第2章

Whatevermeritamanmayhavethoughttherewouldbeinmakinghimselfmiserable，nosuchnotionseemsevertohaveoccurredtoanyofthem，thatitmaybeamerit，muchlessaduty，tomakeothersmiserable:althoughitshouldseem，thatifacertainquantityofmiserywereathingsodesirable，itwouldnotmattermuchwhetheritwerebroughtbyeachmanuponhimself，orbyonemanuponanother。Itistrue，thatfromthesamesourcefromwhence，amongthereligionists，theattachmenttotheprincipleofasceticismtookitsrise，flowedotherdoctrinesandpractices，fromwhichmiseryinabundancewasproducedinonemanbytheinstrumentalityofanother:witnesstheholywars，andthepersecutionsforreligion。Butthepassionforproducingmiseryinthesecasesproceededuponsomespecialground:theexerciseofitwasconfinedtopersonsofparticulardescriptions:

theyweretormented，notasmen，butashereticsandinfidels。Tohaveinflictedthesamemiseriesontheirfellowbelieversandfellow-sectaries，wouldhavebeenasblameableintheeyesevenofthesereligionists，asinthoseofapartizanoftheprincipleofutility。Foramantogivehimselfacertainnumberofstripeswasindeedmeritorious:buttogivethesamenumberofstripestoanotherman，notconsenting，wouldhavebeenasin。Wereadofsaints，whoforthegoodoftheirsouls，andthemortificationoftheirbodies，havevoluntarilyyieldedthemselvesapreytovermin:butthoughmanypersonsofthisclasshavewieldedthereinsofempire，wereadofnonewhohavesetthemselvestowork，andmadelawsonpurpose，withaviewofstockingthebodypoliticwiththebreedofhighwaymen，housebreakers，orincendiaries。Ifatanytimetheyhavesufferedthenationtobepreyeduponbyswarmsofidlepensioners，oruselessplacemen，ithasratherbeenfromnegligenceandimbecility，thanfromanysettledplanforoppressingandplunderingofthepeople。Ifatanytimetheyhavesappedthesourcesofnationalwealth，bycrampingcommerce，anddrivingtheinhabitantsintoemigration，ithasbeenwithotherviews，andinpursuitofotherends。Iftheyhavedeclaimedagainstthepursuitofpleasure，andtheuseofwealth，theyhavecommonlystoppedatdeclamation:theyhavenot，likeLycurgus，madeexpressordinancesforthepurposeofbanishingthepreciousmetals。Iftheyhaveestablishedidlenessbyalaw，ithasbeennotbecauseidleness，themotherofviceandmisery，isitselfavirtue，butbecauseidleness(saythey)istheroadtoholiness。Ifunderthenotionoffasting，theyhavejoinedintheplanofconfiningtheirsubjectstoadiet，thoughtbysometobeofthemostnourishingandprolificnature，ithasbeennotforthesakeofmakingthemtributariestothenationsbywhomthatdietwastobesupplied，butforthesakeofmanifestingtheirownpower，andexercisingtheobedienceofthepeople。Iftheyhaveestablished，orsufferedtobeestablished，punishmentsforthebreachofcelibacy，theyhavedonenomorethancomplywiththepetitionsofthosedeludedrigorists，who，dupestotheambitiousanddeep-laidpolicyoftheirrulers，firstlaidthemselvesunderthatidleobligationbyavow。

IX。Theprincipleofasceticismseemsoriginallytohavebeenthereverieofcertainhastyspeculators，whohavingperceived，orfancied，thatcertainpleasures，whenreapedincertaincircumstances，have，atthelongrun，beenattendedwithpainsmorethanequivalenttothem，tookoccasiontoquarrelwitheverythingthatoffereditselfunderthenameofpleasure。Havingthengotthusfar，andhavingforgotthepointwhichtheysetoutfrom，theypushedon，andwentsomuchfurtherastothinkitmeritorioustofallinlovewithpain。Eventhis，wesee，isatbottombuttheprincipleofutilitymisapplied。

X。Theprincipleofutilityiscapableofbeingconsistentlypursued；

anditisbuttautologytosay，thatthemoreconsistentlyitispursued，thebetteritmusteverbeforhuman-kind。Theprincipleofasceticismneverwas，norevercanbe，consistentlypursuedbyanylivingcreature。Letbutonetenthpartoftheinhabitantsofthisearthpursueitconsistently，andinaday"stimetheywillhaveturneditintoahell。

XI。Amongprinciplesadversetothatofutility，thatwhichatthisdayseemstohavemostinfluenceinmattersofgovernment，iswhatmaybecalledtheprincipleofsympathyandantipathy。Bytheprincipleofsympathyandantipathy，Imeanthatprinciplewhichapprovesordisapprovesofcertainactions，notonaccountoftheirtendingtoaugmentthehappiness，noryetonaccountoftheirtendingtodiminishthehappinessofthepartywhoseinterestisinquestion，butmerelybecauseamanfindshimselfdisposedtoapproveordisapproveofthem:holdingupthatapprobationordisapprobationasasufficientreasonforitself，anddisclaimingthenecessityoflookingoutforanyextrinsicground。

Thusfarinthegeneraldepartmentofmorals:andintheparticulardepartmentofpolitics，measuringoutthequantum(aswellasdeterminingtheground)ofpunishment，bythedegreeofthedisapprobation。

