第5章

1。SeethecaseofHyltonv。TheUnitedStates，3dDall。171。

2。Gibbonsv。Ogden，9thWheaton，p。1，&；c。

3。See7Coke"sRep。7。

4。7Coke"sRep。6。

5。SeeWooddeson，vol。i。232，andmanyoftheBritishtreatiesevincethetruthofhisposition。In1783，thecessionsofTobago，EastFlorida，&；c。；thenumeroustransfersamongtheEuropeanmonarchssincetheyear1795，formstrikinginstancesofthegeneraladoptionoftheprinciple。Timeindeedissometimesallowedtothepeopletowithdrawthemselvesandtheirproperty，butageorothercausesmayrenderthisimpossible。InGreatBritainsuchtreatiesareoftenconfirmedbyactsofparliament，buttheprincipleisthesame。Theircoloniesarenotrepresentedinparliament。

6。Thewordsofthelawarethese:?

Whensoeveranycitizenofthiscommonwealthshallbydeedinwritingunderhishandandseal，executedinthepresenceofandsubscribedbythreewitnesses，andbythemortwoofthemprovedinthegeneralcourt，anydistrictcourt，orthecourtofthecountyorcorporationwhereheresides，orbyopenverbaldeclarationmadeineitherofsaidcourtstobebythementeredofrecord，declarethatherelinquishesthecharacterofacitizen，andshalldepartoutofthiscommonwealth，suchpersonshallfromthetimeofhisdeparturebeconsideredashavingexercisedhisrightofexpatriationandshallthenceforthbedeemednocitizen。"?Passed23dDecember，1792。

7。3Dallas，133。TheauthorapprehendsthatnoprinciplecanbemoreclearthanthatastatecannotdischargeacitizenfromhisallegiancetotheUnitedstates。

8。UnitedStatesv。Williams，4Hall"sLawJournal，401。

9。UnitedStatesv。Gillies，I

Peters120?See2Cranch，126。

DuringthelatewarPresidentMadisondirectedoneClark，acitizenoftheUnitedStateswhohadremovedtoCanada，andwasafterwardstakenwithinourlinesandsentencedtodeathbyacourtmartialasaspy?tobedeliveredtothecivilauthority，therebydisclaimingmilitarypoweroverhimasanalienenemy。

10。IsaacWilliams，whosecasehasbeennoticed，expresslyrenouncedhisallegiancetothiscountrywhenhewasnaturalizedinFrance。Intheopinionofthechiefjustice，thiscircumstancemadenodifference。

11。ThelegislatureofPennsylvaniaonthe29thofMarch，1783，expungedfromtheoath，thepartwhichrequiredarenunciationofallegiancetotheKingofGreatBritain，declaringthatitwaswhollyuseless。

12。Itisproper，however，toobserve，thatacontraryopinionhasbeengiveninthestateofNewYorkbyajudgeofgreatlearningandacuteness，Washburn"scase，4Johnson，Ch。

106，towhichisopposedthelaterdecisionofamanofequalcharacterandtalent，ChiefJusticeTilghmaninthecaseofEdwardShortonahabeascorpus，Aug。20，1824。

13。4Wheaton，122。

14。ibid。200。

15。§；10。

16。Coke"sInst。vol。iii。181。

17。8Ann。c。19。15Geo。3。c。53。

18。4Burrow，2417。

19。5Wheaton，151，417。

20。1Gallison，124。5Wheaton，204，206。

21。4Dallas，37。

22。InEngland，theRoyalPalace，withanextentoftwelvemilesroundit，hasapeculiarjurisdictioninregardtosomelegalcontroversies；butanysuitsbroughtintheMarshalseaorPalaceCourts，(astheyarestyled，)maybe，andnowgenerallyare，removedatoncetotheKing"sBenchorCommonPleas。Forallthepurposesoflegislation，thereisnodistinctionbetweenthe"vergeofthecourt，"andthekingdomatlarge。

23。2Cranch，452。

WilliamRawle:AViewoftheConstitution:ChapterXCHAPTERX。OFTHERESTRICTIONSONTHEPOWERSOFCONGRESS?ANDONTHEEXECUTIVEAND

JUDICIALAUTHORITIES?RESTRICTIONSONTHEPOWERSOFSTATESANDSECURITY

TOTHERIGHTSOFINDIVIDUALS。THErestrictionsonthepowersofcongresscontainedintheoriginaltextarefew。Thegeneralprincipleonwhichitisconstructedbeingdeclaredandmanifestthroughout，itfollowsthattonopurposeinconsistentwithorextendingbeyondthatprinciple，canitspoweroflegislationbecarried。Yetitwasexpedientinsomeinstancestointroducepositiveexceptions；insome，toqualifypowersenumeratedorimplied，andinotherstosecurebyexplicitdeclarationsboththerepublicanfoundationandtheequalityofthestatesinallpointswithinthesphereofthegeneralgovernment。

