第6章

Inthesamewaydifferentmannersareassignedtothedifferentperiodswhichmarkhumanlife。Inyouthwelookforthatsensibility，gaiety，andvivacitywhichexperienceteachesustoexpectatthatage；andattheextremeoflife，acertaingravityandsedatenessisthecharacterwhichcustomteachesusisbothmostnaturalandmostrespectable。

Butneverthelessitisnecessarynottoexaggeratetheeffectsofcustomandfashiononourmoralsentiments；foritismoreconcerningtheproprietyorimproprietyofparticularusagesthanaboutthingsofthegreatestimportancethattheirin-fluenceismostapttocauseperversionofjudgment。"Weexpecttruthandjusticefromanoldmanaswellasfromayoung，fromaclergymanaswellasfromanofficer；anditisinmattersofsmallmomentonlythatwelookforthedistinguishingmarksoftheirrespectivecharacters。"

Nosocietycouldsubsistamomentifcustomcouldexercisesuchperversionoverourmoralsentiments，withregardtothegeneralstyleofconductandbehaviour，asitexerciseswithregardtotheproprietyofparticularusages。UninterruptedcustompreventedthephilosophersofAthensrecognizingtheevilofinfanticide；andtosaythatathingiscommonlydoneisdailyofferedasanapologyforwhatinitselfisthemostunjustandunreasonableconduct。

CHAPTERVI。THEORYOFCONSCIENCEANDDUTY。

ThetheoryofHutcheson，thatthereexistsinmankindaninwardmoralsenseconcernedwiththedirectperceptionofmoralqualitiesinactionsjustasthesenseofhearingorseeingisconcernedwiththedirectperceptionofsoundsorobjects，orthetheoryofShaftesburythatwhatwecallconscienceisaprimaryprincipleofhumannatureirresolubleintootherfacts，isverydifferentfromthetheoryofAdamSmith，whorefersourmoralperceptivitytotheworkingsoftheinstinctofsympathy。

Havingaccountedforourmoraljudgmentsoftheactionsofothersbybringingthemtothetestofourpowertosympathizewiththem，heproceedstoexplainourmoraljudgmentsconcerningourownactsbyasortofreflexapplicationofthesameprincipleofsympathy。Oursenseofduty，ourfeelingofconscience，arisessimplyfromtheapplicationtoourownconductofthejudgmentswehavelearnedtopassuponothers。Sothattherereallyexistsnomoralfacultywhichisnotoriginallyborrowedfromwithout。

Inthesamemannerasweapproveordisapproveofanotherman"sconduct，accordingaswefeelthat，whenwebringhiscasehometoourselves，wecansympathizeornotwithhismotives；soweapproveordisapproveofourownconductaccordingaswefeelthat，bymakingourcaseinimaginationanotherman"s，hecansympathizeornotwithourmotives。Theonlywaybywhichwecanformanyjudgmentaboutourownsentimentsandmotivesisbyremovingourselvesfromourownnaturalstation，andbyviewingthematacertaindistancefromus；aproceedingonlypossiblebyendeavouringtoviewthemwiththeeyesofotherpeople，orastheyarelikelytoviewthem。Allourjudgment，therefore，concerningourselvesmustbearsomesecretreferenceeithertowhatareortowhatwethinkoughttobethejudgmentofothers。Weimagineourselvestheimpartialspectatorofourownconduct，andaccordingaswe，fromthatsituation，enterornotintothemotiveswhichinfluencedus，doweapproveorcondemnourselves。

Wedonotthereforestartwithamoralconsciousnessbywhichwelearntojudgeofothers，butfromourjudgmentsaboutotherswecometohaveamoralconsciousnessofour-selves。Ourfirstmoralcriticismsareexerciseduponthecharactersandconductofotherpeople，andbyobservingthatthesecommandeitherourpraiseorblame，andthatweour-selvesaffecttheminthesameway，webecomeanxiousinturntoreceivetheirpraiseandtoavoidtheircensure。Soweimaginewhateffectourownconductwouldhaveuponus，wereweourownimpartialspectators，suchamethodbeingtheonlylooking-glassbywhichwecanscrutinize，withtheeyesofotherpeople，theproprietyofourownconduct。

