第4章

2。Where，however，apassiontakesitsoriginfromaparticularturnoftheimagination，theimaginationofothers，nothavingacquiredthatparticularturn，cannotsympathizewiththepassion，andsofindsitinsomemeasureridiculous。Thisisparticularlythecasewiththepassionoflove。Wemaysympathizewithourfriend"sresentment，ifhehasbeeninjured，orenterintohisgratitude，ifhehasreceivedabenefit；butifheisinlove，howeverreasonablewemaythinkit，"thepassionappearstoeverybody，butthemanwhofeelsit，entirelydisproportionedtothevalueoftheobject；andlove，thoughitispardonedinacertainage，becauseweknowitisnatural，isalwayslaughedatbecausewecannotenterintoit。Allseriousandstrongexpressionsofitappearridiculoustoathirdperson；andthoughalovermaybegoodcompanytohismistress，heissotonobodyelse。Hehimselfissensibleofthis；and，aslongashecontinuesinhissobersenses，endeavourstotreathisownpassionwithrailleryandridicule。Itistheonlystyleinwhichwecaretohearofit，becauseitistheonlystyleinwhichweourselvesaredisposedtotalkofit。"

Ourphilosopherhoweveradmits，thatthoughwecannotproperlyenterintotheattachmentofthelover，wereadilysympathizewithhisexpectationsofhappiness。Thoughhispassioncannotinterestus，hissituationofmingledhopeandfearinterestsus，justasinthedescriptionofaseavoyageitisnotthehungerofthecrewwhichinterestsusbutthedistresswhichitoccasionsthem。Whenloveisinterestingonthestage，itissosimplyfromthedistressitoccasions。Asceneoftwolovers，inperfectsecurity，expressingtheirmutualfondnessforoneanother，wouldexcitelaughterandnotsympathy。Suchasceneisneverenduredbutfromconcernforthedangersanddifficultiesforeseeninthesequel，orfrominterestinthesecondarypassionsfear，shame，anddespairwhichareassociatedwithloveasasituation，andwithwhichalonewecanreallysympathize。

3。Inthethirdplacecometheunsocialpassions，suchashatredandresentment，withalltheirmodifications。Theyalsoarefoundedontheimagination，buthavetobeconsider-ablymodifiedbeforetheytouchthatpointofproprietywithwhichanimpartialspectatorcansympathize。

Forthesepassionsgiverisetoadoublesympathy，orratherdivideoursympathybetweenthepersonwhofeelsthemandthepersonwhoistheobjectofthem。Thoughwemaysympathizewithhimwhohasreceivedaprovocation，wealsosympathizewithhisadversary，ifhebecomestheobjectofundueresentment。Weenterintothesituationofboth，andthefearwefeelwiththeonemoderatestheresentmentwefeelwiththeother。Henceforresentmenttoattainthemeanofpropriety，itmustbemorereducedfromitsnaturaldegreethanalmostanyotherpassion；andthegreaterrestraintamanputsonhisanger，themorewillmankind，whohaveaverystrongsenseoftheinjuriesdonetoanother，enterintoandbearwithhisresentment。

Theseunsocialpassionsare，however，necessarypartsofhumannature，andasontheonehandwecannotsympathizewithexcessiveindignation，soontheotherhandweblameanddespiseaman"whotamelysitsstillandsubmitstoinsults，"fromourinabilitytocomprehendhisinsensibilityandwantofspirit。Thesepassionsarethereforeusefultotheindividual，asservingtoprotecthimfrominsultandinjury；butthereisstillsomethingdisagreeableinthemwhichmakestheirappearanceinothersthenaturalobjectofouraversion。Itissoevenwhentheyaremostjustlyprovoked。