Thefirstclassoftheserestrictionsrelatestocommerce。

Notaxordutyshallbelaidonarticlesexportedfromanystate。

Ithasbeenrepeatedlyobserved，thattheleadingprincipleofthewholeConstitutionisuniformityinrespecttotheseveralstates，asfarasitcanbeobtained。Thenaturalorartificialproductsofstatesaredifferent?tolayageneraldutyontheexportsofriceorcotton，ortobacco，wouldaffectonlythesouthernstates；onflourorgrain，principallythecentralstates，andonthedomesticmanufactureswouldoperatechieflyonthenorthernandeasternstatesengagedinthem-yetwithoutthisrestrictionperhapsitmighthavebeendone。

Arestrictionbothastoexportsandimportsissubsequentlyextendedtothestatesthemselves，exceptwhatmaybeabsolutelynecessarytoexecutetheirowninspectionlaws；and，topreventevasionundercolourofonlysecuringtherightofinspection，itisprovidedthatthenetproduceofalldutiesandimpostslaidbyanystateonimportsorexports，shallbefortheuseofthetreasuryoftheUnitedStates，andthatallsuchlawsshallbesubjecttotherevisionandcontrolofcongress。

Onthesameprincipleitisprovidedingeneralterms，thatnopreferenceshallbegivenbyanyregulationsofcommerceorrevenuetotheportsofonestateoverthoseofanother，norshallvesselsboundfromonestatebeobligedtoenter，clear，orpaydutiesinanother。AvesselboundtoorfromPhiladelphia，shallnotbeobligedtoenterorpaydutiesinthestateofDelawareorNewJersey。Itisnothoweverprobablethatcongress，althoughunrestrained，wouldmakesuchregulations。

Thesearealltherestrictionsimmediatelyrelatingtocommerce，butoneofsomeimportancewasomitted。Thedangerofintroducingcontagiousdiseases，hassuggestedtocommercialcountriestheproprietyofinterposingtheutmostcareinregardtotheadmissionofvesselsfromsuspectedplaces。

IntheMediterranean，whereonaccountofthefrequencyoftheplague，thepracticebegan，itwasrequiredthatsuchvesselsshouldrideatanchorfortydayswithoutintercoursewiththeshore。Hencethetermquarantinehasbeenintroduced，althoughthelimitationoftimeisvariedaccordingtocircumstances。Thestateorportatwhichthevesselimmediatelyarrivesbeingthefirstindanger，hasthegreatestinterestintakingproperprecautionsaccordingtoitssituationsandmeansofenforcingthem。ButtheutilityofsuchprecautionsescapednoticeinframingtheConstitution；andCongress，withafairconstructionofitsimpliedpowers，hasmadesuitableprovisionstoenablethestatestoprotectthehealthoftheirinhabitants，althoughbysodoing，theymay，insomedegree，beconsideredaspartakingofthepowertoregulatecommerce。

Animportantclausewithwhichthissectioncommences，ispartlyofacommercial，andpartlyofapoliticalandmoralkind。Itwasforeseen，thatthegeneralpowertoregulatecommercewouldincludeatrafficnowjustlyreprobatedbymostChristiannations，butsomeinterestsandopinionsweretoberespected，andwhilethepowertoabolishtheslavetradeentirelywasindirectlyconceded，theexerciseofittilltheyear1808，otherwisethanbylayingataxordutyoftendollarsoneachpersonimported，wasprohibited。Congressdidnotfailtoavailitselfofthepower，assoonasitbecamelawfultoexecuteit。

Therestrictionsinregardtotaxationandpublicmoneyshavealreadybeenmentioned。

Reasonswillbegivenhereafterforconsideringmanyoftherestrictions，containedintheamendmentstotheConstitution，asextendingtothestatesaswellastotheUnitedStates，butthenatureofthewritofhabeascorpusseemspeculiarlytocallforthisconstruction。Itisthegreatremedyofthecitizenorsubjectagainstarbitraryorillegalimprisonment；

itisthemodebywhichthejudicialpowerspeedilyandeffectuallyprotectsthepersonallibertyofeveryindividual，andrepelstheinjusticeofunconstitutionallawsordespoticgovernors。Aftererectingthedistinctgovernmentwhichweareconsidering，andafterdeclaringwhatshouldconstitutethesupremelawineverystateintheUnion，fearfulmindsmightentertainjealousiesofthisgreatandall-controllingpower，ifsomeprotectionagainstitsenergieswhenmisdirected，wasnotprovidedbyitself。

Thenationalcodeinwhichthewritofhabeascorpuswasoriginallyfound，isnotexpresslyordirectlyincorporatedintotheConstitution。

Ifthisprovisionbadbeenomitted，theexistingpowersunderthestategovernments，noneofwhomarewithoutit，mightbequestioned，andapersonimprisonedonamandateofthepresidentorotherofficer，undercolouroflawfulauthorityderivedfromtheUnitedStates，mightbedeniedrelief。