Accordinglyoursenseofpersonalmoralityisexactlyanalogoustooursenseofpersonalbeauty。Ourfirstideasofbeautyanduglinessarederivedfromtheappearanceofothers，notfromourown。Butasweareawarethatotherpeopleexerciseuponusthesamecriticismweexerciseuponthem，webecomedesiroustoknowhowfarourfiguredeservestheirblameorapprobation。

Soweendeavourbythehelpofalooking-glasstoviewourselvesatthedistanceandwiththeeyesofotherpeople，andarepleasedordispleasedwiththeresult，accordingaswefeeltheywillbeaffectedbyourappearance。

Butitisevidentthatweareonlyanxiousaboutourownbeautyoruglinessonaccountofitseffectuponothers；andthat，badwenoconnexionwithsociety，weshouldbealtogetherindifferentabouteither。Soitiswithmorality。Ifahumancreaturecouldgrowuptomanhoodinsomesolitaryplace，withoutanycommunicationwithhisownkind，"hecouldnomorethinkofhisowncharacter，oftheproprietyordemeritofhisownsentiments，ofthebeautyordeformityofhisownmind，thanofthebeautyordeformityofhisownface。"Societyisthemirrorbywhichheisenabledtoseeallthesequalitiesinhimself。Inthecountenanceandbehaviourofthoseheliveswith，whichalwaysmarkwhentheyenterintoordisapproveofhissentiments，hefirstviewstheproprietyorimproprietyofhisownpassions，andthebeautyordepravityofhisownmind。

Theconsciousnessofmerit，thefeelingofself-approbation，admitsthereforeofeasyexplanation。Virtueisamiableandmeritorious，byreferencetothesentimentsofothermen，byreasonofitsexcitingcertainsentimentsinthem；andtheconsciousnessthatitistheobjectoftheirfavourableregardsisthesourceofthatinwardtranquillityandself-satisfactionwhichattendsit，justasthesenseofincurringoppositesentimentsisthesourceofthetormentsofvice。Ifwehavedoneagenerousactionfrompropermotives，andsurveyitinthelightinwhichtheindifferentspectatorwillsurveyit，weapplaudourselvesbysympathywiththeapprobationofthissupposedimpartialjudge，whilst，byareflexsympathywiththegratitudepaidtoourselves，weareconsciousofhavingbehavedmeritoriously，ofhavingmadeourselvesworthyofthemostfavourableregardsofourfellow-men。

Remorse，ontheotherhand，arisesfromtheoppositesentiments；andshameisduetothereflectionofthesentimentsourconductwillraiseinothermen。Weagainregardour-selvesfromtheirpointofview，andsobysympathizingwiththehatredwhichtheymustentertainforourconduct，webecometheobjectofourownblameandhatred。Weenterintotheresentmentnaturallyexcitedbyourownacts，andanticipatewithfearthepunishmentbywhichsuchresentmentmayexpressitself。Thisremorseis，ofallthesentimentswhichcanenterthehumanbreast，themostdreadful；"itismadeupofshamefromthesenseoftheimproprietyofpastconduct；ofgrieffortheeffectsofit；ofpityforthosewhosufferbyit；andofthedreadandterrorofpunishmentfromtheconsciousnessofthejustlyprovokedresentmentofallrationalcreatures。"

Inthisconsciousnessoftheaccordanceordiscordanceofourconductwiththefeelingsofothersconsiststhenallthepleasureofagoodconscienceorofself-approbation，orallthepainofremorseorself-condemnation。

Theoneisbasedonourloveofpraise，whichthecomparisonofourownconductwiththatofothersnaturallyevolvesinus，andtheotheronouraversiontoblame，whicharisesinthesameway。

