第5章

CUSTOMUPONMORALSENTIMENTS。

IntheestimationofDugaldStewart，themostvaluablecontributionof"AdamSmithtotheimprovementofmoralscienceishisattempttoaccountfortheirregularityofourmoralsentiments，andfortheirliabilitytobemodifiedbyotherconsiderations，verydifferentfromtheproprietyorimproprietyoftheaffectionsoftheagent，orfromtheirbeneficialorhurtfultendency。AdamSmithwas，hethinks，thefirstphilosophertoappreciatethoroughlytheimportanceofthedifficulty，whichisequallygreatineverytheoryoftheoriginofourmoralsentiments；namely，thatouractualmoralsentimentsofapprobation，orthecontrary，aregreatlymodifiedbymattersextraneoustotheintentionoftheagent；as，forexample，bytheinfluenceontheactitselfofquitefortuitousoraccidentalcircumstances。

Thereare，firstofall，theeffectsofprosperityandadversityonthemoraljudgmentsofmenwithregardtotheproprietyofaction，wherebyitiseasiertoobtainapprobationintheoneconditionthanitisintheother。

Inequaldegreesofmeritthereisscarcelyanyonewhodoesnotmorerespecttherichandgreatthanthepoorandhumble；and，ontheotherhand，anequalamountofviceandfollyisregardedwithlessaversionandcontemptintheformerthanitisinthelatter。Howisthistobeexplained？andwhatistheoriginofthisperversionofmoralsentiment？

Therealexplanationofitistobesoughtinthefactofoursympatheticemotions，which，astheyentermorevividlyintothejoysthanintothesorrowsofothers，feelmorepleasureintheconditionofthewealthythaninthatofthepoor。Itisagreeabletosympathizewithjoy，andpainfultoenterintogrief；sothat，wherethereisnoenvyinthecase，ourpropensitytosympathizewithjoyismuchstrongerthanourpropensitytosympathizewithsorrow；andourfellow-feelingfortheagreeableemotionapproachesnearertoitsoriginalintensitythanourfellow-feelingforthepainfulemotionofanotherperson。Itisforthisreasonthatwearemoreashamedtoweepthantolaughbeforecompany，thoughwemayoftenhaveasrealoccasiontodotheoneastheother:wealwaysfeelthatthespectatorsaremorelikelytogoalongwithusintheagreeablethaninthepainfulemotion。Henceourdispositiontoadmiretherichandpowerful，andtodespiseorneglectthepoorandlowly，arisesfromourassociationofjoyandpleasurewiththeconditionoftheformer，andofpainanddistresswiththatofthelatter。

Theconditionoftheformer，inthedelusivecoloursofourimagination，seemstobealmosttheabstractideaofaperfectandhappystate。Hencewefeelapeculiarsatisfactionwiththesatisfactionweattributetothem。

Wefavouralltheirinclinations，andforwardalltheirwishes。Weareeagertoassistthemincompletingasystemofhappinessthatapproachessoneartoperfection。

Itisfromthecommandwhichwealththushasoverthesympatheticandagreeablesentimentsofmankindthatleadstosoeagerapursuitandparadeofit，andtosostronganaversionto，andconcealmentof，poverty。Towhatpurposeisallthetoiloftheworldforwealth，power，andpre-eminence？

Theonlyadvantagereallylookedtofromitis"tobeobserved，tobeattendedto，tobetakennoticeofwithsympathy，complacency，andapprobation；"

andtherichmangloriesmoreinhisriches，becausetheynaturallydrawuponhimtheattentionoftheworld，thanforanyoftheotheradvantagesconnectedwiththem。Andforthesamereasonthepoormanisashamedofhispoverty，forthoughhemaybeaswellsuppliedastherichmanwiththenecessitiesoflife，heismortifiedatbeingplacedoutofthesightofmankind，atbeingtreatedwithneglect，andatbeinganobjectoftheantipathyratherthanofthesympathyofhisfellows。