Hencetheyaretheonlypassions，themereexpressionofwhichdoesnotcommandoursympathiestillweknowthecause。Thevoiceofmisery，orthesightofgladness，atoncecommunicatestouscorrespondingsentiments；

butthetonesofhatredorresentmentinspireusnaturallywithfearandaversion。Forthatreasonthemusic，whichimitatessuchpassions，isnotthemostagreeable，itsperiodsbeing，unlikethosewhichexpressjoyorgrieforlove，"irregular，sometimesveryshort，sometimesverylong，anddistinguishedbynoregularpauses。"

Forallthesereasonsitisverydifficulttoadjustresentmenttothepointofproprietydemandedbythesympathyofothers。Theprovocationmustbesuchthatweshouldincurcontemptfornotresentingit；andsmalleroffencesarebetterneglected。Weshouldresentmorefromasensethatmankindexpectitofusthanfromtheimpulseofthepassionitself。Thereisnopassionconcerningwhoseindulgenceweshouldmorecarefullyconsiderthesentimentsofthecoolandimpartialspectator。Magnanimity，oraregardtomaintainourownrankanddignity，canaloneennobleitsexpression；

andweshouldshowsfromourwholemanner，thatpassionhasnotextinguishedourhumanity，andthat，ifweyieldtorevenge，wedosowithreluctanceandfromnecessity。

4。Withregardtothesocialpassions，suchasgenerosity，humanity，kindness，compassion，orfriendship，thefactsarequitedifferent。Notonlyisthemereexpressionofthesesentimentsagreeable，buttheyaremadedoublyagreeablebyadivisionofthespectator"ssympathiesbetweenthepersonwhofeelsthemandthepersonwhoistheobjectofthem。Weenterwithpleasureintothesatisfactionofboth，intotheagreeableemotionsofthemanwhoisgenerousorcompassionate，andintotheagreeableemotionsofthemanwhoreceivesthebenefitofhisgenerosityorcompassion。

Henceinthesepassionsthepointofproprietyliesnearertotheexcessthantothedefect，justasintheoppositepassionsitlaynearertothedefect。"Thereissomethingagreeableevenintheweaknessoffriendshipandhumanity，"andifweblamethetootendermother，thetooindulgentfather，orthetoogenerousfriend，itisalwayswithsympathyandkindness，andwithnofeelingofhatredoraversion。

5。Betweenthesocialandtheunsocialpassionstheselfishpassionsoccupyamiddleplace。Thesearejoyandgriefforourownpersonalgoodorbadfortune。Sincenooppositesympathycaneverinterestthespectatoragainstthem，theirexcessiveexpressionisneversodisagreeableasexcessiveresentment；andforthereasonthatnodoublesympathycaneverinterestusforthem，theyareneversoagreeableasproperhumanityandbenevolence。

Weare，AdamSmiththinks，naturallydisposedtosympathizemorewithourneighbours"smalljoysthanwiththeirgreatones，andmorewiththeirgreatsorrowsthanwiththeirsmallones。Amanraisedsuddenlytoamuchhigherpositionmaybesurethatthecongratulationsofhisbestfriendsarenotperfectlysincere。Ifhehasanyjudgment，heissensibleofthis，and，insteadofappearingelated，endeavourstosmotherhisjoy，andkeepdownhiselevationofmind。Heaffectsthesameplainnessofdress，andthesamemodestyofbehaviour，whichbecamehimbefore，andredoubleshisattentionstohisformerfriends。Sohisconductmaymeetwithourapproval，for"weexpect，itseems，thatheshouldhavemoresympathywithourenvyandaversiontohishappinessthanwehavewithhishappiness。"

Withthesmallerjoysoflifeitisdifferent。Theabilityofthespectatorstosympathizewiththeseplacesthepointofproprietyintheirindulgencemuchhigher。Wereadilysympathizewithhabitualcheerfulness，whichspreadsitself"，asitwere，byinfection。Henceitishardlypossibletoexpresstoomuchsatisfactioninthelittleoccurrencesof"commonlife，inthecompanyofyesterdayevening，intheentertainmentgenerally，inwhatwassaidordone，"andinallthosefrivolousnothingswhichfillupthevoidofhumanlife。"