XII。Itismanifest，thatthisisratheraprincipleinnamethaninreality:itisnotapositiveprincipleofitself，somuchasatermemployedtosignifythenegationofallprinciple。Whatoneexpectstofindinaprincipleissomethingthatpointsoutsomeexternalconsideration，asameansofwarrantingandguidingtheinternalsentimentsofapprobationanddisapprobation:thisexpectationisbutillfulfilledbyaproposition，whichdoesneithermorenorlessthanholdupeachofthosesentimentsasagroundandstandardforitself。

XIII。Inlookingoverthecatalogueofhumanactions(saysapartizanofthisprinciple)inordertodeterminewhichofthemaretobemarkedwiththesealofdisapprobation，youneedbuttotakecounselofyourownfeelings:whateveryoufindinyourselfapropensitytocondemn，iswrongforthatveryreason。Forthesamereasonitisalsomeetforpunishment:inwhatproportionitisadversetoutility，orwhetheritbeadversetoutilityatall，isamatterthatmakesnodifference。Inthatsameproportionalsoisitmeetforpunishment:ifyouhatemuch，punishmuch:ifyouhatelittle，punishlittle:punishasyouhate。Ifyouhatenotatall，punishnotatall:thefinefeelingsofthesoularenottobeoverborneandtyrannizedbytheharshandruggeddictatesofpoliticalutility。

XIV。Thevarioussystemsthathavebeenformedconcerningthestandardofrightmayallbereducedtotheprincipleofsympathyandantipathy。Oneaccountmayservetoforallofthem。Theyconsistalloftheminsomanycontrivancesforavoidingtheobligationofappealingtoanyexternalstandard，andforprevailinguponthereadertoacceptoftheauthor"ssentimentoropinionasareasonforitself。Thephrasesdifferent，buttheprinciplethesame。

XV。Itismanifest，thatthedictatesofthisprinciplewillfrequentlycoincidewiththoseofutility，thoughperhapswithoutintendinganysuchthing。Probablymorefrequentlythannot:andhenceitisthatthebusinessofpenaljusticeiscarrieduponthattolerablesortoffootinguponwhichweseeitcarriedonincommonatthisday。Forwhatmorenaturalormoregeneralgroundofhatredtoapracticecantherebe，thanthemischievousnessofsuchpractice？Whatallmenareexposedtosufferby，allmenwillbedisposedtohate。Itisfaryet，however，frombeingaconstantground:forwhenamansuffers，itisnotalwaysthatheknowswhatitishesuffersby。Amanmaysuffergrievously，forinstance，byanewtax，withoutbeingabletotraceupthecauseofhissufferingstotheinjusticeofsomeneighbour，whohaseludedthepaymentofanoldone。

XVI。Theprincipleofsympathyandantipathyismostapttoerronthesideofseverity。Itisforapplyingpunishmentinmanycaseswhichdeservenone:inmanycaseswhichdeservesome，itisforapplyingmorethantheydeserve。Thereisnoincidentimaginable，beiteversotrivial，andsoremotefrommischief，fromwhichthisprinciplemaynotextractagroundofpunishment。

Anydifferenceintaste:anydifferenceinopinion:upononesubjectaswellasuponanother。Nodisagreementsotriflingwhichperseveranceandaltercationwillnotrenderserious。Eachbecomesintheother"seyesanenemy，and，iflawspermit，acriminal。Thisisoneofthecircumstancesbywhichthehumanraceisdistinguished(notmuchindeedtoitsadvantage)fromthebrutecreation。

XVII。Itisnot，however，byanymeansunexampledforthisprincipletoerronthesideoflenity。Anearandperceptiblemischiefmovesantipathy。Aremoteandimperceptiblemischief，thoughnotlessreal，hasnoeffect。Instancesinproofofthiswilloccurinnumbersinthecourseofthework(Seech。xvi。[Division]，par。42，par。44)。Itwouldbebreakinginupontheorderofittogivethemhere。

XVIII。Itmaybewondered，perhaps，thatinallthisnomentionhasbeenmadeofthetheologicalprinciple；meaningthatprincipalwhichprofessestorecurforthestandardofrightandwrongtothewillofGod。Butthecaseis，thisisnotinfactadistinctprinciple。Itisneveranythingmoreorlessthanoneorotherofthethreebefore-mentionedprinciplespresentingitselfunderanothershape。ThewillofGodheremeantcannotbehisrevealedwill，ascontainedinthesacredwritings:forthatisasystemwhichnobodyeverthinksofrecurringtoatthistimeofday，forthedetailsofpoliticaladministration:andevenbeforeitcanbeappliedtothedetailsofprivateconduct，itisuniversallyallowed，bythemosteminentdivinesofallpersuasions，tostandinneedofprettyampleinterpretations；elsetowhatusearetheworksofthosedivines？Andfortheguidanceoftheseinterpretations，itisalsoallowed，thatsomeotherstandardmustbeassumed。Thewillthenwhichismeantonthisoccasion，isthatwhichmaybecalledthepresumptivewill:thatistosay，thatwhichispresumedtobehiswillbyvirtueoftheconformityofitsdictatestothoseofsomeotherprinciple。Whatthenmaybethisotherprinciple？itmustbeoneorotherofthethreementionedabove:fortherecannot，aswehaveseen，beanymore。Itisplain，therefore，that，settingrevelationoutofthequestion，nolightcaneverbethrownuponthestandardofrightandwrong，byanythingthatcanbesaiduponthequestion，whatisGod"swill。Wemaybeperfectlysure，indeed，thatwhateverisrightisconformabletothewillofGod:butsofaristhatfromansweringthepurposeofshowinguswhatisright，thatitisnecessarytoknowfirstwhetherathingisright，inordertoknowfromthencewhetheritbeconformabletothewillofGod。