Butifagoodorbadconscienceconsistedsimplyinknowingourselvestobetheobjectsofpraiseorblame，wemightapproveorcondemnourselvesirrespectiveofthecorrespondenceofexternalopinionwithourrealmeritordemerit。Itisnot，therefore，merepraiseorblamethatwedesireordread，butpraise-worthinessorblame-worthiness；thatistosay，tothethatthing，which，thoughitshouldbepraisedorblamedbynobody，istheproperobjectofthosementalstates。Wedesirethepraisenotmerelyofthespectator，butoftheimpartialandwell-informedspectator。

AdamSmithdevotesconsiderableargumenttotheoriginandexplanationofthisprincipleofourmoralnature，seekinginthiswaytoraisetheaccounthegivesofconsciencetoahigherlevelthanitcouldattainasamerereflexfromthesympathiesofothersaboutourselves。Asfromtheloveoradmirationweentertainforthecharactersofothers，wecometodesiretohavesimilarsentimentsentertainedaboutourselves，weshouldhavenomoresatisfactionfromaloveoradmirationbestowedonusundeservedlythanawomanwhopaintsherfacewouldderiveanyvanityfromcomplimentspaidtohercomplexion。Praisesbestowedonuseitherforactionswehavenotperformedorformotiveswhichhavenotinfluencedus，arepraisesbestowedinrealityonanotherperson，notonourselves，andconsequentlygiveusnosortofsatisfaction。

Butforthesamereasonthatgroundlesspraisecangiveusnosolidjoy，themereabsenceofpraisedeductsnothingfromthepleasureofpraise-worthiness。

Thoughnoapprobationshouldeverreachus，wearepleasedtohaverenderedourselvestheproperobjectsofapprobation；andinthesamewaywearemortifiedatjustlyincurringblame，thoughnoblameshouldeveractuallybeattachedtous。Weviewourconductnotalwaysasthespectatoractuallydoesviewit，butashewouldviewitifheknewallthecircumstances。

Wefeelself-approbationorthereverse，bysympathywithsentimentswhichdonotindeedactuallytakeplace，butwhichonlytheignoranceofthepublicpreventsfromtakingplace，whichweknowarethenaturaleffectsofourconduct，whichourimaginationstronglyconnectswithit，andwhichweconceivethereforeasproperlybelongingtoit。Thesatisfactionwefeelwiththeapprobationwhichweshouldreceiveandenjoy，wereeverythingknown，resemblesverymuchthesatisfactionwhichmenfeelwhosacrificetheirlivestoanticipateinimaginationthepraisethatwillonlybebestowedonthemwhendead，thepraisewhichtheywouldreceiveandenjoy，weretheythemselvestolivetobeconsciousofit。

Henceself-approbation，thoughoriginallyfoundedontheimaginaryapprobationofothermen，becomesatlastindependentofsuchconfirmation，andthesenseoftheperfectproprietyofourownconductcomestoneednoexternaltestimonytoassureusofit。Buttheloveofself-approbation，whichisinfactthesameastheloveofvirtue，isstillfoundedonanimpliedreferencetotheverdictofpersonsexternaltoourselves，andthusthe"stillsmallvoice"ofconscienceresolvesitselfintotheacclamationsofmankind。

AdamSmith，inaccordancewithaleadingprincipleofhissystem，theimportanceofwhichwillbenoticedinasubsequentchapter，tracesinthisdesireonourpartforpraise-worthinessasapartfromourdesireofpraise，anintentionofNatureforthegoodofsociety。Forthoughinformingmanforsociety，sheendowedhimwithanoriginaldesiretopleaseandanoriginalaversiontooffendhisfellows，and，bymakinghimtofeelpleasureintheirfavourable，andpainintheirunfavourableregards，taughthimtolovetheirapprobation，andtodisliketheirdisapproval，sheyetsawthatthismereloveoftheone，ordislikeoftheother，wouldnotalonehaverenderedhimfitforsociety。Sincethemeredesireforapprobationcouldonlyhavemadehimwishtoappeartobefitforsociety，couldonlyhavepromptedhimtotheaffectationofvirtue，andtotheconcealmentofvice；sheendowedhimnotonlywiththedesireofbeingapprovedof，butwiththedesireofbeingwhatoughttobeapprovedof，orofbeingwhathehimselfapprovesofinothermen。Soshemadehimanxioustobereallyfitforsociety，andsoshesoughttoinspirehimwiththerealloveofvirtueandarealabhorrenceofvice。