Itisotherwisewithgrief，forwhilesmallvexationsexcitenosympathy，deepafflictioncallsforthegreatest。Amanwillmeetwithlittlesympathy，whoishurtifhiscookorbutlerhavefailedintheleastarticleoftheirduty；whoisvexedifhisbrotherhummedatuneallthetimehewastellingastory；whoisputoutofhumourbythebadnessoftheweatherwheninthecountry，bythebadnessoftheroadswhenuponajourney，orbywantofcompanyanddulnesswhenintown。Griefispainfultoourselvesortoothers，andweshouldendeavoureithernottoconceiveitatallabouttrifles，ortoshakeitoffifwedo。Thereisacertain"maliceinmankindwhichnotonlypreventsallsympathywithlittleuneasinesses，butrenderstheminsomemeasurediverting。"

Butthoughwealltakedelightinraillery，andinthesmallvexationswhichoccurtoourcompanions，oursympathywiththemincaseofdeepdistressisverystrongandverysincere。"Ifyoulabourunderanysignalcalamity；

ifbysomeextraordinarymisfortuneyouarefallenintopoverty，intodiseases，intodisgraceanddisappointment……youmaygenerallydependuponthesincerestsympathyofallyourfriends，and，asfarasinterestandhonourwillpermit，upontheirkindestassistancetoo。Butifyourmisfortuneisnotofthisdreadfulkind，ifyouhaveonlybeenalittlebaulkedinyourambition，ifyouhaveonlybeenjiltedbyyourmistress，orareonlyhenpeckedbyyourwife，layyouraccountwiththerailleryofallyouracquaintance。"

CHAPTERIV。THEFEELINGOFMERITANDDEMERIT。

Thesenseoftheproprietyorimproprietyofamoralactionorsentimentis，accordingtoAdamSmith，onlyonesideofthefactofmoralapprobation，asenseoftheirmeritordemeritconstitutingtheotherside。Anactionorsentimentisproperorimproperinrelationtoitscause，orthemotivewhichexcitesit，whilstitismeritoriousorthecontraryinrelationtoitseffect，orinaccordancewithitsbeneficialorhurtfultendency。

Itisimportanttonoticethisdistinction，foritisaprotest，asAdamSmithhimselfdeclares，againstthetheoriesofDr。HutchesonandHume，who，hecomplains，hadconsideredtoomuchthetendencyofaffections，theirgoodorbadresults，whilstneglectingtherelationinwhichtheystoodtotheircauses。Thiswastooverlookthefactsofcommonlife，sinceaperson"sconductandsentimentsaregenerallyregardedunderboththeseaspects，amanreceivingblameforexcessoflove，orgrief，orresentment，notonlybyreasonoftheruinouseffectstheytendtoproduce，butalsoonaccountofthelittleoccasionthatwasgivenforthem。Itisthewantofproportionbetweenapassionanditscause，aswellasthesenseofitsdisastrouseffects，whichmakeupthewholecharacterofmoraldisapprobation。

Whilstpraiseorblameareattachedtothefirstaspectofanactionorsentiment，astrongerfeelingofsympathyorantipathyattachesitselftoeitherinconnexionwiththeireffects，afeelingthattheydeserverewardorpunishment，afeelinginotherwordsoftheirmeritordemerit。

Asgratitudeisthefeelingwhichmostdirectlypromptsustorewardanotherman，andresentmentthatwhichmostdirectlypromptsustopunishhim，anactionwillcallforrewardorpunishmentaccordingasitistheobjectofeitherofthesefeelings。Themeasure，therefore，ofthemeritordemeritofanyactionwillbethefeelingofgratitudeorresentmentitexcites。