XIX。Therearetwothingswhichareveryapttobeconfounded，butwhichitimportsuscarefullytodistinguish:梩hemotiveorcause，which，byoperatingonthemindofanindividual，isproductiveofanyact:andthegroundorreasonwhichwarrantsalegislator，orotherby-stander，inregardingthatactwithaneyeofapprobation。Whentheacthappens，intheparticularinstanceinquestion，tobeproductiveofeffectswhichweapproveof，muchmoreifwehappentoobservethatthesamemotivemayfrequentlybeproductive，inotherinstances，ofthelikeeffects，weareapttotransferourapprobationtothemotiveitself，andtoassume，asthejustgroundfortheapprobationwebestowontheact，thecircumstanceofitsoriginatingfromthatmotive。Itisinthiswaythatthesentimentofantipathyhasoftenbeenconsideredasajustgroundofaction。Antipathy，forinstance，insuchorsuchacase，isthecauseofanactionwhichisattendedwithgoodeffects:butthisdoesnotmakeitarightgroundofactioninthatcase，anymorethaninanyother。Stillfarther。

Notonlytheeffectsaregood，buttheagentseesbeforehandthattheywillbeso。Thismaymaketheactionindeedaperfectlyrightaction:butitdoesnotmakeantipathyarightgroundofaction。Forthesamesentimentofantipathy，ifimplicitlydeferredto，maybe，andveryfrequentlyis，productiveoftheveryworsteffects。Antipathy，therefore，canneverbearightgroundofaction。Nomore，therefore，canresentment，which，aswillbeseenmoreparticularlyhereafter，isbutamodificationofantipathy。Theonlyrightgroundofaction，thatcanpossiblysubsist，is，afterall，theconsiderationofutilitywhich，ifitisarightprincipleofactionsandofapprobationanyonecase，issoineveryother。Otherprinciplesinabundance，thatis，othermotives，maybethereasonswhysuchandsuchanacthasbeendone:thatis，thereasonsorcausesofitsbeingdone:butitisthisalonethatcanbethereasonwhyitmightoroughttohavebeendone。Antipathyorresentmentrequiresalwaystoberegulated，topreventitdoingmischief:toberegulatedwhat？alwaysbytheprincipleofutility。Theprincipleofutilityneitherrequiresnoradmitsofanyanotherregulatorthanitself。

chapter03AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterIII

OftheFourSanctionsorSourcesofPainandPleasureI。Ithasbeenshownthatthehappinessoftheindividuals，ofwhomacommunityiscomposed，thatistheirpleasuresandtheirsecurity，istheendandthesoleendwhichthelegislatoroughttohaveinview:thesolestandard，inconformitytowhicheachindividualought，asfarasdependsuponthelegislator，tobemadetofashionhisbehaviour。Butwhetheritbethisoranythingelsethatistobedone，thereisnothingbywhichamancanultimatelybemadetodoit，buteitherpainorpleasure。Havingtakenageneralviewofthesetwograndobjects(viz。pleasure，andwhatcomestothesamething，immunityfrompain)inthecharacteroffinalcauses；itwillbenecessarytotakeaviewofpleasureandpainitself，inthecharacterofefficientcausesormeans。

II。Therearefourdistinguishablesourcesfromwhichpleasureandpainareinusetoflow:consideredseparatelytheymaybetermedthephysical，thepolitical，themoralandthereligious:andinasmuchasthepleasuresandpainsbelongingtoeachofthemarecapableofgivingabindingforcetoanylaworruleofconduct，theymayallofthemtermedsanctions。

III。Ifitbeinthepresentlife，andfromtheordinarycoursedofnature，notpurposelymodifiedbytheinterpositionofthesewillofanyhumanbeing，norbyanyextraordinaryinterpositionofanysuperiorinvisiblebeing，thatthepleasureorthepaintakesplaceorisexpected，itmaybesaidtoissuefromortobelongtothephysicalsanction。

IV。Ifatthehandsofaparticularpersonorsetofpersonsinthecommunity，whoundernamescorrespondenttothatofjudge，arechosenfortheparticularpurposeofdispensingit，accordingtothewillofthesovereignorsupremerulingpowerinthestate，itmaybesaidtoissuefromthepoliticalsanction。

V。Ifatthehandsofsuchchancepersonsinthecommunity，asthepartyinquestionmayhappeninthecourseofhislifetohaveconcernswith，accordingtoeachman"sspontaneousdisposition，andnotaccordingtoanysettledorconcertedrule，itmaybesaidtoissuefromthemoralorpopularsanction。

VI。Iffromtheimmediatehandofasuperiorinvisiblebeing，eitherinthepresentlife，orinafuture，itmaybesaidtoissuefromthereligioussanction。

VII。Pleasuresorpainswhichmaybeexpectedtoissuefromthephysical，political，ormoralsanctions，mustallofthembeexpectedtobeexperienced，ifever，inthepresentlife:thosewhichmaybeexpectedtoissuefromthereligioussanction，maybeexpectedtobeexperiencedeitherinthepresentlifeorinafuture。

VIII。Thosewhichcanbeexperiencedinthepresentlife，canofcoursebenoothersthansuchashumannatureinthecourseofthepresentlifeissusceptibleof:andfromeachofthesesourcesmayflowallthepleasuresorpainsofwhich，inthecourseofthepresentlife，humannatureissusceptible。Withregardtothesethen(withwhichalonewehaveinthisplaceanyconcern)

thoseofthemwhichbelongtoanyoneofthosesanctions，differnotultimatelyinkindfromthosewhichbelongtoanyoneoftheotherthree:theonlydifferencethereisamongthemliesinthecircumstancesthataccompanytheirproduction。Asufferingwhichbefallsamaninthenaturalandspontaneouscourseofthings，shallbestyled，forinstance，acalamity；inwhichcase，ifitbesupposedtobefallhimthroughanyimprudenceofhis，itmaybestyledapunishmentissuingfromthephysicalsanction。

