第1章

Thefollowingsheetswere，asthenoteontheoppositepageexpresses，printedsolongagoastheyear1780。Thedesign，inpursuanceofwhichtheywerewritten，wasnotsoextensiveasthatannouncedbythepresenttitle。Theyhadatthattimenootherdestinationthanthatofservingasanintroductiontoaplanofapenalcodeinterminus，designedtofollowthem，inthesamevolume。

Thebodyoftheworkhadreceiveditscompletionaccordingtothethenpresentextentoftheauthor"sviews，when，intheinvestigationofsomeflawshehaddiscovered，hefoundhimselfunexpectedlyentangledinanunsuspectedcornerofthemetaphysicalmaze。Asuspension，atfirstnotapprehendedtobemorethanatemporaryone，necessarilyensued:suspensionbroughtoncoolness，andcoolness，aidedbyotherconcurrentcauses，ripenedintodisgust。

Imperfectionspervadingthewholemasshadalreadybeenpointedoutbythesincerityofsevereanddiscerningfriends；andconsciencehadcertifiedthejustnessoftheircensure。Theinordinatelengthofsomeofthechapters，theapparentinutilityofothers，andthedryandmetaphysicalturnofthewhole，suggestedanapprehension，that，ifpublishedinitspresentform，theworkwouldcontendundergreatdisadvantagesforanychance，itmightonotheraccountspossess，ofbeingread，andconsequentlyofbeingofuse。

But，thoughinthismannertheideaofcompletingthepresentworkslidinsensiblyaside，thatwasnotbyanymeansthecasewiththeconsiderationswhichhadledhimtoengageinit。Everyopening，whichpromisedtoaffordthelightshestoodinneedof，wasstillpursued:asoccasionarosetheseveraldepartmentsconnectedwiththatinwhichhehadatfirstengaged，weresuccessivelyexplored；insomuchthat，inonebranchorotherofthepursuit，hisresearcheshavenearlyembracedthewholefieldoflegislation。

Severalcauseshaveconspiredatpresenttobringtolight，underthisnewtitle，aworkwhichunderitsoriginalonehadbeenimperceptibly，butasithadseemedirrevocably，doomedtooblivion。

Inthecourseofeightyears，materialsforvariousworks，correspondingtothedifferentbranchesofthesubjectoflegislation，hadbeenproduced，andsomenearlyreducedtoshape:

and，ineveryoneofthoseworks，theprinciplesexhibitedinthepresentpublicationhadbeenfoundsonecessary，that，eithertotranscribethempiece-meal，ortoexhibitthemsomewherewheretheycouldbereferredtointhelump，wasfoundunavoidable。

Theformercoursewouldhaveoccasionedrepetitionstoobulkytobeemployedwithoutnecessityintheexecutionofaplanunavoidablysovoluminous:thelatterwasthereforeindisputablythepreferableone。

Topublishthematerialsintheforminwhichtheywerealreadyprinted，ortoworkthemupintoanewone，wasthereforetheonlyalternative:thelatterhadallalongbeenhiswish，and，hadtimeandtherequisitedegreeofalacritybeenatcommand，itwouldascertainlyhavebeenrealised。Cogentconsiderations，however，concur，withtheirksomenessofthetask，inplacingtheaccomplishmentofitatpresentatanunfathomabledistance。

Anotherconsiderationis，thatthesuppressionofthepresentwork，haditbeeneversodecidedlywished，isnolongeraltogetherinhispower。Inthecourseofsolonganinterval，variousincidentshaveintroducedcopiesintovarioushands，fromsomeofwhichtheyhavebeentransferredbydeathsandotheraccidents，intoothersthatareunknowntohim。Detached，butconsiderableextracts，haveevenbeenpublished，withoutanydishonourableviews(forthenameoftheauthorwasveryhonestlysubjoinedtothem)，butwithouthisprivity，andinpublicationsundertakenwithouthisknowledge。

Itmayperhapsbenecessarytoadd，tocompletehisexcuseforofferingtothepublicaworkpervadedbyblemishes，whichhavenotescapedeventheauthor"spartialeye，thatthecensure，sojustlybestowedupontheform，didnotextenditselftothematter。

Insendingitthusabroadintotheworldwithallitsimperfectionsuponitshead，hethinksitmaybeofassistancetothefewreadershecanexpect，toreceiveashortintimationofthechiefparticulars，inrespectofwhichitfailsofcorrespondingwithhismaturerviews。Itwillthencebeobservedhowinsomerespectsitfailsofquadratingwiththedesignannouncedbyitsoriginaltitle，asinothersitdoeswiththatannouncedbytheoneitbearsatpresent。

Anintroductiontoaworkwhichtakesforitssubjectthetotalityofanyscience，oughttocontainallsuchmatters，andsuchmattersonly，asbelongincommontoeveryparticularbranchofthatscience，oratleasttomorebranchesofitthanone。