Buthereagaintheprincipleofsympathymustcomeintoplay，todecideontherightfulnessofthegratitudeorresentment。Anactioncanonlyseemmeritoriousorthecontrary，asdeservingofrewardorpunishment，ifitistheproperandrightobjectofgratitudeorresentment；andonlythatgratitudeorresentmentcanbeproperwhichcommandsthesympathyoftheimpartialspectator。Thatman"sactiondeservesrewardasmeritoriouswhotosomebodyistheobjectofagratitudewhicheveryhumanheartisdisposedtobeattimeto，whilsthisactionseemstodeservepunishmentasbadwhotosomebodyistheobjectofaresentmentwhicheveryreasonablemancansympathizewithandadopt。Accordingaseverybodywhohearsofanyactionwouldwishtoseeitrewardedorpunishedmayitfairlybeaccountedmeritoriousorthereverse。

Inregarding，then，thebeneficialorhurtfultendencyofactions，oursenseoftheirmeritordemerit，duetosympathywiththegratitudeortheresentmenttheyrespectivelyexcitesappearstoariseinthefollowingway。

Sympathizingaswedowiththejoyofothersinprosperity，wealsojointheminthesatisfactionwithwhichtheyregardthecauseoftheirgoodfortune。Ifthecausehasbeenaman，thisismoreespeciallythecase。Weregardhiminthesameengaginglightinwhichweimaginehemustappeartotheobjectofhisbounty，whilstoursympathywiththejoyofthelatterinspiresusalsowithareflectionofthesamegratitudehefeels。

Inthesamemannerwesympathizenotonlywiththedistressorsorrowofanother，butwiththeaversionhefeelstowardsthecauseofit。Whenweseeonemanoppressedorinjuredbyanother，oursympathywiththesuffereronlyanimatesourfellow-feelingwithhisresentmentagainsthisoppressor。

Soweevenenterintotheimaginaryresentmentoftheslain，andbyanillusivesympathywiththatresentmentwhichweknowhewouldfeel，werehealive，exactvengeancefromthecriminalwhomurderedhim。

Butalthoughoursympathywiththebeneficialresultsofanactmaythusleadustojoininthegratitudeitoccasions，andsotoregarditasmeritoriousordeservingofreward，thisisonly，ashasbeensaid，onesideoraspectofcompletemoralapprobation。Toconstitutethelatter，asenseoftheproprietyofanactionmustbejoinedtoasenseofitsmerit。；andanactionisonlythenreallygoodwhenwecansympathizewiththemotivesoftheagentaswellaswiththegratitudehisconductproduces。

Whereverwecannotenterintotheaffectionsoftheagent，whereverwecannotrecognizeanyproprietyinthemotiveswhichinfluencedhim，wefailtosympathizewiththegratitudeofthepersonhehasbefriended。

Where，forinstance，thegreatestbenefitshavebeenconferredfromthemosttrivialmotives，aswhereamangivesanestatetoanothersimplybecausehisnameorhissurnamehappentobethesameashisown，littlegratitudeseemsdue；andcon-sequentlytheaction，thoughbeneficialinitstendency，sinceitfailstocommandourcompletesympathy，failstocommandourcompleteapprobation。

Soontheotherhand，howeverhurtfulintheirtendencyaman"sactionsorintentionsmaybe，ifwesympathizewithhismotives，thatis，ifwelookuponhimasintheright，wecanfeelnosympathywiththeresentmentofthepersoninjuriouslyaffectedbyhim。Ifhesuffersnomorethanourownsympatheticindignationwouldhavepromptedustoinflictuponhim，wehavenofellow-feelingwithhissuffering，andconsequentlynosenseofthedemeritoftheactionheregardswithresentment。Itwouldbeimpossible，forinstance，tosympathizewiththeresentmentexpressedbyamurdereragainsthisjudge。Sothattoconstitutethesentimentofcompletemoraldisapprobation，theremustbeimproprietyofmotiveonthepartoftheagentaswellasahurtfulresulttosomeoneelse；or，inotherwords，foranactiontobepronouncedbyoursympatheticimaginationcompletelybad，itmustbebothimproperinitsmotiveandinjuriousinitsresult。