Inthesamewaythatwearethustaughttowishtobetheobjectsofloveandadmirationarewetaughttowishnottobetheobjectsofhatredandcontempt。Wedreadblame-worthiness，orbeingreallyblameworthy，irrespectiveofallactualblamethatmayaccruetous。Themostperfectassurancethatnoeyehasseenouraction，doesnotpreventusfromviewingitastheimpartialspectatorwouldhaveregardedit，couldhehavebeenpresent。Wefeeltheshameweshouldbeexposedtoifouractionsbecamegenerallyknown；andourimaginationanticipatesthecontemptandderisionfromwhichweareonlysavedbytheignoranceofourfellows。Butifwehavecommittednotmerelyanimpropriety，whichisanobjectofsimpledisapprobation，butaheinouscrime，whichexcitesstrongresentment，then，thoughwemightbeassuredthatnomanwouldeverknowit，andthoughwemightbelievethattherewasnoGodwhowouldeverpunishit，weshouldstillfeelenoughagonyandremorse，asthenaturalobjectsofhumanhatredandpunishment，tohavethewholeofourlivesembittered。Sogreat，indeed，arethesepangsofconscience，thatevenmenoftheworstcharacters，whointheircrimeshaveavoidedeventhesuspicionofguilt，havebeendriven，bydisclosingwhatcouldneverhavebeendetected，toreconcilethemselvestothenaturalsentimentsofmankind。Socompletely，eveninper-sonsofnosensibility，doesthehorrorofblame-worthinessexceedthedreadofactualblame。

Thefact，AdamSmiththinks，callsforexplanation，thatwhilemostmenofordinarycapacitydespiseunmeritedpraise，evenmenofthesoundestjudgmentaremortifiedbyun-meritedreproach。For，howeverconsciousamanmaybeofhisowninnocence，theimputationseemsoften，eveninhisownimagination，tothrowashadowofdisgraceoverhischaracter，andifheisbroughttosuffertheextremepunishmentofhumanresentment，religionalonecanaffordhimanyeffectualcomfort，byteachinghimofanapprobation，higherandmoreimportantthanthatofhumanity。Why，then，isunjustcensuresomuchlessindifferentthanunmeritedpraise？Theansweris，thatthepainoftheoneissomuchmorepungentthanthepleasureoftheother。Amanofsensibilityismorehumiliatedbyjustcensurethanheiselevatedbyjustapplause。Anditismucheasiertoridoneselfbydenial，oftheslightpleasureofunmeritedpraise，thanofthepainofunjustreproach。Thoughnobodydoubtsanyone"sveracitywhenhedisclaimssomemeritascribedtohim，itisatoncedoubtedifhedeniessomecrimewhichrumourlaystohischarge。

Whenweareperfectlysatisfiedwitheverypartofourownconduct，thejudgmentofothersisoflessimportancetousthanwhenweareinanydoubtoftheproprietyofouractions；andtheopinionofothers，theirapprobationorthecontrary，isamostseriousmattertous，whenweareuneasyastothejusticeofourresentmentortheproprietyofanyotherpassion。And，asarule，theagreementordisagreementofthejudgmentsofotherpeoplewithourownvariesinimportanceforusexactlyinproportiontotheuncertaintywefeeloftheproprietyoraccuracyofourownsentimentsorjudgments。Henceitisthatpoetsandauthorsaresomuchmoreanxiousaboutpublicopinionthanmathematiciansormenofscience。Thediscoveriesofthelatter，admittingbynatureofnearlyperfectproof，rendertheopinionofthepublicamatterofindifference；butinthefinearts，whereexcellencecanonlybedeterminedbyacertainnicetyoftaste，andthedecisionismoreuncertain，thefavourablejudgmentsoffriendsandthepublicareasdelightfulastheirunfavourablejudgmentsaremortifying。