Comparedwithitspresenttitle，thepresentworkfailsinbothwaysofbeingconformabletothatrule。

Asanintroductiontotheprinciplesofmorals，inadditiontotheanalysisitcontainsoftheextensiveideassignifiedbythetermspleasure，pain，motive，anddisposition，itoughttohavegivenasimilaranalysisofthenotlessextensive，thoughmuchlessdeterminate，ideasannexedtothetermsemotion，passion，appetite，virtue，vice，andsomeothers，includingthenamesoftheparticularvirtuesandvices。Butasthetrue，and，ifheconceivesright，theonlytrueground-workforthedevelopmentofthelattersetofterms，hasbeenlaidbytheexplanationoftheformer，thecompletionofsuchadictionary，sotostyleit，would，incomparisonofthecommencement，belittlemorethanamechanicaloperation。

Again，asanintroductiontotheprinciplesoflegislationingeneral，itoughtrathertohaveincludedmattersbelongingexclusivelytothecivilbranch，thanmattersmoreparticularlyapplicabletothepenal:thelatterbeingbutameansofcompassingtheendsproposedbytheformer。Inpreferencetherefore，oratleastinpriority，totheseveralchapterswhichwillbefoundrelativetopunishment，itoughttohaveexhibitedasetofpropositionswhichhavesincepresentedthemselvestohimasaffordingastandardfortheoperationsperformedbygovernment，inthecreationanddistributionofproprietaryandothercivilrights。Hemeanscertainaxiomsofwhatmaybetermedmentalpathology，expressiveoftheconnectionbetwixtthefeelingsofthepartiesconcerned，andtheseveralclassesofincidents，whicheithercallfor，orareproducedby，operationsofthenatureabovementioned。

Theconsiderationofthedivisionofoffences，andeverythingelsethatbelongstooffences，ought，besides，tohaveprecededtheconsiderationofpunishment:fortheideaofpunishmentpresupposestheideaofoffence:punishment，assuch，notbeinginflictedbutinconsiderationofoffence。

Lastly，theanalyticaldiscussionsrelativetotheclassificationofoffenceswould，accordingtohispresentviews，betransferredtoaseparatetreatise，inwhichthesystemoflegislationisconsideredsolelyinrespectofitsform:inotherwords，inrespectofitsmethodandterminology。

Intheserespectstheperformancefailsofcominguptotheauthor"sownideasofwhatshouldhavebeenexhibitedinawork，bearingthetitlehehasnowgivenit。viz。thatofanIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislation。Heknowshoweverofnootherthatwouldbelessunsuitable:norinparticularwouldsoadequateanintimationofitsactualcontentshavebeengiven，byatitlecorrespondingtothemorelimiteddesign，withwhichitwaswritten:viz。thatofservingasanintroductiontoapenalcode。

Yetmore。Dryandtediousasagreatpartofthediscussionsitcontainsmustunavoidablybefoundbythebulkofreaders，heknowsnothowtoregretthehavingwrittenthem，noreventhehavingmadethempublic。Undereveryhead，thepracticaluses，towhichthediscussionscontainedunderthatheadappearedapplicable，areindicated:noristhere，hebelieves，asinglepropositionthathehasnotfoundoccasiontobuilduponinthepenningofsomearticleorotherofthoseprovisionsofdetail，ofwhichabodyoflaw，authoritativeorunauthoritative，mustbecomposed。

Hewillventuretospecifyparticularly，inthisview，theseveralchaptersshortlycharacterizedbythewordsSensibility，Actions，Intentionality，Consciousness，Motives，Dispositions，Consequences。Evenintheenormouschapteronthedivisionofoffenses，which，notwithstandingtheforcedcompressiontheplanhasundergoneinseveralofitsparts，inmannertherementioned，occupiesnofewerthanonehundredandfourcloselyprintedquartopages，thetenconcludingonesareemployedinastatementofthepracticaladvantagesthatmaybereapedfromtheplanofclassificationwhichitexhibits。ThoseinwhosesighttheDefenceofUsuryhasbeenfortunateenoughtofindfavour，mayreckonasoneinstanceofthoseadvantagesthediscoveryoftheprinciplesdevelopedinthatlittletreatise。Intheprefacetoananonymoustractpublishedsolongagoasin1776，hehadhintedattheutilityofanaturalclassificationofoffenses，inthecharacterofatestfordistinguishinggenuinefromspuriousones。Thecaseofusuryisoneamonganumberofinstancesofthetruthofthatobservation。AnoteattheendofSect。xxxv。chap。xvi。ofthepresentpublication，mayservetoshowhowtheopinions，developedinthattract，owedtheirorigintothedifficultyexperiencedintheattempttofindaplaceinhissystemforthatimaginaryoffense。Tosomereaders，asameansofhelpingthemtosupportthefatigueofwadingthroughananalysisofsuchenormouslength，hewouldalmostrecommendthebeginningwiththosetenconcludingpages。