Itisnotenoughforittobesimplyinjurious。

Itresultsthereforefromthisanalysis，thatacompletesenseofthemeritofanaction，orthefeelingofperfectmoralapprobation，isreally"acompoundedsentiment，"madeupoftwodistinctsympatheticemotions，namely，ofadirectsympathywiththesentimentsoftheagent，andanindirectsympathywiththegratitudeofthosewhoreceivethebenefitofhisactions。

TakeoursenseofthegooddesertofaparticularcharacterinhistoryScipio，Timoleon，orAristides。Inimaginationwebecomethoseverypersons，and，byadirectsympathywiththem，enterintotheirdesigns，andfeelthesamegeneroussentimentsthattheyfelt。Butwealsobyanindirectsympathyfeelthebenefitoftheirgreatactions，andenterintothegratitudeofthosewhoexperiencedthem。Thesympatheticemotionsofgratitudeandlove，whichwethusfeelwhenwebringhometoourownbreastthesituationofthoseoriginallyconcerned，accountforourwholesenseofthemeritofsuchactions，andforourdesireoftheirmeetingwithafittingrecompence。

Inthesamewayacompletesenseofthedemeritofanactionisacompoundedsentimentmadeupoftwodistinctemotions；ofadirectantipathytothesentimentsoftheagent，andanindirectsympathywiththeresentmentofthesufferer。WefeeladirectantipathytothedetestablesentimentswhichactuatedaBorgiaoraNero，whilewesympathizeindirectlywiththeresentmentofthosetheyafflicted。Oursenseoftheatrocityoftheirconduct，andourdelightinhearingofitspunishmentinshort，ourwholefeelingofilldesert，andofthejusticeofinflictingevilonthepersonwhoisguiltyofit，andofmakinghimgrieveinhisturnarisesfromthesympatheticindignationwhichboilsupinourbreastwheneverwethoroughlybringhometoourselvesthecaseofthesufferer。

Norisitanydegradationofoursenseofthedemeritofactionstoascribeittooursympathywiththeresentmentofanother。Resentmentisineveryrespectthecounterpartofgratitude，andifoursenseofmeritarisesfromoursympathywiththeone，oursenseofdemeritmaywellarisefromoursympathywiththeother。Resentment，too，asaprincipleofhumannature，isonlyevilwhenitappearsinexcessasrevenge；andasitisexcessiveahundredtimesforoncethatitismoderate，weareapttoconsideritaltogetherdetestable，becauseinitsordinarymanifestationitisso。

Butitisnotdisapprovedofwhenproperlyhumbled，andentirelybroughtdowntothelevelofthesympatheticindignationofthespectator。Whenweasbystandersentertainananimositycorrespondingtothatofthesufferer，whenhisresentmentinnorespectexceedsourown，whennowordnorgestureescapeshimthatdenotesanemotionmoreviolentthanwecanshare，andwhenheneveraimsatinflictingapunishmentsevererthanthatweshouldrejoicetoseeinflictedorwouldinflictourselves，itisimpossiblethatweshouldnotentirelyapproveofhissentiments。

ItappearstheninAdamSmith"stheory，thattheelementofmoralityinactionsonlyreallyarisesfromreferencetotheirtendency。Thesentimentoraffectionoftheheartfromwhichallactionresultsmayinrelationtoitscauseormotiveberegardedasunsuitableordisproportionate，accordingasitexceedsorfallsshortofthatmeanpointwithwhichthegeneralobservercansympathize。Itmaybethusapprovedordisapprovedasproperorimproper，butitisnotapplaudedorcondemnedasmoralorimmoral。