Nowthissamesuffering，ifinflictedbythelaw，willbewhatiscommonlycalledapunishment；ifincurredforwantofanyfriendlyassistance，whichthemisconduct，orsupposedmisconduct，ofthesuffererhasoccasionedtobewithholden，apunishmentissuingfromthemoralsanction；ifthroughtheimmediateinterpositionofaparticularprovidence，apunishmentissuingfromthereligioussanction。

IX。Aman"sgoods，orhisperson，areconsumedbyfire。Ifthishappenedtohimbywhatiscalledanaccident，itwasacalamity:ifbyreasonofhisownimprudence(forinstance，fromhisneglectingtoputhiscandleout)itmaybestyledapunishmentofthephysicalsanction:ifithappenedtohimbythesentenceofthepoliticalmagistrate，apunishmentbelongingtothepoliticalsanction；thatis，whatiscommonlycalledapunishment:

ifforwantofanyassistancewhichhisneighbourwithheldfromhimoutofsomedisliketohismoralcharacter，apunishmentofthemoralsanction:ifbyanimmediateactofGod"sdispleasure，manifestedonaccountofsomesincommittedbyhim，orthroughanydistractionofmind，occasionedbythedreadofsuchdispleasure，apunishmentofthereligioussanction。

X。Astosuchofthepleasuresandpainsbelongingtothereligioussanction，asregardafuturelife，ofwhatkindthesemaybewecannotknow。Theselienotopentoourobservation。Duringthepresentlifetheyarematteronlyofexpectation:and，whetherthatexpectationbederivedfromnaturalorrevealedreligion，theparticularkindofpleasureorpain，ifitbedifferentfromallthosewhichheopentoourobservation，iswhatwecanhavenoideaof。Thebestideaswecanobtainofsuchpainsandpleasuresarealtogetherunliquidatedinpointofquality。Inwhatotherrespectsourideasofthemmaybeliquidatedwillbeconsideredinanotherplace。

XI。Ofthesefoursanctionsthephysicalisaltogether，wemayobserve，theground-workofthepoliticalandthemoral:soisitalsoofthereligious，inasfarasthelatterbearsrelationtothepresentlife。Itisincludedineachofthoseotherthree。Thismayoperateinanycase，(thatis，anyofthepainsorpleasuresbelongingtoitmayoperate)independentlyofthem:noneofthemcanoperatebutbymeansofthis。Inaword，thepowersofnaturemayoperateofthemselves；butneitherthemagistrate，normenatlarge，canoperate，norisGodinthecaseinquestionsupposedtooperate，butthroughthepowersofnature。

XII。Forthesefourobjects，whichintheirnaturehavesomuchincommon，itseemedofusetofindacommonname。Itseemedofuse，inthefirstplace，fortheconvenienceofgivinganametocertainpleasuresandpains，forwhichanameequallycharacteristiccouldhardlyotherwisehavebeenfound:inthesecondplace，forthesakeofholdinguptheefficacyofcertainmoralforces，theinfluenceofwhichisaptnottobesufficientlyattendedto。Doesthepoliticalsanctionexertaninfluenceovertheconductofmankind？Themoral，thereligioussanctionsdosotoo。

Ineveryinchofhiscareeraretheoperationsofthepoliticalmagistrateliabletobeaidedorimpededbythesetwoforeignpowers:who，oneorotherofthem，orboth，aresuretobeeitherhisrivalsorhisallies。Doesithappentohimtoleavethemoutinhiscalculations？hewillbesurealmosttofindhimselfmistakenintheresult。Ofallthisweshallfindabundantproofsinthesequelofthiswork。Itbehoveshim，therefore，tohavethemcontinuallybeforehiseyes；andthatundersuchanameasexhibitstherelationtheybeartohisownpurposesanddesigns。

chapter04AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterIV

ValueofaLotofPleasureorPain，howtobeMeasuredI。Pleasuresthen，andtheavoidanceofpains，aretheendsthatthelegislatorhasinview；itbehoveshimthereforetounderstandtheirvalue。Pleasuresandpainsaretheinstrumentshehastoworkwith:itbehoveshimthereforetounderstandtheirforce，whichisagain，inotherwords，theirvalue。

II。Toapersonconsideredbyhimself，thevalueofapleasureorpainconsideredbyitself，willbegreaterorless，accordingtothefourfollowingcircumstances:

1。Itsintensity。

2。Itsduration。

3。Itscertaintyoruncertainty。

4。Itspropinquityorremoteness。

III。Thesearethecircumstanceswhicharetobeconsideredinestimatingapleasureorapainconsideredeachofthembyitself。Butwhenthevalueofanypleasureorpainisconsideredforthepurposeofestimatingthetendencyofanyactbywhichitisproduced，therearetwoothercircumstancestobetakenintotheaccount；theseare，5。Itsfecundity，orthechanceithasofbeingfollowedbysensationsofthesamekind:thatis，pleasures，ifitbeapleasure:

pains，ifitbeapain。

6。Itspurity，orthechanceithasofnotbeingfollowedbysensationsoftheoppositekind:thatis，pains，ifitbeapleasure:

pleasures，ifitbeapain。

Thesetwolast，however，areinstrictnessscarcelytobedeemedpropertiesofthepleasureorthepainitself；theyarenot，therefore，instrictnesstobetakenintotheaccountofthevalueofthatpleasureorthatpain。Theyareinstrictnesstobedeemedpropertiesonlyoftheact，orotherevent，bywhichsuchpleasureorpainhasbeenproduced；andaccordinglyareonlytobetakenintotheaccountofthetendencyofsuchactorsuchevent。