Thesensibilityofpoetsespeciallyisduetothiscause；andwemayinstancethesensibilityofRacine，whousedtotellhissonthatthemostpaltrycriticismshadalwaysgivenhimmorepainthanthehighesteulogyhadevergivenhimpleasure:orthatofGray，whowassomuchhurtbyafoolishparodyoftwoofhisfinestodes，thatheneverafterwardsattemptedanythingconsiderable。

Itmayhappenthatthetwoprinciplesofdesiringpraiseanddesiringpraiseworthinessareblendedtogether，anditmustoftenremainunknowntoamanhimself，andalwaystootherpeople，howfarhedidapraiseworthyactionforitsownsake，orfortheloveofpraise；howfarhedesiredtodeserve，oronlytoobtain，theapprobationofothers。Thereareveryfewmenwhoaresatisfiedwiththeirownconsciousnessofhavingattainedthosequalities，orperformedthoseactions，whichtheythinkpraiseworthyinothers，andwhodonotwishtheirconsciousnessofpraiseworthinesstobecorroboratedbytheactualpraiseofothermen。Somemencaremorefortheactualpraise，othersfortherealpraiseworthiness。Itisthereforeneedlesstoagreewiththose"spleneticphilosophers"(Mandevilleisintended)

whoimputetotheloveofpraise，orwhattheycallvanity，everyactionwhichmaybeascribedtoadesireofpraiseworthiness。

Fromthisdistinctionbetweenourdesireforpraiseandourdesireforpraiseworthiness，AdamSmitharrivesattheresult，thatthereare，sotospeak，twodistincttribunalsofmorality。Theapprobationordisapprobationofmankindisthefirstsourceofpersonalself-approbationorthecontrary。

Butthoughmanhasbeenthusconstitutedtheimmediatejudgeofmankind，hehasbeenmadesoonlyinthefirstinstance:"andanappealliesfromhissentencetoamuchhighertribunal，tothetribunaloftheirownconsciences，tothatofthesupposedimpartialandwell-informedspectator，tothatofthemanwithinthebreast，thegreatjudgeandarbiteroftheirconduct。"

Twosortsofapprobationarethussupposed，thatoftheordinaryspectator，andthatofthewell-informedone；or，asitmaybeotherwiseput，ofthemanwithoutandthemanwithinthebreast。Whilstthejurisdictionoftheformerisfoundedaltogetherinthedesireofactualpraise，andtheaversiontoactualblame，thatofthelatterisfoundedaltogetherinthedesireofreallypossessingthosequalities，orperformingthoseactionswhichweloveandadmireinotherpeople，andinavoidingthosequalitiesandthoseactionswhich，inotherpeople，arouseourhatredorcon-tempt。

IfConscience，then，whichmaybedefinedas"thetestimonyofthesupposedimpartialspectatorofthebreast:，"originatesinthewaydescribed，whencehasitthatverygreatinfluenceandauthoritywhichbelongtoit？andhowdoesithappenthatitisonlybyconsultingitthatwecanseewhatrelatestoourselvesinitstruelight，ormakeanypropercomparisonbetweenourowninterestsandthoseofotherpeople？

Theansweris，Byourpowerofassuminginimaginationanothersituation。

Itiswiththeeyeofthemindaswiththeeyeofthebody。Justasalargelandscapeseemssmallerthanthewindowwhichlooksoutonit，andweonlylearnbyhabitandexperiencetojudgeoftherelativemagnitudeofobjectsbytransportingourselvesinimaginationtoadifferentstation，fromwhencewecanjudgeoftheirrealproportions，soitisnecessaryforthemindtochangeitspositionbeforewecaneverregardourownselfishinterestsintheirduerelationtotheinterestsofothers。Wehavetoviewourinterestsandanother"s，"neitherfromourownplacenorfromhis，neitherwithourowneyesnoryetwithhis，butfromtheplaceandwiththeeyesofathirdperson，whohasnoparticularconnexionwitheither，andwhojudgeswithimpartialitybetweenus。"Byhabitandexperiencewecometodothissoeasily，thatthementalprocessisscarcelyperceptibletous，byWhichwecorrectthenaturalinequalityofoursentiments。Welearnboththemorallesson，andthelessoninvision，sothoroughly，asnolongertobesensiblethatithasbeenalessonatall。