Onegoodatleastmayresultfromthepresentpublication；viz。thatthemorehehastrespassedonthepatienceofthereaderonthisoccasion，thelessneedhewillhavesotodoonfutureones:

sothatthismaydotothose，theofficewhichisdone，bybooksofpuremathematics，tobooksofmixedmathematicsandnaturalphilosophy。Thenarrowerthecircleofreadersis，withinwhichthepresentworkmaybecondemnedtoconfineitself，thelesslimitedmaybethenumberofthosetowhomthefruitsofhissucceedinglaboursmaybefoundaccessible。Hemaythereforeinthisrespectfindhimselfintheconditionofthosephilosophersofantiquity，whoarerepresentedashavingheldtwobodiesofdoctrine，apopularandanoccultone:but，withthisdifference，thatinhisinstancetheoccultandthepopularwill，hehopes，befoundasconsistentasinthosetheywerecontradictory；andthatinhisproductionwhateverthereisofoccultnesshasbeenthepureresultofsadnecessity，andinnorespectofchoice。

Having，inthecourseofthisadvertisement，hadsuchfrequentoccasiontoalludetodifferentarrangements，ashavingbeensuggestedbymoreextensiveandmaturerviews，itmayperhapscontributetothesatisfactionofthereader，toreceiveashortintimationoftheirnature:therather，as，withoutsuchexplanation，references，madehereandtheretounpublishedworks，mightbeproductiveofperplexityandmistake。Thefollowingthenarethetitlesoftheworksbythepublicationofwhichhispresentdesignswouldbecompleted。Theyareexhibitedintheorderwhichseemedtohimbestfittedforapprehension，andinwhichtheywouldstanddisposed，werethewholeassemblagereadytocomeoutatonce:buttheorder，inwhichtheywilleventuallyappear，mayprobablyenoughbeinfluencedinsomedegreebycollateralandtemporaryconsiderations。

Partthe1st。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofcivil，moredistinctivelytermedprivatedistributive，orforshortness，distributive，law。

Partthe2nd。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofpenallaw。

Partthe3rd。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofprocedure:unitinginoneviewthecriminalandcivilbranches，betweenwhichnolinecanbedrawn，butaveryindistinctone，andthatcontinuallyliabletovariation。

Partthe4th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofreward。

Partthe5th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofpublicdistributive，moreconciselyaswellasfamiliarlytermedconstitutional，law。

Partthe6th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofpoliticaltactics:

oroftheartofmaintainingorderintheproceedingsofpoliticalassemblies，soastodirectthemtotheendoftheirinstitution:

viz。byasystemofrules，whicharetotheconstitutionalbranch，insomerespects，whatthelawofprocedureistothecivilandthepenal。

Partthe7th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersbetwixtnationandnation，or，touseanewthoughnotinexpressiveappellation，inmattersofinternationallaw。

Partthe8th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersoffinance。

Partthe9th。Principlesoflegislationinmattersofpoliticaleconomy。

Partthe10th。Planofabodyoflaw，completeinallitsbranches，consideredinrespectofitsform；inotherwords，inrespectofitsmethodandterminology；includingaviewoftheoriginationandconnexionoftheideasexpressedbytheshortlistofterms，theexpositionofwhichcontainsallthatcanbesaidwithproprietytobelongtotheheadofuniversaljurisprudence。

Theuseoftheprincipleslaiddownundertheaboveseveralheadsistopreparethewayforthebodyoflawitselfexhibitedinterminis；andwhichtobecomplete，withreferencetoanypoliticalstate，mustconsequentlybecalculatedforthemeridian，andadaptedtothecircumstances，ofsomeonesuchstateinparticular。

Hadheanunlimitedpowerofdrawingupontime，andeveryotherconditionnecessary，itwouldbehiswishtopostponethepublicationofeachparttothecompletionofthewhole。Inparticular，theuseofthetenparts，whichexhibitwhatappeartohimthedictatesofutilityineveryline，beingnootherthantofurnishreasonsfortheseveralcorrespondingprovisionscontainedinthebodyoflawitself，theexacttruthoftheformercanneverbepreciselyascertained，tilltheprovisions，towhichtheyaredestinedtoapply，arethemselvesascertained，andthatinterminis。