IV。Toanumberofpersons，withreferencetoeachofwhomtothevalueofapleasureorapainisconsidered，itwillbegreaterorless，accordingtosevencircumstances:towit，thesixprecedingones；viz。

1。Itsintensity。

2。Itsduration。

3。Itscertaintyoruncertainty。

4。Itspropinquityorremoteness。

5。Itsfecundity。

6。Itspurity。

Andoneother；towit:

7。Itsextent；thatis，thenumberofpersonstowhomitextends；or(inotherwords)whoareaffectedbyit。

V。Totakeanexactaccountthenofthegeneraltendencyofanyact，bywhichtheinterestsofacommunityareaffected，proceedasfollows。Beginwithanyonepersonofthosewhoseinterestsseemmostimmediatelytobeaffectedbyit:andtakeanaccount，I。Ofthevalueofeachdistinguishablepleasurewhichappearstobeproducedbyitinthefirstinstance。

2。Ofthevalueofeachpainwhichappearstobeproducedbyitinthefirstinstance。

3。Ofthevalueofeachpleasurewhichappearstobeproducedbyitafterthefirst。Thisconstitutesthefecundityofthefirstpleasureandtheimpurityofthefirstpain。

4。Ofthevalueofeachpainwhichappearstobeproducedbyitafterthefirst。Thisconstitutesthefecundityofthefirstpain，andtheimpurityofthefirstpleasure。

5。Sumupallthevaluesofallthepleasuresontheoneside，andthoseofallthepainsontheother。Thebalance，ifitbeonthesideofpleasure，willgivethegoodtendencyoftheactuponthewhole，withrespecttotheinterestsofthatindividualperson；

ifonthesideofpain，thebadtendencyofituponthewhole。

6。Takeanaccountofthenumberofpersonswhoseinterestsappeartobeconcerned；andrepeattheaboveprocesswithrespecttoeach。Sumupthenumbersexpressiveofthedegreesofgoodtendency，whichtheacthas，withrespecttoeachindividual，inregardtowhomthetendencyofitisgooduponthewhole:

dothisagainwithrespecttoeachindividual，inregardtowhomthetendencyofitisgooduponthewhole:dothisagainwithrespecttoeachindividual，inregardtowhomthetendencyofitisbaduponthewhole。Takethebalancewhichifonthesideofpleasure，willgivethegeneralgoodtendencyoftheact，withrespecttothetotalnumberorcommunityofindividualsconcerned；ifonthesideofpain，thegeneraleviltendency，withrespecttothesamecommunity。

VI。Itisnottobeexpectedthatthisprocessshouldbestrictlypursuedpreviouslytoeverymoraljudgment，ortoeverylegislativeorjudicialoperation。Itmay，however，bealwayskeptinview:andasnearastheprocessactuallypursuedontheseoccasionsapproachestoit，sonearwillsuchprocessapproachtothecharacterofanexactone。

VII。Thesameprocessisalikeapplicabletopleasureandpain，inwhatevershapetheyappear:andbywhateverdenominationtheyaredistinguished:topleasure，whetheritbecalledgood(whichisproperlythecauseorinstrumentofpleasure)orprofit(whichisdistantpleasure，orthecauseorinstrumentof，distantpleasure，)orconvenience，oradvantage，benefit，emolument，happiness，andsoforth:topain，whetheritbecalledevil，(whichcorrespondstogood)ormischief，orinconvenience。ordisadvantage，orloss，orunhappiness，andsoforth。

VIII。Noristhisanovelandunwarranted，anymorethanitisauselesstheory。Inallthisthereisnothingbutwhatthepracticeofmankind，wheresoevertheyhaveaclearviewoftheirowninterest，isperfectlyconformableto。Anarticleofproperty，anestateinland，forinstance，isvaluable，onwhataccount？Onaccountofthepleasuresofallkindswhichitenablesamantoproduce，andwhatcomestothesamethingthepainsofallkindswhichitenableshimtoavert。Butthevalueofsuchanarticleofpropertyisuniversallyunderstoodtoriseorfallaccordingtothelengthorshortnessofthetimewhichamanhasinit:thecertaintyoruncertaintyofitscomingintopossession:andthenearnessorremotenessofthetimeatwhich，ifatall，itistocomeintopossession。Astotheintensityofthepleasureswhichamanmayderivefromit，thisisneverthoughtof，becauseitdependsupontheusewhicheachparticularpersonmaycometomakeofit；whichcannotbeestimatedtilltheparticularpleasureshemaycometoderivefromit，ortheparticularpainshemaycometoexcludebymeansofit，arebroughttoview。

Forthesamereason，neitherdoeshethinkofthefecundityorpurityofthosepleasures。

Thusmuchforpleasureandpain，happinessandunhappiness，ingeneral。

Wecomenowtoconsidertheseveralparticularkindsofpainandpleasure。

chapter05AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterV

PleasuresandPains，TheirKindsI。Havingrepresentedwhatbelongstoallsortsofpleasuresandpainsalike，wecomenowtoexhibit，eachbyitself，theseveralsortsofpainsandpleasures。Painsandpleasuresmaybecalledbyonegeneralword，interestingperceptions。Interestingperceptionsareeithersimpleorcomplex。Thesimpleonesarethosewhichcannotanyoneofthemberesolvedintomore:

complexarethosewhichareresolvableintodiverssimpleones。Acomplexinterestingperceptionmayaccordinglybecomposedeither，1。Ofpleasuresalone:2。Ofpainsalone:or，3。Ofapleasureorpleasures，andapainorpainstogether。