Anangerwhichisoutofproportiontothecauseofitsprovocation，astateofjoyorsorrowoutofkeepingwiththeirorigin，agenerosityorbenevolencethatseemexcessive，areblamednotasimmoral，butasoutofharmonywiththefeelingsofaspectator。Sowithreferencetothebodilypassions，itistheofficeoftemperancetoconfinethemwithinthoselimits"whichgrace，whichpropriety，whichdelicacy，andmodestyrequire，"(notwithinthosewhichmoralityrequire)。Itisonlywhenregardispaidtotheeffectswhichflowfromdifferentactions，thatastrongerfeelingappears，afeelingnotmerelyofproprietyorim-propriety，butoftheirmeritordemerit，orinotherwords，oftheirmoralworthorthecontrary。

Itisonlyactionsofabeneficenttendency，whichproceedfrompropermotives，thatarethusmeritorious，forsuchactionsaloneseemtodeserveareward，fromthegratitudetheycommandfromaspectatorthroughsympathy。Anditisonlyactionsofahurtfultendency，whichproceedfromimpropermotives，thatseemreallywicked，fortheyaloneseemtodeserveapunishment，fromtheresentmenttheyinspireaspectatorwithbysympathy。

AdamSmithillustrateshistheorythatthewrongfulnessordemeritofactionsdependsonoursenseoftheirdeservingtobepunishedbythetwovirtuesofbeneficenceandjustice。Themerewantofbeneficence，theneglecttodothegoodexpectedofone，maygiverisetofeelingsofdislikeanddis-approbation，butasitdoesnorealpositiveevil，itprovokesnofeelingofsympatheticresentment。Takeacaseoftheblackestingratitude，whereamanfailstorecompensehisbenefactor，whenthelatterstandsingreatneedofhisassistance。Everyimpartialspectatorrejectsallfellow-feelingwiththeselfishnessofhismotives，andheistheproperobjectofthehighestdisapprobation。Stillsincehedoesnopositivehurt，butonlyneglectstodothegoodhemight，heistheobjectofhatred，notofresentment，twopassionswhichdifferinthisrespect，thatwhilsttheformeriscalledforthbyimproprietyofsentimentandbehaviour，thelatterisonlyprovokedbyactionswhichtendtodorealandpositivehurttosomeparticularpersons。Ingratitudethereforecannotbepunished。

Itisimproper，andmeetswiththedisapprobationofthespectator，butitisnotwrongorimmoral，in。thesenseinwhichitwouldbe，ifitwentastepfurther，andraisedafeelingofresentmentbyactualhurtfulnessoftendencyagainstsomebody。

Theproperdegreeofbeneficence，moreover，asthatwhichordinaryexperienceleadsustoexpect，andalsomakesthemeasureofourpraiseorblame，isinitselfneitherpraiseworthynorblameable。Asitisonlythedefectofordinarybeneficencewhichincursourblame，soitisonlytheexcessofitwhichdeservesourpraise。Afather，orson，orbrother，whobehavestothecorrespondentrelationneitherbetternorworsethantheaverageofmankinddo，seemstodeserveneitherpraisenorblame。Hisconduct，thoughitmayattainthatpointatwhichwerecognizeitsproprietyandsocommandourapprobation，commandsnothingmore。Itisonlywhenwearesurprisedbyunexpected，thoughproperkindness，orbyunexpectedandimproperunkindness，thatitattainsthepointofbeingpraiseworthyorthereverse。

Beneficence，whenitthusattainsahighdegree，whenitbecomesproductiveofthegreatestgood，atoncebecomestheobjectoftheliveliestgratitude，appearstobedeservingofthehighestreward，andconsequentlyappearsasmeritoriousandpraiseworthy。