Butastheinfirmityofhumannaturerendersallplansprecariousintheexecution，inproportionastheyareextensiveinthedesign，andashehasalreadymadeconsiderableadvancesinseveralbranchesofthetheory，withouthavingmadecorrespondentadvancesinthepracticalapplications，hedeemsitmorethanprobable，thattheeventualorderofpublicationwillnotcorrespondexactlywiththatwhich，haditbeenequallypracticable，wouldhaveappearedmosteligible。Ofthisirregularitytheunavoidableresultwillbe，amultitudeofimperfections，which，iftheexecutionofthebodyoflawinterminishadkeptpacewiththedevelopmentoftheprinciples，sothateachparthadbeenadjustedandcorrectedbytheother，mighthavebeenavoided。Hisconducthoweverwillbethelessswayedbythisinconvenience，fromhissuspectingittobeofthenumberofthoseinwhichthepersonalvanityoftheauthorismuchmoreconcerned，thantheinstructionofthepublic:sincewhateveramendmentsmaybesuggestedinthedetailoftheprinciples，bytheliteralfixationoftheprovisionstowhichtheyarerelative，mayeasilybemadeinacorrectededitionoftheformer，succeedinguponthepublicationofthelatter。

Inthecourseoftheensuingpages，referenceswillbefound，asalreadyintimated，sometotheplanofapenalcodetowhichthisworkwasmeantasanintroduction，sometootherbranchesoftheabove-mentionedgeneralplan，undertitlessomewhatdifferentfromthose，bywhichtheyhavebeenmentionedhere。Thegivingthiswarningisallwhichitisintheauthor"spowertodo，tosavethereaderfromtheperplexityoflookingoutforwhathasnotasyetanyexistence。Therecollectionofthechangeofplanwillinlikemanneraccountforseveralsimilarincongruitiesnotworthparticularizing。

Allusionwasmade，attheoutsetofthisadvertisement，tosomeunspecifieddifficulties，asthecausesoftheoriginalsuspension，andunfinishedcomplexion，ofthepresentwork。Ashamedofhisdefeat，andunabletodissembleit，heknowsnothowtorefacehimselfthebenefitofsuchanapologyasaslightsketchofthenatureofthosedifficultiesmayafford……

Thediscoveryofthemwasproducedbytheattempttosolvethequestionsthatwillbefoundattheconclusionofthevolume:

Whereinconsistedtheidentityandcompletenessofalaw？Whatthedistinction，andwheretheseparation，betweenapenalandacivillaw？Whatthedistinction，andwheretheseparation，betweenthepenalandotherbranchesofthelaw？

Togiveacompleteandcorrectanswertothesequestions，itisbuttooevidentthattherelationsanddependenciesofeverypartofthelegislativesystem，withrespecttoeveryother，musthavebeencomprehendedandascertained。Butitisonlyuponaviewofthesepartsthemselves，thatsuchanoperationcouldhavebeenperformed。Totheaccuracyofsuchasurveyonenecessaryconditionwouldthereforebe，thecompleteexistenceofthefabrictobesurveyed。Totheperformanceofthisconditionnoexampleisasyettobemetwithanywhere。Commonlaw，asitstylesitselfinEngland，judiciarylawasitmightaptlybestyledeverywhere。thatfictitiouscompositionwhichhasnoknownpersonforitsauthor，noknownassemblageofwordsforitssubstance，formseverywherethemainbodyofthelegalfabric:likethatfanciedether，which，indefaultofsensiblematter，fillsupthemeasureoftheuniverse。Shredsandscrapsofreallaw，stuckonuponthatimaginaryground，composethefurnitureofeverynationalcode。Whatfollows？梩hathewho，forthepurposejustmentionedorforanyother，wantsanexampleofacompletebodyoflawtoreferto，mustbeginwithmakingone。

Thereis，orratherthereoughttobe。alogicofthewill。aswellasoftheunderstanding:theoperationsoftheformerfaculty，areneitherlesssusceptible，norlessworthy，thenthoseofthelatter，ofbeingdelineatedbyrules。Ofthesetwobranchesofthatreconditeart，Aristotlesawonlythelatter:succeedinglogicians，treadinginthestepsoftheirgreatfounder，haveconcurredinseeingwithnoothereyes。Yetsofarasadifferencecanbeassignedbetweenbranchessointimatelyconnected，whateverdifferencethereis，inpointofimportance，isinfavourofthelogicofthewill。Sinceitisonlybytheircapacityofdirectingtheoperationsofthisfaculty，thattheoperationsoftheunderstandingareofanyconsequence。

Ofthislogicofthewill，thescienceoflaw，consideredinrespectofitsform，isthemostconsiderablebranch，梩hemostimportantapplication。Itis，totheartoflegislation，whatthescienceofanatomyistotheartofmedicine:withthisdifference，thatthesubjectofitiswhattheartisthastoworkwith，insteadofbeingwhathehastooperateupon。Noristhebodypoliticlessindangerfromawantofacquaintancewiththeonescience，thanthebodynaturalfromignoranceintheother。Oneexample，amongstathousandthatmightbeadducedinproofofthisassertion，maybeseeninthenotewhichterminatesthisvolume。

