orimmaterialityofit，wouldhaveeffectuallydisposedhimtopreventthemischievousincidentfromtakingplace。

XIII。Inordinarydiscourse，whenamandoesanactofwhichtheconsequencesprovemischievous，itisacommonthingtospeakofhimashavingactedwithagoodintentionor，withabadintention，ofhisintention"sbeingagoodoneorabadone。

Theepithetsgoodandbadareallthiswhileapplied，wesee，totheintention:buttheapplicationofthemismostcommonlygovernedbyasuppositionformedwithregardtothenatureofthemotive。

Theact，thougheventuallyitprovemischievous，issaidtobedonewithagoodintention，whenitissupposedtoissuefromamotivewhichislookeduponasagoodmotive:withabadintention，whenitissupposedtobetheresultofamotivewhichislookeduponasabadmotive。Butthenatureoftheconsequencesintended，andthenatureofthemotivewhichgavebirthtotheintention，areobjectswhich，thoughintimatelyconnected，areperfectlydistinguishable。Theintentionmightthereforewithperfectproprietybestyledagoodone，whateverwerethemotive。Itmightbestyledagoodone，whennotonlytheconsequencesoftheactprovemischievous，butthemotivewhichgavebirthtoitwaswhatiscalledabadone。Towarrantthespeakingoftheintentionasbeingagoodone，itissufficientiftheconsequencesoftheact，hadtheyprovedwhattotheagenttheyseemedlikelytobe，wouldhavebeenofabeneficialnature。Andinthesamemannertheintentionmaybebad，whennotonlytheconsequencesoftheactprovebeneficial，butthemotivewhichgavebirthtoitwasagoodone。

XIV。Now，whenamanhasamindtospeakofyourintentionasbeinggoodorbad，withreferencetotheconsequences，ifhespeaksofitatallhemustusethewordintention，forthereisnoother。Butifamanmeanstospeakofthemotivefromwhichyourintentionoriginated，asbeingagoodorabadone，heiscertainlynotobligedtousethewordintention:itisatleastaswelltousethewordmotive。Bythesuppositionhemeansthemotive；andverylikelyhemaynotmeantheintention。Forwhatistrueoftheoneisveryoftennottrueoftheother。Themotivemaybegoodwhentheintentionisbad:theintentionmaybegoodwhenthemotiveisbad:whethertheyarebothgoodorbothbad，ortheonegoodandtheotherbad，makes，asweshallseehereafter，averyessentialdifferencewithregardtotheconsequences。

Itisthereforemuchbetter，whenmotiveismeant，nevertosayintention。

XV。Anexamplewillmakethisclear。Outofmaliceamanprosecutesyouforacrimeofwhichhebelievesyoutobeguilty，butofwhichinfactyouarenotguilty。Heretheconsequencesofhisconductaremischievous:fortheyaremischievoustoyouatanyrate，invirtueoftheshameandanxietywhichyouaremadetosufferwhiletheprosecutionisdepending:towhichistobeadded，incaseofyourbeingconvicted，theevilofthepunishment。

Toyouthereforetheyaremischievous；noristhereanyonetowhomtheyarebeneficial。Theman"smotivewasalsowhatiscalledabadone:formalicewillbeallowedbyeverybodytobeabadmotive。However，theconsequencesofhisconduct，hadtheyprovedsuchashebelievedthemlikelytobe，wouldhavebeengood:forinthemwouldhavebeenincludedthepunishmentofacriminal，whichisabenefittoallwhoareexposedtosufferbyacrimeofthelikenature。TheIntentiontherefore，inthiscase，thoughnotinacommonwayofspeakingthemotive，mightbestyledagoodone。Butofmotivesmoreparticularlyinthenextchapter。

XVI。Inthesamesensetheintention，whetheritbepositivelygoodorno，solongasitisnotbad，maybetermedinnocent。

Accordingly，lettheconsequenceshaveprovedmischievous，andletthemotivehavebeenwhatitwill，theintentionmaybetermedinnocentineitheroftwocases:1。Inthecaseofun-advisednesswithrespecttoanyofthecircumstancesonwhichthemischievousnessoftheconsequencesdepended:2。Inthecaseofmis-advisednesswithrespecttoanycircumstance，which，haditbeenwhatitappearedtobe，wouldhaveservedeithertopreventortooutweighthemischief。