Rankanddistinctionarethereforecoveted，assettingusinasituationmostinviewofgeneralsympathyandattention。"Andthus，placethatgreatobjectwhichdividesthewivesofaldermenistheendofhalfthelaboursofhumanlife，andisthecauseofallthetumultandbustle，alltherapineandinjustice，whichavariceandambitionhaveintroducedintotheworld。"

Andthus，fromournaturaldispositiontoadmiretherichandpowerful，adifferentstandardofjudgmentarisesabouttheproprietyoftheirconductthanthatemployedaboutthebehaviourofothermen。Asingletransgressionoftherulesoftemperanceandproprietybyacommonmanisgenerallymoreresentedthantheirconstantandavowedneglectbyamanoffashion。Inthesuperiorstationsoflife，theroadtovirtueandthattofortunearenotalwaysthesame，astheyaregenerallyinthemiddlingandinferiorstations。Inthelatterstationsoflifesuccessnearlyalwaysdependsonthefavourandgoodopinionofequalsandneighbours，andthesecanseldombeobtainedwithoutatolerablyregularconduct。Inthem，therefore，"wemaygenerallyexpectaconsiderabledegreeofvirtue；andfortunatelyforthegoodmoralsofsociety，thesearethesituationsofbyfarthegreaterpartofmankind。"

Notonlyhoweverhasprosperityoradversitygreatinfluenceonourmoralsentiments，leadingustoseeaproprietyinacertaincourseofbehaviourintheoneconditionwhichweareapttocondemnasimproperintheother，butthepraiseorblameweattachtoanyactiondependstoagreatextentontheeffectuponitoffortuneoraccident。Althougheverybodyallowsthatthemeritordemeritofactionsisstillthesame，whatevertheirunforeseenconsequencesmaybe，yet，whenwecometoparticularcases，itisclearthatoursentimentsofmeritordemeritareverymuchaffectedbytheactualconsequenceswhichhappentoproceedfromanyaction，andthatoursenseofeitherofthemistherebyenhancedordiminished。

Everyactionconsistsofthreeparts，someoneofwhichmustconstitutethebasisofwhateverpraiseorblameweattributetoit。Thesethreepartsare:theintentionoraffectionoftheheart，fromwhichtheactionproceeds；

theexternalmovementofthebodywhichthisaffectioncauses；andthegoodorbadconsequenceswhichactuallyflowfromit。Itisevidentthatthemovementofthebody，beingoftenthesameinthemostinnocentasinthemostblameableactionsasinthecaseofshootingatabirdandshootingatamancannotbethesourceofpraiseorblame。Neithercantheaccidentalconsequencesofanaction，whichdependonfortune，notontheagent。Theonlyconsequencesforwhichthelatterisresponsiblearethoseinsomewayconnectedwithhisintention；sothatitistotheintentionoraffectionoftheheart，totheproprietyorimpropriety，tothebeneficenceorhurt-fulnessofthedesign，thatallpraiseorblame，allapprobationordisapprobationofanykind，mustultimatelybelong。

Theproblemthentobeexplainedisthefactthatoursenseofaman"smeritordemeritisatallinfluencedbyre-suitswhichliebeyondhiscontrol，andthatwemoderateourpraiseorblameofhisconductaccordingashisgoodorbadintentionfailsornotofitsintendedbenefitorinjury。

Theexplanationisasfollows。

Thepassionsofgratitudeandresentment，onwhichdependourfeelingofthemeritordemeritofactions，areultimatelybasedonthebodilysensationofpleasureandpain。Theyareexcitedprimarilybywhateverproducespleasureorpain，evenbyinanimateobjects。"Weareangryforamomentevenwiththestonethathurtsus。Achildbeatsit，adogbarksatit，acholericmanisapttocurseit。"Weshouldfeelguiltyofasortofinhumanity，ifweneglectedtoavengeourfriendbythedestructionoftheinstrumentthathadaccidentlycausedhisdeath。Soitiswithgratitude。