Suchthenwerethedifficulties:suchthepreliminaries:梐nunexampledworktoachieve，andthenanewsciencetocreate:anewbranchtoaddtooneofthemostabstruseofsciences。

Yetmore:abodyofproposedlaw，howcompletesoever，wouldbecomparativelyuselessanduninstructive，unlessexplainedandjustified，andthatineverytittle，byacontinuedaccompaniment，aperpetualcommentaryofreasons:whichreasons，thatthecomparativevalueofsuchaspointinoppositedirectionsmaybeestimated，andtheconjunctforce，ofsuchaspointinthesamedirectionmaybefelt。mustbemarshalled，andputundersubordinationtosuchextensiveandleadingonesasaretermedprinciples。Theremustbetherefore，notonesystemonly，buttwoparallelandconnectedsystems，runningontogether。theoneoflegislativeprovisions，theotherofpoliticalreasons，eachaffordingtotheothercorrectionandsupport。

Areenterprisesliketheseachievable？Heknowsnot。Thisonlyheknows，thattheyhavebeenundertaken，proceededin，andthatsomeprogresshasbeenmadeinallofthem。Hewillventuretoadd，ifatallachievable，neveratleastbyone，towhomthefatigueofattendingtodiscussions，asaridasthosewhichoccupytheensuingpages，wouldeitherappearuseless，orfeelintolerable。Hewillrepeatitboldly(forithasbeensaidbeforehim)，truthsthatformthebasisofpoliticalandmoralsciencearenottobediscoveredbutbyinvestigationsassevereasmathematicalones，andbeyondallcomparisonmoreintricateandextensive。Thefamiliarityofthetermsisapresumption，butisamostfallaciousone，ofthefacilityofthematter。Truthsingeneralhavebeencalledstubbornthings:thetruthsjustmentionedaresointheirownway。Theyarenottobeforcedintodetachedandgeneralpropositions，unincumberedwithexplanationsandexceptions。Theywillnotcompressthemselvesintoepigrams。Theyrecoilfromthetongueandthepenofthedeclaimer。

Theyflourishnotinthesamesoilwithsentiment。Theygrowamongthorns；andarenottobeplucked，likedaisies，byinfantsastheyrun。Labour，theinevitablelotofhumanity，isinnotrackmoreinevitablethanhere。InvainwouldanAlexanderbespeakapeculiarroadforroyalvanity，oraPtolemy，asmootherone，forroyalindolence。ThereisnoKing"sRoad，noStadtholder"sGate，tolegislative，anymorethantomathematicscience。

chapter01AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterI

OfThePrincipleOfUtility。

I。Naturehasplacedmankindunderthegovernanceoftwosovereignmasters，painandpleasure。Itisforthemalonetopointoutwhatweoughttodo，aswellastodeterminewhatweshalldo。

Ontheonehandthestandardofrightandwrong，ontheotherthechainofcausesandeffects，arefastenedtotheirthrone。

Theygovernusinallwedo，inallwesay，inallwethink:

everyeffortwecanmaketothrowoffoursubjection，willservebuttodemonstrateandconfirmit。Inwordsamanmaypretendtoabjuretheirempire:butinrealityhewillremain。subjecttoitallthewhile。Theprincipleofutilityrecognizesthissubjection，andassumesitforthefoundationofthatsystem，theobjectofwhichistorearthefabricoffelicitybythehandsofreasonandoflaw。Systemswhichattempttoquestionit，dealinsoundsinsteadofsense，incapriceinsteadofreason，indarknessinsteadoflight。

Butenoughofmetaphoranddeclamation:itisnotbysuchmeansthatmoralscienceistobeimproved。

II。Theprincipleofutilityisthefoundationofthepresentwork:

itwillbeproperthereforeattheoutsettogiveanexplicitanddeterminateaccountofwhatismeantbyit。Bytheprincipleofutilityismeantthatprinciplewhichapprovesordisapprovesofeveryactionwhatsoever。accordingtothetendencyitappearstohavetoaugmentordiminishthehappinessofthepartywhoseinterestisinquestion:or，whatisthesamethinginotherwordstopromoteortoopposethathappiness。Isayofeveryactionwhatsoever，andthereforenotonlyofeveryactionofaprivateindividual，butofeverymeasureofgovernment。

III。Byutilityismeantthatpropertyinanyobject，wherebyittendstoproducebenefit，advantage，pleasure，good，orhappiness，(allthisinthepresentcasecomestothesamething)or(whatcomesagaintothesamething)topreventthehappeningofmischief，pain，evil，orunhappinesstothepartywhoseinterestisconsidered:ifthatpartybethecommunityingeneral，thenthehappinessofthecommunity:ifaparticularindividual，thenthehappinessofthatindividual。