"Itisreason，principle，conscience，theinhabitantofthebreast，themanwithin，thegreatjudgeandarbiterofourconduct，"whoalonecancorrectthenaturalmisrepresentationsofself-love，whoshowsustheproprietyofgenerosityandthedeformityofinjustice，theproprietyofresigningourowngreatestinterestsfortheyetgreaterinterestsofothers，andthedeformityofdoingthesmallestinjurytoanotherinordertoobtainthegreatestbenefittoourselves。Butforthiscorrectionofself-lovebyconscience，thedestructionoftheempireofChinabyanearthquakewou1ddisturbaman"ssleeplessthanthelossofhisownlittlefinger，andtopreventsopaltryamisfortunetohimselfhewouldbewillingtosacrificethelivesofahundredmillionsofhisbrethren，pro-videdhehadneverseenthem。Itisnottheloveofourneighbour，stilllesstheloveofmankind，whichwouldeverpromptustoself-sacrifice。Itisastrongerlove，amorepowerfulaffection，"theloveofwhatishonourableandnoble，ofthegrandeur，anddignity，andsuperiorityofourowncharacters。"

Thesenseofdutyinitsvariousformsistheresultofthecommandsofconscience，whichthusexistswithinusasthereflectionofexternalapprobation。Whenthehappinessormiseryofothersdependsonourconduct，conscience，or"themanwithin，"immediatelycallstousthatifwepreferour-selvestothem，ortheinterestofonetotheinterestofmany，werenderourselvestheproperobjectofthecontemptandresentmentofourfellows。

Thecontrolofourpassivefeelings，ofournaturalpreferenceforourowninterestsandournaturalindifferencetothoseofothers，canonlybeacquiredbyaregardtothesentimentsoftherealorsupposedspectatorofourconduct。Thisisthedisciplineordainedbynaturefortheacquisitionofthevirtueofself-commandaswellasofallothervirtues。Thewholeoflifeisaneducationintheacquisitionofself-command。Achild，assoonasitmixeswithitsequalsatschool，wishesnaturallytogaintheirfavourandavoidtheircontempt；anditistaughtbyaregardtoitsownsafetytomoderateitsangerandotherpassionstothedegreewithwhichitsplay-fellowsarelikelytobepleased。Fromthattimeforth，theexerciseofdisciplineoveritsfeelingsbecomesthepracticeofitslife。

Onlythemanwhohasbeenthoroughlybredinthegreatschoolofself-command，thebustleandbusinessoftheworld，maintainsperfectcontroloverhispassivefeelingsuponalloccasions。Hehasneverdaredtoforgetforonemomentthejudgmentlikelytobepassedbytheimpartialspectatoruponhissentimentsandconduct，norsufferedthemanwithinthebreasttobeabsentforonemomentfromhisattention。Withtheeyesofthisgreatinmatehehasbeenaccustomedtoregardallthatrelatestohimself。Fromhishavingbeenundertheconstantnecessityofmoulding，ortryingtomould，hisconductandfeelingsinaccordancewiththoseofthisspectator，thehabithasbecomeperfectlyfamiliartohim；andhealmostidentifieshimselfwith，healmostbecomeshimselfthatimpartialspectator；hehardlyeverfeelsbutasthatgreatarbiterofhisconductdirects。

Butwithmostmenconscience，whichisfoundedontheapprobationofanimaginaryspectator，requiresoftentobearousedbycontactwitharealone。"Themanwithinthebreast，theabstractandidealspectatorofoursentimentsandconduct，requiresoftentobeawakenedandputinmindofhisdutybythepresenceoftherealspectator。"Inotherwords，consciencerequirestobekeptfreshbycontactwiththeworld；solitudeleadsustooverratethegoodactionswemayhavedoneortheinjurieswemayhavesuffered，andcausesustobetoomuchdejectedinadversityaswellastoomuchelatedinprosperity。