Asailorwhomendedhisfirewiththeplankthathadsavedhimfromshipwreckwouldseemguiltyofanunnaturalact，forweshouldexpecthimtopreserveitwithcareandaffection。Soweconceivesomethinglikearealloveandaffectionforasnuff-box，orpen-knife，orastick，towhichwehavelongbeenaccustomed。"Thehousewhichwehavelonglivedin，thetreewhoseverdureandshadewehavelongenjoyed，arebothlookeduponwithasortofrespectwhichseemsduetosuchbenefactors。Thedecayoftheone，ortheruinoftheother，affectsuswithakindofmelancholy，thoughweshouldsustainnolossbyit。"

Neverthelesstobetheproperobjectofgratitudeandresentment，athingmustnotonlybethecauseofpleasureandpain，butitselfcapableoffeelingtheminreturn。Animalsthereforearelessimproperobjectsofgratitudeandresentmentthaninanimatethings。"Thedogthatbites，theoxthatgores，arebothofthempunished。Iftheyhavebeenthecausesofthedeathofanyperson，neitherthepublic，northerelationsoftheslain，canbesatisfied，unlesstheyareputtodeathintheirturn。"Andontheotherhand，animalsthathavedoneagreatservice，areregardedwithmuchgratitude；andweareshockedwiththeingratitudeoftheofficer，intheTurkishSpy，whostabbedthehorsewhichhadcarriedhimacrossanarmofthesea，lestitshouldeverdistinguishsomeotherpersonbyasimilarfeat。

Butsomethingmoreisstillnecessarytothecompletegratificationofgratitudeandresentmentthanthemerecapabilityforfeelingpleasureorpaininreturnforpainorpleasurecaused。Thelattermusthavebeencausedbydesign，andtheremustbeaconsciousnessofdesigninthereturn。

Theobjectofresentmentischieflynotsomuchtomakeourenemyfeelpaininhisturn，astomakehimconsciousthathefeelsituponaccountofhispastconduct，andtomakehimrepentofthatconduct。Andthechiefobjectofgratitudeisnotonlytomakeourbenefactorfeelpleasureinhisturn，buttomakehimconsciousthathemeetswiththatrewardonaccountofhispastconduct，andtomakehimpleasedwiththatconduct。

Hencethreedifferentqualificationsarenecessarytorenderanythingthecompleteandproperobjectofgratitudeorresentment。Itmustfirstofallbethecauseofpleasureorpain；itmustsecondlybecapableoffeelingpleasureorpain；anditmustthirdlyproducepleasureorpainfromadesign，approvedofintheonecaseordisapprovedofintheother。

Sincethentheproductivenessofpleasureorpainistheprimaryexcitingcauseofgratitudeorresentment，thoughtheintentionsofanypersonshouldbeeversoproperandbeneficent，oreversoimproperandmalevolent，yet，ifhehasfailedinproducingthegoodorevilheintended，lessgratitudeorresentmentseemsduetohim，orinotherwords，lessmeritordemeritseemstoattachtohim，becausethepleasureorpain，theexcitingcausesofgratitudeorresentment，areineithercasewanting。Andso，whereinaman"sintentionstherehasbeennolaudablebenevolenceorblameablemalice，buthisactionshaveneverthelessdonegreatgoodorgreatevil，thensomegratitudeorresentmentwillattachtohim，becausetheirexcitingcauseshavebeenpresentineithercase。Butsincetheconsequencesofaman"sactionsrestaltogetherwithfortune，oursentimentsofmeritordemeritdependtoagreatextentuponherinfluenceonevents，uponhercontrolofthegoodorbad，thepleasurableorpainfulresults，whichflowfromouractions。

Thustheirregularityofourmoralsentimentsconcerningthemeritordemeritofactionsdependsultimatelyontheaccidentalamountofpleasureorpaintheyproduce，sincethesearetheprimaryexcitingcausesofourgratitudeorresentment。Havingexplainedthecauseofthephenomenon，itremainstoillustratetheeffects。