IV。Theinterestofthecommunityisoneofthemostgeneralexpressionsthatcanoccurinthephraseologyofmorals:nowonderthatthemeaningofitisoftenlost。Whenithasameaning，itisthis。Thecommunityisafictitiousbody，composedoftheindividualpersonswhoareconsideredasconstitutingasitwereitsmembers。Theinterestofthecommunitythenis，whatisit？梩hesumoftheinterestsoftheseveralmemberswhocomposeit。

V。Itisinvaintotalkoftheinterestofthecommunity，withoutunderstandingwhatistheinterestoftheindividual。Athingissaidtopromotetheinterest，ortobefortheinterest，ofanindividual，whenittendstoaddtothesumtotalofhispleasures:or，whatcomestothesamething，todiminishthesumtotalofhispains。

VI。Anactionthenmaybesaidtobeconformabletothenprincipleofutility，or，forshortnesssake，toutility，(meaningwithrespecttothecommunityatlarge)whenthetendencyithastoaugmentthehappinessofthecommunityisgreaterthananyithastodiminishit。

VII。Ameasureofgovernment(whichisbutaparticularkindofaction，performedbyaparticularpersonorpersons)maybesaidtobeconformabletoordictatedbytheprincipleofutility，wheninlikemannerthetendencywhichithastoaugmentthehappinessofthecommunityisgreaterthananywhichithastodiminishit。

VIII。Whenanaction，orinparticularameasureofgovernment，issupposedbyamantobeconformabletotheprincipleofutility，itmaybeconvenient，forthepurposesofdiscourse，toimagineakindoflawordictate，calledalawordictateofutility:

andtospeakoftheactioninquestion，asbeingconformabletosuchlawordictate。

IX。Amanmaybesaidtobeapartizanoftheprincipleofutility，whentheapprobationordisapprobationheannexestoanyaction，ortoanymeasure，isdeterminedbyandproportionedtothetendencywhichheconceivesittohavetoaugmentortodiminishthehappinessofthecommunity:orinotherwords，toitsconformityorunconformitytothelawsordictatesofutility。

X。Ofanactionthatisconformabletotheprincipleofutilityonemayalwayssayeitherthatitisonethatoughttobedone，oratleastthatitisnotonethatoughtnottobedone。Onemaysayalso，thatitisrightitshouldbedone；atleastthatitisnotwrongitshouldbedone:thatitisarightaction；atleastthatitisnotawrongaction。Whenthusinterpreted，thewordsought，andrightandwrongandothersofthatstamp，haveameaning:whenotherwise，theyhavenone。

XI。Hastherectitudeofthisprinciplebeeneverformallycontested？

Itshouldseemthatithad，bythosewhohavenotknownwhattheyhavebeenmeaning。Isitsusceptibleofanydirectproof？

itshouldseemnot:forthatwhichisusedtoproveeverythingelse，cannotitselfbeproved:achainofproofsmusthavetheircommencementsomewhere。Togivesuchproofisasimpossibleasitisneedless。

XII。Notthatthereisoreverhasbeenthathumancreatureatbreathing，howeverstupidorperverse，whohasnotonmany，perhapsonmostoccasionsofhislife，deferredtoit。Bythenaturalconstitutionofthehumanframe，onmostoccasionsoftheirlivesmeningeneralembracethisprinciple，withoutthinkingofit:

ifnotfortheorderingoftheirownactions，yetforthetryingoftheirownactions，aswellasofthoseofothermen。Therehavebeen，atthesametime，notmanyperhaps，evenofthemostintelligent，whohavebeendisposedtoembraceitpurelyandwithoutreserve。Thereareevenfewwhohavenottakensomeoccasionorothertoquarrelwithit，eitheronaccountoftheirnotunderstandingalwayshowtoapplyit，oronaccountofsomeprejudiceorotherwhichtheywereafraidtoexamineinto，orcouldnotbeartopartwith。Forsuchisthestuffthatmanismadeof:inprincipleandinpractice，inarighttrackandinawrongone，therarestofallhumanqualitiesisconsistency。

XIII。Whenamanattemptstocombattheprincipleofutility，itiswithreasonsdrawn，withouthisbeingawareofit，fromthatveryprincipleitself。Hisarguments，iftheyproveanything，provenotthattheprincipleiswrong，butthat，accordingtotheapplicationshesupposestobemadeofit，itismisapplied。Isitpossibleforamantomovetheearth？Yes；buthemustfirstfindoutanotherearthtostandupon。

XIV。Todisprovetheproprietyofitbyargumentsisimpossible；but，fromthecausesthathavebeenmentioned，orfromsomeconfusedorpartialviewofit，amanmayhappentobedisposednottorelishit。Wherethisisthecase，ifhethinksthesettlingofhisopinionsonsuchasubjectworththetrouble，lethimtakethefollowingsteps，andatlength，perhaps，hemaycometoreconcilehimselftoit。