Whatdeterminesalotofpleasure，forexample，toberegardedasonecomplexpleasure，ratherthanasdiverssimpleones，isthenatureoftheexcitingcause。Whateverpleasuresareexcitedallatoncebytheactionofthesamecause，areapttobelookeduponasconstitutingalltogetherbutonepleasure。

II。Theseveralsimplepleasuresofwhichhumannatureissusceptible，seemtobeasfollows:1。Thepleasuresofsense。2。Thepleasuresofwealth。3。Thepleasuresofskill。4。Thepleasuresofamity。5。Thepleasuresofagoodname。6。Thepleasuresofpower。7。Thepleasuresofpiety。8。Thepleasuresofbenevolence。

9。Thepleasuresofmalevolence。10。Thepleasuresofmemory。11。Thepleasuresofimagination。12。Thepleasuresofexpectation。

13。Thepleasuresdependentonassociation。14。

Thepleasuresofrelief。

III。Theseveralsimplepainsseemtobeasfollows:1。Thepainsofprivation。2。Thepainsofthesenses。3。Thepainsofawkwardness。4。Thepainsofenmity。5。Thepainsofanillname。6。

Thepainsofpiety。7。Thepainsofbenevolence。8。Thepainsofmalevolence。9。Thepainsofthememory。10。Thepainsoftheimagination。11。Thepainsofexpectation。12。Thepainsdependentonassociation。

IV。1。Thepleasuresofsenseseemtobeasfollows:1。Thepleasuresofthetasteorpalate；includingwhateverpleasuresareexperiencedinsatisfyingtheappetitesofhungerandthirst。2。Thepleasureofintoxication。3。Thepleasuresoftheorganofsmelling。4。Thepleasuresofthetouch。5。Thesimplepleasuresoftheear；independentofassociation。6。Thesimplepleasuresoftheeye；independentofassociation。7。Thepleasureofthesexualsense。8。Thepleasureofhealth:or，theinternalpleasureablefeelingorflowofspirits(asitiscalled)，whichaccompaniesastateoffullhealthandvigour；especiallyattimesofmoderatebodilyexertion。9。Thepleasuresofnovelty:or，thepleasuresderivedfromthegratificationoftheappetiteofcuriosity，bytheapplicationofnewobjectstoanyofthesenses。

V。2。Bythepleasuresofwealthmaybemeantthosepleasureswhichamanisapttoderivefromtheconsciousnessofpossessinganyarticleorarticleswhichstandinthelistofinstrumentsofenjoymentorsecurity，andmoreparticularlyatthetimeofhisfirstacquiringthem；atwhichtimethepleasuremaybestyledapleasureofgainorapleasureofacquisition:atothertimesapleasureofpossession。

3。Thepleasuresofskill，asexerciseduponparticularobjects，arethosewhichaccompanytheapplicationofsuchparticularinstrumentsofenjoymenttotheiruses，ascannotbesoappliedwithoutagreaterorlessshareofdifficultyorexertion。

VI。4。Thepleasuresofamity，orself-recommendation，arethepleasuresthatmayaccompanythepersuasionofaman"sbeingintheacquisitionorthepossessionofthegood-willofsuchorsuchassignablepersonorpersonsinparticular:or，asthephraseis，ofbeingupongoodtermswithhimorthem:andasafruitofit，ofhisbeinginawaytohavethebenefitoftheirspontaneousandgratuitousservices。

VII。5。Thepleasuresofagoodnamearethepleasuresthataccompanythepersuasionofaman"sbeingintheacquisitionorthepossessionofthegood-willoftheworldabouthim；thatis，ofsuchmembersofsocietyasheislikelytohaveconcernswith；andasameansofit，eithertheirloveortheiresteem，orboth:

andasafruitofit，ofhisbeinginthewaytohavethebenefitoftheirspontaneousandgratuitousservices。Thesemaylikewisebecalledthepleasuresofgoodrepute，thepleasuresofhonour，orthepleasuresofthemoralsanction。

VIII。6。Thepleasuresofpowerarethepleasuresthataccompanythepersuasionofaman"sbeinginaconditiontodisposepeople，bymeansoftheirhopesandfears，togivehimthebenefitoftheirservices:thatis，bythehopeofsomeservice，orbythefearofsomedisservice，thathemaybeinthewaytorenderthem。

IX。7。Thepleasuresofpietyarethepleasuresthataccompanythebeliefofaman"sbeingintheacquisitionorinpossessionofthegood-willorfavouroftheSupremeBeing:andasafruitofit，ofhisbeinginawayofenjoyingpleasurestobereceivedbyGod"sspecialappointment，eitherinthislife，orinalifetocome。

Thesemayalsobecalledthepleasuresofreligion，thepleasuresofareligiousdisposition，orthepleasuresofthereligioussanction。

X。8。Thepleasuresofbenevolencearethepleasuresresultingfromtheviewofanypleasuressupposedtobepossessedbythebeingswhomaybetheobjectsofbenevolence；towit，thesensitivebeingsweareacquaintedwith；underwhicharecommonlyincluded，1。TheSupremeBeing。2。Humanbeings。3。Otheranimals。