Eventheimpartialspectatorfeelsin。somemeasureadifferenceofmeritinaman"sconductaccordingashisgoodintentionshaveproducedornottheresultsintendedbyhim，althoughtheymayonlyhavebeendefeatedbyaccident。Itisindeedcommontosay，thatweareequallyobligedtothemanwhohasendeavouredtoserveus，astothemanwhoreallyhasservedus；butthissaying，"likeallotherfinespeeches，mustbeunderstoodwithagrainofallowance。"Whenallothercircumstancesareequal，therewillalwaysbe，eveninthebestandnoblestmind，somedifferenceofaffectioninfavourofthefriendwhocarriesouthisgoodintention，asagainstthefriendwhofailstodoso。

Andasthemeritofanunsuccessfulattempttodogoodisdiminishedbyitsmiscarriage，soisthedemeritofanun-successfulattempttodoevil。Exceptinthecaseoftreason，theconceptionofwhichisinmanycountriespunishedasseverelyasitscommission，themeredesigntocommitacrimeisscarcelyeverpunishedasheavilyasitsactualperpetration。

Inhardlyanycountryistheman，whofiresapistolathisenemybutmisseshim，punishedwithdeath，thoughthereisthesamedegreeofdepravityinthecriminaldesignasinthecriminalaction。"Theresentmentofmankind，however，runssohighagainstthiscrime，theirterrorforthemanwhoshowshimselfcapableofcommittingitissogreat，thatthemereattempttocommititoughtinallcountriestobecapital。Theattempttocommitsmallercrimesisalmostalwayspunishedverylightly，andsometimesisnotpunishedatall。Thethief，whosehandhasbeencaughtinhisneighbour"spocketbeforehehadtakenanythingoutofit，ispunishedwithignominyonly。Ifhehadgottimetotakeawayahandkerchief，hewouldhavebeenputtodeath。"(6)Thestateofthelawonlyreflectsthenaturalfeelingsofindividuals，whofeellessresentmentwhenamanhasfailedinexecutingthemischiefheintendedthanwhenhehasactuallydonethemaninjury。

Forthesamereason，aman，whohasbeensavedpurelybyaccidentfromthecommissionofacrimeheintended，thoughheisconsciousthathisrealguilt，thatofhisheart，remainsthesame，considershimselfaslessdeservingofresentmentandpunishment；andthusallthesenseofhisguiltiseitherdiminishedordestroyedbythemerefactoffortunehavingfavouredhim。

Again，asFortuneinfluencesourmoralsentimentsbylesseningthegoodorevil，thepleasureorpain，intendedbyouractions，sodoessheincreaseoursenseoftheirmeritordemerit，beyondwhattheirmereintentionwouldjustify，whentheyhappentogiverisetoextraordinarypleasureorpain。

Evenwhenanintentiondeservesneitherpraisenorblame，weareconsciousofashadeofmeritordemerit，accordingtoitsagreeableordisagreeableeffectsonus。Wefeelatransitorygratitudetothebearerofgoodtidings，andatransitoryresentmenttotheinnocentauthorofoursorrow。AndthoughwethinkitbarbarousinTigranes，kingofArmenia，tohavestruckofftheheadofamanforbeingthefirsttoannouncetheapproachofanenemy，yetwethinkitreasonablethat，bythecustomofallcourts，。theofficerwhofirstbringsthenewsofavictoryshouldbeentitledtoconsiderablepreferments。

Whenthenegligenceofonemancausesdamagetoanother，eventhoughhisnegligenceshouldbenomorethanawantofextremecircumspection，thelawofteninsistsoncompensation。InRometherewasalawwhichcompelledanyonewho，byreasonofhishorsetakingfrightandbecomingunmanageable，rodeoveranotherman"sslave，tocompensatetheloss。Themanhimselfwhothusunintentionallyhurtsanothershowssomesenseofhisowndemeritbyatleastofferinganapology。Yetwhyshouldhemakeanapologymorethananyoneelse？Itisbecauseheisawarethattheimpartialspectatorwillfeelsomesympathywiththenatural，butunjust，resentmentofthepersonhehasaccidentallyinjured。