XVII。AfewwordsforthepurposeofapplyingwhathasbeensaidtotheRomanlaw。Unintentionality，andinnocenceofintention，seembothtobeincludedinthecaseofinfortunium，wherethereisneitherdolusnorculpa。Unadvisednesscoupledwithheedlessness，andmis-advisednesscoupledwithrashness，correspondtotheculpasinedolo。Directintentionalitycorrespondstodolus。Obliqueintentionalityseemshardlytohavebeendistinguishedfromdirect；wereittooccur，itwouldprobablybedeemedalsotocorrespondtodolus。Thedivisionintoculpa，lata，levis，andlevissima，issuchasnothingcertaincancorrespondto。Whatisitthatitexpresses？Adistinction，notinthecaseitself，butonlyinthesentimentswhichanyperson(ajudge，forinstance)mayfindhimselfdisposedtoentertainwithrelationtoit:supposingitalreadydistinguishedintothreesubordinatecasesbyothermeans。

Theworddolusseemsillenoughcontrived:thewordculpaasindifferently。

Dolus，uponanyotheroccasion，wouldbeunderstoodtoimplydeceit，concealments，clandestinity:buthereitisextendedtoopenforce。Culpa，uponanyotheroccasion，wouldbeunderstoodtoextendtoblameofeverykind。Itwouldthereforeincludedolus。

XVIII。Theabove-mentioneddefinitionsanddistinctionsarefarfrombeingmeremattersofspeculation。Theyarecapableofthemostextensiveandconstantapplication，aswelltomoraldiscourseastolegislativepractice。Uponthedegreeandbiasofaman"sintention，upontheabsenceorpresenceofconsciousnessormis-supposal，dependagreatpartofthegoodandbad，moreespeciallyofthebadconsequencesofanact；andonthis，aswellasothergrounds，agreatpartofthedemandforpunishment。Thepresenceofintentionwithregardtosuchorsuchaconsequence，andofconsciousnesswithregardtosuchorsuchacircumstance，oftheact，willformsomanyeliminativecircumstances，oressentialingredientsinthecompositionofthisorthatoffence:appliedtoothercircumstances，consciousnesswillformagroundofaggravation，annexabletothelikeoffence。

Inalmostallcases，theabsenceofintentionwithregardtocertainconsequencesandtheabsenceofconsciousness，orthepresenceofmis-supposal，withregardtocertaincircumstances，willconstitutesomanygroundsofextenuation。

chapter10AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterX

OfMotives§；1。DifferentsensesofthewordmotiveI。Itisanacknowledgedtruth，thateverykindofactwhatever，andconsequentlyeverykindofoffense，isapttoassumeadifferentcharacter，andbeattendedwithdifferenteffects，accordingtothenatureofthemotivewhichgivesbirthtoit。Thismakesitrequisitetotakeaviewoftheseveralmotivesbywhichhumanconductisliabletobeinfluenced。

II。Byamotive，inthemostextensivesenseinwhichthewordiseverusedwithreferencetoathinkingbeing，ismeantanythingthatcancontributetogivebirthto，oreventoprevent，anykindofaction。Nowtheactionsofathinkingbeingistheacteitherofthebody，oronlyofthemind:andanactofthemindisanacteitheroftheintellectualfaculty，orofthewill。Actsoftheintellectualfacultywillsometimesrestintheunderstandingmerely，withoutexertinganyinfluenceintheproductionofanyactsofthewill。Motives，whicharenotofanaturetoinfluenceanyotheractsthanthose，maybestyledpurelyspeculativemotives，ormotivesrestinginspeculation。Butastotheseacts，neitherdotheyexerciseanyinfluenceoverexternalacts，orovertheirconsequences，norconsequentlyoveranypainoranypleasurethatmaybeinthenumberofsuchconsequences。Nowitisonlyonaccountoftheirtendencytoproduceeitherpainorpleasure，thatanyactscanbematerial。Withacts，therefore，thatrestpurelyintheunderstanding，wehavenothereanyconcern:northereforewithanyobject，ifanysuchtherebe，which，inthecharacterofamotive，canhavenoinfluenceonanyotheractsthanthose。