Thesemayalsobecalledthepleasuresofgood-will，thepleasuresofsympathy，orthepleasuresofthebenevolentorsocialaffections。

XI。9。Thepleasuresofmalevolencearethepleasuresresultingfromtheviewofanypainsupposedtobesufferedbythebeingswhomaybecometheobjectsofmalevolence:towit，1。Humanbeings。2。Otheranimals。Thesemayalsobestyledthepleasuresofill-will，thepleasuresoftheirascibleappetite，thepleasuresofantipathy，orthepleasuresofthemalevolentordissocialaffections。

XII。10。Thepleasuresofthememoryarethepleasureswhich，afterhavingenjoyedsuchandsuchpleasures，oreveninsomecaseafterhavingsufferedsuchandsuchpains，amanwillnowandthenexperience，atrecollectingthemexactlyintheorderandinthecircumstancesinwhichtheywereactuallyenjoyedorsuffered。

Thesederivativepleasuresmayofcoursebedistinguishedintoasmanyspeciesasthereareoforiginalperceptions，fromwhencetheymaybecopied。Theymayalsobestyledpleasuresofsimplerecollection。

XIII。11。Thepleasuresoftheimaginationarethepleasureswhichmaybederivedfromthecontemplationofanysuchpleasuresasmayhappentobesuggestedbythememory，butinadifferentorder，andaccompaniedbydifferentgroupsofcircumstances。Thesemayaccordinglybereferredtoanyoneofthethreecardinalpointsoftime，present，past，orfuture。Itisevidenttheymayadmitofasmanydistinctionsasthoseoftheformerclass。

XIV。12。Thepleasuresofexpectationarethepleasuresthatresultfromthecontemplationofanysortofpleasure，referredtotimefuture，andaccompaniedwiththesentimentofbelief。Thesealsomayadmitofthesamedistinctions。

XV。13。Thepleasuresofassociationarethepleasureswhichcertainobjectsorincidentsmayhappentoafford，notofthemselves，butmerelyinvirtueofsomeassociationtheyhavecontractedinthemindwithcertainobjectsorincidentswhichareinthemselvespleasurable。Suchisthecase，forinstance，withthepleasureofskill，whenaffordedbysuchasetofincidentsascomposeagameofchess。Thisderivesitspleasurablequalityfromitsassociationpartlywiththepleasuresofskill，asexercisedintheproductionofincidentspleasurableofthemselves:

partlyfromitsassociationwiththepleasuresofpower。Suchisthecasealsowiththepleasureofgoodluck，whenaffordedbysuchincidentsascomposethegameofhazard，oranyothergameofchance，whenplayedatfornothing。Thisderivesitspleasurablequalityfromitsassociationwithoneofthepleasuresofwealth；towit，withthepleasureofacquiringit。

XVI。14。Fartheronweshallseepainsgroundeduponpleasures；inlikemannermaywenowseepleasuresgroundeduponpains。Tothecatalogueofpleasuresmayaccordinglybeaddedthepleasuresofrelief:or，thepleasureswhichamanexperienceswhen，afterhehasbeenenduringapainofanykindforacertaintime，itcomestocease，ortoabate。Thesemayofcoursebedistinguishedintoasmanyspeciesasthereareofpains:

andmaygiverisetosomanypleasuresofmemory，ofimagination，andofexpectation。

XVII。1。Painsofprivationarethepainsthatmayresultsfromthethoughtofnotpossessinginthetimepresentanyoftheseveralkindsofpleasures。Painsofprivationmayaccordinglyberesolvedintoasmanykindsasthereareofpleasurestowhichtheymaycorrespond，andfromtheabsencewhereoftheymaybederived。

XVIII。Therearethreesortsofpainswhichareonlysomanymodificationsoftheseveralpainsofprivation。Whentheenjoymentofanyparticularpleasurehappenstobeparticularlydesired，butwithoutanyexpectationapproachingtoassurance，thepainofprivationwhichthereuponresultstakesaparticularname，andiscalledthepainofdesire，orofunsatisfieddesire。

XIX。Wheretheenjoymenthappenstohavebeenlookedforwithadegreeofexpectationapproachingtoassurance，andthatexpectationismadesuddenlytocease，itiscalledapainofdisappointment。

XX。Apainofprivationtakesthenameofapainofregretintwocases:

1。Whereitisgroundedonthememoryofapleasure，whichhavingbeenonceenjoyed，appearsnotlikelytobeenjoyedagain:

2。Whereitisgroundedontheideaofapleasure，whichwasneveractuallyenjoyed，norperhapssomuchasexpected，butwhichmighthavebeenenjoyed(itissupposed，)hadsuchorsuchacontingencyhappened，which，infact，didnothappen。

XXI。2。Theseveralpainsofthesensesseemtobeasfollows:1。Thepainsofhungerandthirst:orthedisagreeablesensationsproducedbythewantofsuitablesubstanceswhichneedattimestobeappliedtothealimentarycanal。2。Thepainsofthetaste:orthedisagreeablesensationsproducedbytheapplicationofvarioussubstancestothepalate，andothersuperiorpartsofthesamecanal。3。Thepainsoftheorganofsmell:orthedisagreeablesensationsproducedbytheeffluviaofvarioussubstanceswhenappliedtothatorgan。4。Thepainsofthetouch:orthedisagreeablesensationsproducedbytheapplicationofvarioussubstancestotheskin。5。Thesimplepainsofthehearing:

orthedisagreeablesensationsexcitedintheorganofthatsensebyvariouskindsofsounds:independently(asbefore，)ofassociation。