Butthenegligencedisplayedinanyactionmaybesogreatastocallnotmerelyforblameandcensure，butforactualpunishment。Forwemaysofarenterintotheresentmentfeltbyonemanonaccountofanunintendedinjurydonetohimbyanother，astoapproveofhisinflictingapunishmentontheoffenderwhichwouldhaveseemedinexcessofthedemeritofhisoffencehadnounluckyconsequencesensued。Forinstance，thoughnothingwouldappearmoreshockingtoournaturalsenseofequitythantoexecuteamanmerelyforhavingcarelesslythrownastoneintothestreetwithouthurtinganybody，yet，ifthestonehappenedtokillanybody，sogreatwouldbetheeffectofthisaccidentonourmoralsentimentsthat，thoughtheman"sfollyandinhumanitywouldnotbegreaterinonecasethanintheother，weshouldnotconsidertheseverestpunishmenttoohardforhim。

Grossnegligenceis，therefore，inlawalmostthesameasmaliciousdesign。Lataculpapropedolumest。

Butourmoralsentimentsarcconsiderablyaffected，notonlybythefactoftheprosperityoradversityofthepersonwhoseconductwejudge，andbytheinfluenceoffortuneoraccidentontheresultofhisintentions，buttheyarealsogreatlymodifiedbythosetwogreatprinciplesofCustomandFashion，whichhavecausedsowideadifferenceofopinionaboutwhatisblameableorpraiseworthytoprevailindifferentagesandnations。

Forthevirtuesofthesavagestatearedifferentfromthoseofthecivilizedstate，thevirtuesofoneprofessionaredifferentfromthoseofanother，andthoseagainwhichweadmireinyoutharedifferentfromthosewelookforinoldage。

Thisfactisduetotheinfluenceofcustom，oroffashion，whichisaspeciesofcustom，asthecustomofpersonsofhighrankorcharacter。

Forboththeseaffectourmoralsentiments，albeitinalessdegree，yetinexactlythesamewaythattheyaffectourideasandfeelingsaboutbeautyinallobjectssubmittedtoourobservation。

Theinfluenceofcustomonourideasofbeautyisverygreat。Forwhenevertwoobjectshavebeenseeninfrequentconjunctiontogether，theimaginationacquiresahabitofpassingeasilyfromtheonetotheother；andthus，fromthemerehabitofexpectingtoseeonewhenweseetheother，thoughthereshouldbenorealbeautyintheirunion，weareconsciousofanimproprietywhentheychancetobeseparated。Ifevenasuitofclothesiswithoutsomeinsignificantbutusualornament，suchasabutton，weareinsomemeasuredispleasedbyitsabsence。

Thefashionofthingschangeswitharapidityproportionedtothedurablenessoftheirmaterial。Themodesoffurniturechangelessrapidlythanthoseofdress，becausefurnitureisgenerallymoredurable；butinfiveorsixyearsitgenerallyundergoesacompleterevolution，andeverymanseesitsfashionchangeinmanydifferentwayseveninhisownlifetime。Buttheproductionsofsuchartsasmusic，poetry，orarchitecture，beingmuchmorelasting，thefashionorcustom，whichprevailsnolessoverthemthanoverwhateverelseistheobjectoftaste，maycontinueunchangedforamuchlongertime。Abuildingmayendureforages，abeautifulairmaybehandeddownthroughgenerations，apoemmaylastaslongastheworld，andthustheymayallsetthefashionoftheirparticularstyleortastemuchlongerthanthedesignofaparticularmodeofdressorfurniture。