1。Lethimsettlewithhimself，whetherhewouldwishtodiscardthisprinciplealtogether；ifso，lethimconsiderwhatitisthatallhisreasonings(inmattersofpoliticsespecially)canamountto？

2。Ifhewould，lethimsettlewithhimself，whetherhewouldjudgeandactwithoutanyprinciple，orwhetherthereisanyotherhewouldjudgeanactby？

3。Iftherebe，lethimexamineandsatisfyhimselfwhethertheprinciplehethinkshehasfoundisreallyanyseparateintelligibleprinciple；orwhetheritbenotamereprincipleinwords，akindofphrase，whichatbottomexpressesneithermorenorlessthanthemereavermentofhisownunfoundedsentiments；thatis，whatinanotherpersonhemightbeapttocallcaprice？

4。Ifheisinclinedtothinkthathisownapprobationordisapprobation，annexedtotheideaofanact，withoutanyregardtoitsconsequences，isasufficientfoundationforhimtojudgeandactupon，lethimaskhimselfwhetherhissentimentistobeastandardofrightandwrong，withrespecttoeveryotherman，orwhethereveryman"ssentimenthasthesameprivilegeofbeingastandardtoitself？

5。Inthefirstcase，lethimaskhimselfwhetherhisprincipleisnotdespotical，andhostiletoalltherestofhumanrace？

6。Inthesecondcase，whetheritisnotanarchial，andwhetheratthisratetherearenotasmanydifferentstandardsofrightandwrongastherearemen？andwhethereventothesameman，thesamething，whichisrightto-day，maynot(withouttheleastchangeinitsnature)bewrongto-morrow？andwhetherthesamethingisnotrightandwronginthesameplaceatthesametime？andineithercase，whetherallargumentisnotatanend？andwhether，whentwomenhavesaid，揑likethis？and揑

don"tlikeit？theycan(uponsuchaprinciple)haveanythingmoretosay？

7。Ifheshouldhavesaidtohimself，No:forthatthesentimentwhichheproposesasastandardmustbegroundedonreflection，lethimsayonwhatparticularsthereflectionistoturn？ifonparticularshavingrelationtotheutilityoftheact，thenlethimsaywhetherthisisnotdesertinghisownprinciple，andborrowingassistancefromthatveryoneinoppositiontowhichhesetsitup:

orifnotonthoseparticulars，onwhatotherparticulars？

8。Ifheshouldbeforcompoundingthematter，andadoptinghisownprincipleinpart，andtheprincipleofutilityinpart，lethimsayhowfarhewilladoptit？

9。Whenhehassettledwithhimselfwherehewillstop，thenlethimaskhimselfhowhejustifiestohimselftheadoptingitsofar？

andwhyhewillnotadoptitanyfarther？

10。Admittinganyotherprinciplethantheprincipleofutilitytobearightprinciple，aprinciplethatitisrightforamantopursue；

admitting(whatisnottrue)thatthewordrightcanhaveameaningwithoutreferencetoutility，lethimsaywhetherthereisanysuchthingasamotivethatamancanhavetopursuethedictatesofit:ifthereis，lethimsaywhatthatmotiveis，andhowitistobedistinguishedfromthosewhichenforcethedictatesofutility:

ifnot，thenlastlylethimsaywhatitisthisotherprinciplecanbegoodfor？

chapter02AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterII

OfPrinciplesAdversetothatofUtilityI。Iftheprincipleofutilitybearightprincipletobegovernedby，andthatinallcases，itfollowsfromwhathasbeenjustobserved，thatwhateverprinciplediffersfromitinanycasemustnecessarilybeawrongone。Toproveanyotherprinciple，therefore，tobeawrongone，thereneedsnomorethanjusttoshowittobewhatitis，aprincipleofwhichthedictatesareinsomepointorotherdifferentfromthoseoftheprincipleofutility:

tostateitistoconfuteit。

II。Aprinciplemaybedifferentfromthatofutilityintwoways:I。

Bybeingconstantlyopposedtoit:thisisthecasewithaprinciplewhichmaybetermedtheprincipleofasceticism。2。Bybeingsometimesopposedtoit，andsometimesnot，asitmayhappen:thisisthecasewithanother，whichmaybetermedtheprincipleofsympathyandantipathy。

III。BytheprincipleofasceticismImeanthatprinciple，which，liketheprincipleofutility，approvesordisapprovesofanyaction，accordingtothetendencywhichitappearstohavetoaugmentordiminishthehappinessofthepartywhoseinterestisinquestion；butinaninversemanner:approvingofactionsinasfarastheytendtodiminishhishappiness；disapprovingoftheminasfarastheytendtoaugmentit。