Thevirtueofjusticediffersfromthatofbeneficenceinthattheviolationofit，bydoingrealandpositivehurttosomeparticularpersons，frommotivesthataredisapprovedof，isthenaturalobjectofresentment，andcallsinconsequenceforpunishment。Resentmentwasgiventous"bynaturefordefence，andfordefenceonly。Itisthesafeguardofjusticeandthesecurityofinnocence。Itpromptsustobeatoffthemischiefwhichisattemptedtobedonetous，andtoretaliatethatwhichisalreadydone，thattheoffendermaybemadetorepentofhisinjustice，andthatothers，throughfearofthelikepunishment，maybeterrifiedfrombeingguiltyofthelikeoffence。"Asmankindgenerallyapproveoftheviolenceemployedtoavengethehurtwhichis，donebyinjustice，sotheymuchmoreapproveofthatwhichisemployedtopre-ventandbeatofftheinjury，andtorestraintheoffenderfromhurtinghisneighbour。Eventhepersonguiltyofintendinginjusticefeelsthatforcemaybeusedagainsthim，bothbythepersonheisabouttoinjure，orbyothers，eithertoobstructtheexecutionofhiscrime，ortopunishhimwhenhehasexecutedit。

Thisfactaccountsforthegreatdistinctionbetweenjusticeandalltheothersocialvirtues，thatwefeelahigherobligationtoactaccordingtojusticethanaccordingtofriendship，charity，orgenerosity；andthat，whilethepracticeofthelattervirtuesseemstobeleftinsomemeasuretoourownchoice，wefeelourselvestobe"inapeculiarmannertied，bound，andobligedtotheobservationofjustice。"Forwefeelthatforcemay，withtheutmostpropriety，andwiththeapprobationofmankind，bemadeuseoftocompelustoobservetherulesoftheone，butnottofollowthepreceptsoftheothers。

Itisthisfeeling，then，ofthelegitimateuseofforceandpunishmentwhichmakesusviewwithsomuchstrongerasenseofdisapprobationactionswhichareunjustthatis，injurioustoothersthanactionswhicharemerelybreachesofthatproprietywhichweliketoseeobservedinthevariousrelationshipsthatconnectmentogether。Afatherwhofailsintheordinarydegreeofparentalaffectiontoason，orasonwhoiswantinginfilialrespectforhisfather，oramanwhoshutsuphisheartagainstcompassion，incur，indeed，blame；butnotthatsuperiordegreeofblamewhichrelatestoactionsofapositivelyhurtfultendency。

Butthoughthissuperiorformofdisapprobationattachesitselftoactsofinjustice，justasasuperiorformofapprobationattachesitselftoactnsofgreatbeneficence，thereisnomoremeritintheobservanceofjusticethanthereisdemeritintheneglectofbeneficence。"Thereis，nodoubt，aproprietyinthepracticeofjustice，anditmeritsuponthataccountalltheapprobationwhichisduetopropriety。Butasitdoesnorealpositivegood，itisentitledtoverylittlegratitude。Merejusticeis，uponmostoccasions，butanegativevirtue，andonlyhindersusfromhurtingourneighbour。Themanwhobarelyabstainsfromviolatingeitherthepersonortheestateorthereputationofhisneighbours，hassurelyverylittlepositivemerit……Wemayoftenfulfilalltherulesofjusticebysittingstillanddoingnothing。"Asbeforeexplained，thesenseofthemeritofanactionisdifferentfromthesenseofitspropriety，andunlessanactionhasboththesecharacteristics，itdoesnotreallysatisfytheconditionsofmorality。

Inproportion，therefore，totheresentmentnaturallyfeltbyasuffererfrominjusticeisthesympatheticindignationofthespectator，andthesenseofguiltintheagent。Buttheresentmentitself，beingproportionedtotheevildonebyanact，thedemeritofanactmaybemeasuredbytheevilitcauses。Deathbeingthegreatestevilonemancandotoanother，andconsequentlyincurringthehighestindignationfromthoseconnectedwiththeslainman，takesrankastheworstofallcrimes。Injuriestoaman"spropertyandpossessionsbeinglesshurtfultohimthananinjurytohislifeorperson，theftandrobberyranknexttomurderinatrocity。

Andasitisasmallereviltobedisappointedofwhatwehaveonlyinexpectationthantobedeprivedofwhatwehaveinpossession，breachofcontractisalessheinouscrimethanonewhichattacksaman"sactualproperty。

CHAPTERV。INFLUENCEOFPROSPERITYORADVERSITY，CHANCE，AND