Itisonlybecauseofthegreaterpermanenceoftheirfashion，whichpreventsourhavingmuchexperienceofanychangeinthem，thatmakesitlesseasyforustorecognizethattheruleswethinkoughttobeobservedineachofthefineartsarenomorefoundedonreasonandthenatureofthingsthantheyareinthematterofourfurnitureanddress。

Inarchitecture，forinstance，noreasoncanbeassignedbeyondhabitandcustomfortheproprietyofattachingtoeachofthefiveorderstheirpeculiarornaments。Theeye，havingbeenusedtoassociateacertainornamentationwithacertainorder，wouldbeoffendedatmissingtheirconjunction；butitisinconceivablethat，priortoestablishedcustom，fivehundredotherformsshouldnothavesuitedthoseproportionsequallywell。

Itisthesameinpoetry。Theancientsthoughtthatacertainspeciesofversewasbynatureappropriatedtoaparticularspeciesofwriting，accordingtothesentimentorcharacterintendedtobedescribed。Onekindofversewasfitforgraveandanotherforgaythemes，norcouldeitherbeinterchangedwithoutthegreatestimpropriety。YetthatwhichistheverseofburlesqueinEnglishistheheroicverseinFrench，simplybecause"customhasmadetheonenationassociatetheideasofgravity，sublimity，andseriousnesswiththatmeasurewhichtheotherhasconnectedwithwhateverisgay，flippant，andludicrous。"

Custominfluencesourjudgmentnolesswithregardtothebeautyofnaturalobjects；andtheproportionswhichweadmireinonekindofanimalarequitedifferentfromthoseweadmireinanother。Everyclassofthingshasabeautyofitsown，distinctfromthatofeveryotherspecies。

AdamSmithstopsshort，however，ofadoptingthetheory，soablyadvocatedinthelastcenturybytheJesuitBuffier，andfollowedbySirJoshuaReynolds，thatcustomisthesoleprincipleofbeauty，andthatthebeautyofeveryobjectconsistssimplyinthatformandcolourwhichismostmoralineveryparticularclassofthings。AccordingtoBuffier，ineachspeciesofcreatures，thatformwasmostbeautifulwhichborethestrongestcharacterofthegeneralfabricofitsspecies，andhadthestrongestresemblancetothegreaternumberoftheindividualswithwhichitwasclassed。Hencethemostcustomaryformwasthemostbeautiful，andmuchpracticewasneededtojudgeofthebeautyofdistinctspeciesofthings，ortoknowwhereinthemiddleormostusualformconsisted。Hence，too，differentideasofbeautyexistedindifferentcountries，wheredifferenceofclimateproduceddifferenceoftype。AdamSmithsofaragreeswiththisdoctrineastoacknowledgethatthereisscarcelyanyexternalformsobeautifulastoplease，ifquitecontrarytocustom，noranysodeformedasnottobeagreeable，ifuniformlysupportedbyit；buthealsoarguesthat，independentlyofcustom，wearepleasedbytheappearanceoftheutilityofanyformbyitsfitnessforthepurposesforwhichitwasintended。Certaincolours，moreover，aremoreagreeablethanothers，eventhefirsttimetheyarebeheldbyus；andthoughhedoesnotlaythesamestressonsmoothnessasBurkedid，whoheldthatnothingwasbeautifulthatwasnotsmooth，healsoadmitsthatasmoothsurfaceisnaturallymoreagreeablethanaroughone。

Theinfluenceofcustomandfashionuponourideasofbeautygenerallybeingsogreatashasbeenexplained，whatistheirinfluenceuponourideasofbeautyofconduct？Tothistheansweris，thattheirinfluenceisperfectlysimilarinkind，thoughnotsogreat，orratherlesspotent，overmoralsthanitisoveranythingelse。Althoughthereisnoformofexternalobjectstowhichcustomwillnotreconcileus，norfashionrenderagreeabletous，thecharactersortheconductofaNerooraClaudiusarewhatnocustomcanevermakeagreeable，orotherthantheobjectsofourhatredorderision；forthesentimentsofmoralapprobationanddisapprobationarefoundedonthestrongestpassionsofhumannature，and，thoughtheycanbewarpt，theycanneverbeperverted。