IV。Itisevidentthatanyonewhoreprobatesanytheleastparticleofpleasure，assuch，fromwhateversourcederived，isprotantoapartizanoftheprincipleofasceticism。Itisonlyuponthatprinciplesandnotfromtheprincipleofutility，thatthemostabominablepleasurewhichthevilestofmalefactorseverreapedfromhiscrimewouldbetobereprobated，ifitstoodalone。

Thecaseis，thatitneverdoesstandalone；butisnecessarilyfollowedbysuchaquantityofpain(or，whatcomestothesamething，suchachanceforacertainquantityofpain)that，thepleasureincomparisonofit，isasnothing:andthisisthetrueandsole，butperfectlysufficient，reasonformakingitagroundforpunishment。

V。Therearetwoclassesofmenofverydifferentcomplexions，bywhomtheprincipleofasceticismappearstohavebeenembraced；theoneasetofmoralists，theotherasetofreligionists。

Differentaccordinglyhavebeenthemotiveswhichappearstohaverecommendedittothenoticeofthesedifferentparties。Hope，thatistheprospectofpleasure，seemstohaveanimatedtheformer:hope，thealimentofphilosophicpride:thehopeofhonourandreputationatthehandsofmen。Fear，thatistheprospectofpain，thelatter:fear，theoffspringofsuperstitiousfancy:thefearoffuturepunishmentatthehandsofaspleneticandrevengefulDeity。Isayinthiscasefear:foroftheinvisiblefuture，fearismorepowerfulthanhope。Thesecircumstancescharacterizethetwodifferentpartiesamongthepartisansoftheprincipleofasceticism；thepartiesandtheirmotivesdifferent，theprinciplethesame。

VI。Thereligiousparty，however，appeartohavecarrieditfartherthanthephilosophical:theyhaveactedmoreconsistentlyandlesswisely。Thephilosophicalpartyhavescarcelygonefartherthantoreprobatepleasure:thereligiouspartyhavefrequentlygonesofarastomakeitamatterofmeritandofdutytocourtpain。

Thephilosophicalpartyhavehardlygonefartherthanthemakingpainamatterofindifference。Itisnoevil，theyhavesaid:

theyhavenotsaid，itisagood。Theyhavenotsomuchasreprobatedallpleasureinthelump。Theyhavediscardedonlywhattheyhavecalledthegross；thatis，suchasareorganical，orofwhichtheoriginiseasilytraceduptosuchasareorganical:theyhaveevencherishedandmagnifiedtherefined。Yetthis，however，notunderthenameofpleasure:tocleanseitselffromthesordesofitsimpureoriginal，itwasnecessaryitshouldchangeitsname:thehonourable，theglorious，thereputable，thebecoming，thehonestum，thedecorumitwastobecalled:inshort，anythingbutpleasure。

VII。Fromthesetwosourceshaveflowedthedoctrinesfromitwhichthesentimentsofthebulkofmankindhaveallalongreceivedatinctureofthisprinciple；somefromthephilosophical，somefromthereligious，somefromboth。Menofeducationmorefrequentlyfromthephilosophical，asmoresuitedtotheelevationoftheirsentiments:thevulgarmorefrequentlyfromthesuperstitious，asmoresuitedtothenarrownessoftheirintellect，undilatedbyknowledgeandtotheabjectnessoftheircondition，continuallyopentotheattacksoffear。Thetinctures，however，derivedfromthetwosources，wouldnaturallyintermingle，insomuchthatamanwouldnotalwaysknowbywhichofthemhewasmostinfluenced:andtheywouldoftenservetocorroborateandenlivenoneanother。Itwasthisconformitythatmadeakindofalliancebetweenpartiesofacomplexionotherwisesodissimilar:anddisposedthemtouniteuponvariousoccasionsagainstthecommonenemy，thepartizanoftheprincipleofutility，whomtheyjoinedinbrandingwiththeodiousnameofEpicurean。

VIII。Theprincipleofasceticism，however，withwhateverwarmthitmayhavebeenembracedbyitspartizansasaruleofPrivateconduct，seemsnottohavebeencarriedtoanyconsiderablelength，whenappliedtothebusinessofgovernment。Inafewinstancesithasbeencarriedalittlewaybythephilosophicalparty:witnesstheSpartanregimen。Thoughthen，perhaps，itmaybeconsideredashavingbeenameasureofsecurity:andanapplication，thoughaprecipitateandperverseapplication，oftheprincipleofutility。Scarcelyinanyinstances，toanyconsiderablelength，bythereligious:forthevariousmonasticorders，andthesocietiesoftheQuakers，Dumplers，Moravians，andotherreligionists，havebeenfreesocieties，whoseregimennomanhasbeenastrictedtowithouttheinterventionofhisownconsent。