6。Thesimplepainsofthesight:orthedisagreeablesensationsifanysuchtherebe，thatmaybeexcitedintheorganofthatsensebyvisibleimages，independentoftheprincipleofassociation。{thesexualsense}7。Thepainsresultingfromexcessiveheatorcold，unlessthesebereferabletothetouch。8。Thepainsofdisease:ortheacuteanduneasysensationsresultingfromtheseveraldiseasesandindispositionstowhichhumannatureisliable。9。Thepainofexertion，whetherbodilyormental:

ortheuneasysensationwhichisapttoaccompanyanyintenseeffort，whetherofmindorbody。{novelty，wealth}

XXII。3。Thepainsofawkwardnessarethepainswhichsometimesresultfromtheunsuccessfulendeavourtoapplyanyparticularinstrumentsofenjoymentorsecuritytotheiruses，orfromthedifficultyamanexperiencesinapplyingthem。

XXIII。4。Thepainsofenmityarethepainsthatmayaccompanythepersuasionofaman"sbeingobnoxioustotheill-willofsuchorsuchanassignablepersonorpersonsinparticular:or，asthephraseis，ofbeinguponilltermswithhimorthem:and，inconsequence，ofbeingobnoxioustocertainpainsofsomesortorother，ofwhichhemaybethecause。

XXIV。5。Thepainsofanill-name，arethepainsthataccompanythepersuasionofaman"sbeingobnoxious，orinawaytobeobnoxioustotheill-willoftheworldabouthim。Thesemaylikewisebecalledthepainsofill-repute，thepainsofdishonour，orthepainsofthemoralsanction。{power}

XXV。6。Thepainsofpietyarethepainsthataccompanythebeliefofaman"sbeingobnoxioustothedispleasureoftheSupremeBeing:andinconsequencetocertainpainstobeinflictedbyhisespecialappointment，eitherinthislifeorinalifetocome。Thesemayalsobecalledthepainsofreligion；thepainsofareligiousdisposition；orthepainsofthereligioussanction。

Whenthebeliefislookeduponaswell-grounded，thesepainsarecommonlycalledreligiousterrors；whenlookeduponasill-grounded，superstitiousterrors。

XXVI。7。Thepainsofbenevolencearethepainsresultingfromtheviewofanypainssupposedtobeenduredbyotherbeings。

Thesemayalsobecalledthepainsofgood-will，ofsympathy，orthepainsofthebenevolentorsocialaffections。

XXVII。8。Thepainsofmalevolencearethepainsresultingfromtheviewofanypleasuressupposedtobeenjoyedbyanybeingswhohappentobetheobjectsofaman"sdispleasure。Thesemayalsobestyledthepainsofill-will，ofantipathy，orthepainsofthemalevolentordissocialaffections。

XXVIII。9。Thepainsofthememorymaybegroundedoneveryoneoftheabovekinds，aswellofpainsofprivationasofpositivepains。Thesecorrespondexactlytothepleasuresofthememory。

XXIX。10。Thepainsoftheimaginationmayalsobegroundedonanyoneoftheabovekinds，aswellofpainsofprivationasofpositivepains:inotherrespectstheycorrespondexactlytothepleasuresoftheimagination。

XXX。11。Thepainsofexpectationmaybegroundedoneachoneoftheabovekinds，aswellofpainsofprivationasofpositivepains。Thesemaybealsotermedpainsofapprehension。

XXXI。12。Thepainsofassociationcorrespondexactlytothepleasuresofassociation。

XXXII。Oftheabovelisttherearecertainpleasuresandpainswhichsupposetheexistenceofsomepleasureorpain，ofsomeotherperson，towhichthepleasureorpainofthepersoninquestionhasregard:suchpleasuresandpainsmaybetermedextra-regarding。Othersdonotsupposeanysuchthing:thesemaybetermedself-regarding。Theonlypleasuresandpainsoftheextra-regardingclassarethoseofbenevolenceandthoseofmalevolence:

alltherestareself-regarding。

XXXIII。Ofalltheseseveralsortsofpleasuresandpains，thereisscarceanyonewhichisnotliable，onmoreaccountsthanone，tocomeundertheconsiderationofthelaw。Isanoffensecommitted？

Itisthetendencywhichithastodestroy，insuchorsuchpersons，someofthesepleasures，ortoproducesomeofthesepains，thatconstitutesthemischiefofit，andthegroundforpunishingit。Itistheprospectofsomeofthesepleasures，orofsecurityfromsomeofthesepains，thatconstitutesthemotiveortemptation，itistheattainmentofthemthatconstitutestheprofitoftheoffense。Istheoffendertobepunished？Itcanbeonlybytheproductionofoneormoreofthesepains，thatthepunishmentcanbeinflicted。

{SampleAnalysisofaComplexPleasure}

chapter06AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterVI

OfCircumstancesInfluencingSensibilityPart1

I。Painandpleasureareproducedinmen"smindsbytheactionofcertaincauses。Butthequantityofpleasureandpainrunsnotuniformlyinproportiontothecause；inotherwords，tothequantityofforceexertedbysuchcause。Thetruthofthisobservationrestsnotuponanymetaphysicalnicetyintheimportgiventothetermscause，quantity，andforce:itwillbeequallytrueinwhatsoevermannersuchforcebemeasured。

II。Thedispositionwhichanyonehastofeelsuchorsuchaquantityofpleasureorpain，upontheapplicationofacauseofgivenforce，iswhatwetermthedegreeorquantumofhissensibility。