Justascustomdiminishesoursenseoftheimproprietyof"thingswhichweareaccustomedtoseetogether，asinthecaseofabsurdityofdress，sofamiliarityfromyouthupwardswithviolence，falsehood，andinjusticetakesawayallsenseoftheenormityofsuchconduct；and，ontheotherhand，whencustomandfashioncoincidewiththeprinciplesofrightandwrong，theyenhanceourmoralideasandincreaseourabhorrenceforeverythingevil。"Thosewhohavebeeneducatedinwhatisreallygoodcompanynotinwhatiscommonlycalledsuchwhohavebeenaccustomedtoseenothinginthepersonswhomtheyesteemedandlivedwithbutjustice，modesty，humanityandgoodorder，aremoreshockedwithwhateverseemstobeinconsistentwiththeruleswhichthosevirtuesprescribe。"

Customaffordsanexplanationofthedifferentideasofgoodconductprevalentindifferentdegreesofcivilization。Foreveryageandcountrylookuponthatdegreeofeachqualitywhichismostusualinthoseamongthemselveswhoaremostesteemedasthegoldenmeanofthatparticulartalentorvirtue。Theirsentimentsconcerningthedegreeofeachqualitythatdeservespraiseorblamevaryaccordingtothedegreewhichismostcommonintheirowncountryandtimes；thus，thatdegreeofpolitenesswhichmightbethoughteffeminateadulationinRussiamightberegardedasbarbarousrudenessinFrance。

Ingeneral，thestyleofmannersprevalentinanynationisthatwhichismostsuitabletoitssituation。Thatwhichismostsuitablebeing，then，thatwhichisnaturallymostcom-mon，differentstandardsarisewithregardtothegeneralproprietyofbehaviour。Asavage，incontinualdanger，orexposedtofrequentwant，acquiresahardinessofcharacter，aninsensibilitytothesufferingsofhimselforothers，whichismostsuitabletothecircumstancesofhissituation，andwhichaffordsaverydifferentstandardofself-commandthanthatwhichiseitherusualornecessaryincivilizedlife。Thegeneralsecurityandhappinesswhichprevailinagesofculture，byaffordinglittleexercisetocontemptofdanger，ortotheenduranceofpainorhunger，enablethevirtueswhicharefoundedonhumanitytobemorecultivatedthanthosewhicharefoundedonself-denial；sothattocomplainwheninpain，togrieveindistress，tobeovercomebyloveoranger，arenotregardedasweaknesses，astheywouldbeinsavagelife，norasaffectingtheessentialpartsofaman"scharacter。

Inthedifferentprofessionsandagesoflifethesameinfluenceofcustommaybetraced。Ineachrankandprofessionweexpectadegreeofthosemannerswhichexperiencehastaughtustolookforinthem。Asineachspeciesofnaturalobjectswearepleasedwiththeconformitytothegeneraltype，soineachspeciesofmenwearepleased，"iftheyhaveneithertoomuchnortoolittleofthecharacterwhichusuallyaccompaniestheirparticularconditionandsituation。"Ourapprobationofacertainkindofmilitarycharacterisfoundedentirelyonhabit；forwearetaughtbycustomtoannextothemilitaryprofession"thecharacterofgaiety，levity，andsprightlyfreedom，aswellasofsomedegreeofdissipation。"Whateverbehaviourwehavebeenaccustomedtoseeinanyorderofmen，comestobesoassociatedwiththatorder，thatwheneverweseetheoneweexpecttoseetheother，andarepleasedordisappointedaccordingasweseeitornot。Nevertheless，theremayexistaproprietyofprofessionalbehaviour，independentofthecustomwhichleadsustoexpectit；andwefeelthat，apartfromallcustom，thereisaproprietyinthegravityofmannerswhichcustomhasallottedtotheprofessionofaclergyman。