Neverthelessiftheactualspectatorisnotimpartiallikethedistantoneofimaginationorreality，therectitudeofourjudgmentsconcerningourownconductisliabletobemuchperverted；andthisfactaccountsformanyanomaliesofourmoralsentiments。

Take，forinstance，theconductoftwodifferentnationstooneanother。

Neutralnations，theonlyindifferentandimpartialspectatorsoftheirconduct，aresofaroffastobealmostoutofsight。Thecitizenofeithernationpayslittleregardtothesentimentsofforeigncountries，butonlyseekstoobtaintheapprobationofhisownfellow-citizens，whichhecanneverdobetterthanbyenragingandoffendingtheenemiestheyhaveincommon。Thusthepartialspectatorisathand，theimpartialoneatadistance。

Hencethetotaldisregardinthelifeofnationsoftherulesofmoralityinforceinprivatelife。"Inwarandnegotiationthelawsofjusticeareveryseldomobserved。Truthandfairdealingarealmosttotallydisregarded。

Treatiesareviolated；andtheviolation，ifsomeadvantageisgainedbyit，shedsscarceanydishonourupontheviolator。Theambassadorwhodupestheministerofaforeignnationisadmiredandapplauded。"Thesameconductwhichinprivatetransactionswouldmakeamanbelovedandesteemed，inpublictransactionswouldloadhimwithcontemptanddetestation。Notonlyarethelawsofnationsviolatedwithoutdishonour，buttheyarethemselveslaiddownwithverylittleregardtotheplainestrulesofjustice。Itisinthemostperfectconformitywithwhatarecalledthelawsofnationsthatthegoodsofpeaceablecitizensshouldbeliabletoseizureonlandandsea，thattheirlandsshouldbelaidwaste，theirhomesburnt，andtheythemselveseithermurderedortakenintocaptivity。

Noristheconductofhostileparties，civilorecclesiastical，morerestrainedbythepowerofconsciencethanthatofhostilenationstooneanother。Thelawsoffactionpayevenlessregardtotherulesofjusticethanthelawsofnationsdo。Thoughithasneverbeendoubtedwhetherfaithoughttobekeptwithpublicenemies，ithasoftenbeenfuriouslydebatedwhetherfaithoughttobekeptwithrebelsandheretics。Yetrebelsandhereticsareonlythosewho，whenthingshavecometoacertaindegreeofviolence，havethemisfortunetobelongtotheweakerparty。Theimpartialspectatorisneveratagreaterdistancethanamidsttherageandviolenceofcontendingparties。Forthemitmaybesaidthat"suchaspectatorscarceexistsanywhereintheuniverse。Eventothegreatjudgeoftheuniversetheyimputealltheirownprejudices，andoftenviewthatDivineBeingasanimatedbyalltheirownvindictiveandimplacablepassions。"Thosewhomightactastherealcontrollersofsuchpassionsaretoofewtohaveanyinfluence，beingexcludedbytheirowncandourfromtheconfidenceofeitherparty，andonthataccountcondemnedtobetheweakest，thoughtheymaybethewisestmenoftheircommunity。For"atruepartymanhatesanddespisescandour；andinrealitythereisnovicewhichcouldsoeffectuallydisqualifyhimforthetradeofapartymanasthatsinglevirtue。"

Butevenwhentherealandimpartialspectatorisnotatagreatdistance，butcloseathand，ourownselfishpassionsmaybesostrongasentirelytodistortthejudgmentofthe"manwithinthebreast。"Weendeavourtoviewourownconductinthelightinwhichtheimpartialspectatorwouldviewit，bothwhenweareabouttoactandwhenwehaveacted。Onbothoccasionsourviewsareapttobepartial，buttheyaremoreespeciallypartialwhenitismostimportantthattheyshouldbeotherwise。