Butthejudicialauthority，whethervestedinastatejudge，orajudgeoftheUnitedStates，isanintegralandidentifiedcapacity；andifcongressnevermadeanyprovisionforissuingwritsofhabeascorpus，eitherthestatejudgesmustissuethem，ortheindividualbewithoutredress。

TheConstitutionseemstohavesecuredthisbenefittothecitizenbythedescriptionofthewrit，andinanunqualifiedmanneradmittingitsefficacy，whileitdeclaresthatitshallnothesuspendedunlesswhen，incaseofrebellionorinvasion，thepublicsafetyshallrequireit。Thiswritisbelievedtobeknownonlyincountriesgovernedbythecommonlaw，asitisestablishedinEngland；butinthatcountrythebenefitofitmayatanytimebewithheldbytheauthorityofparliament，whereasweseethatinthiscountryitcannotbesuspendedevenincasesofrebellionorinvasion，unlessthepublicsafetyshallrequireit。OfthisnecessitytheConstitutionprobablyintends，thatthelegislatureoftheUnitedStatesshallbethejudges。ChargedastheyarewiththepreservationoftheUnitedStatesfromboththoseevils，andsupersedingthepowersoftheseveralstatesintheprosecutionofthemeasurestheymayfinditexpedienttoadopt，itseemsnotunreasonablethatthiscontroloverthewritofhabeascorpus，whichoughtonlytobeexercisedonextraordinaryoccasions，shouldrestwiththem。Itisatanyratecertain，thatcongress，whichhasauthorizedthecourtsandjudgesoftheUnitedStatestoissuewritsofhabeascorpusincaseswithintheirjurisdiction，canalonesuspendtheirpower，andthatnostatecanpreventthosecourtsandjudgesfromexercisingtheirregularfunctions，whichare，however，confinedtocasesofimprisonmentprofessedtobeundertheauthorityoftheUnitedStates。

Butthestatecourtsandjudgespossesstherightofdeterminingonthelegalityofimprisonmentundereitherauthority。1

Nobillofattainder，norexpostfactolawshallbepassed。

Billsofattainderarethosebywhichapersonwithoutajudicialtrial，isdeclaredbythelegislaturetobeguiltyofsomeparticularcrime。Thedefinitionitselfshowstheatrocityoftheact。Suchlawsareneverpassedbutintimesofwildcommotionorarbitrarymisrule。

Expostfactolawsareoftensupposedtosignifyalllawshavingaretrospectiveoperation，butthetechnicalmeaningofthemismoreconfined。

Anexpostfactolawiswhenanactionisdeclaredtobeacrime，whichatthetimeitwasdonewasinnocent，orwhenitaggravatesacrime，anddeclaresittobegreaterthanitwaswhencommitted，orwhenitincreasesthepunishment，ordirectsthatdifferentorlessevidenceshallbesufficienttoconvicttheoffender；butifitsoftenstherigouroftheancientlaw，itisnotwithintheprohibition。2TheConstitutiondoesnotpreventcongressfrompassingretrospectivelawsincivilcases。Whythiswasomittedwhenthestatesinthesameinstrumentarerestrainedfrompassinglawsimpairingtheobligationsofcontracts，willbehereafterexplained。

Notitleofnobility，shallbegrantedbytheUnitedStates，orbyanyindividualstate。Ofthistherecouldhavebeenbutlittledanger。

Theindependentspiritofrepublicansleadsthemtocontemnthevanityofhereditarydistinctions，buttheresidueoftheclauseismoreimportant。NopersonholdinganyofficeoftrustorprofitundertheUnitedStatesshall，withouttheconsentofcongress，acceptofanypresent，emolument，office，ortitleofanykindwhatever，fromanyking，prince，orforeignstate。

Therecannotbetoomuchjealousyinrespecttoforeigninfluence。ThetreasuresofPersiaweresuccessfullydistributedinAthens；anditisnowknownthatinEnglandaprofligateprinceandmanyofhisvenalcourtierswerebribedintomeasuresinjurioustothenationbythegoldofLouisXIV。3

Asalutaryamendment，extendingtheprohibitiontoallcitizensoftheUnitedStates，anddisfranchisingthosewhoinfringeit，hasbeenadoptedbysomeofthestates；butnotyetbyasufficientnumber。Theclauseinthetextisdefectiveinnotprovidingaspecificpenaltyforabreachofit。Disfranchisement，oradeprivationofalltherightsofacitizen，seemsthemostappropriatepunishmentthatcouldbeapplied，sinceitrenderstheseductionuselesstothosewhoweretheauthorsofit，anddisgracefultothepersonseduced。

Oftheamendmentsalreadyadopted，(forwhichseetheappendix，)theeightfirstinorderfallwithintheclassofrestrictionsonthelegislativepower，someofwhichwouldhavebeenimplied，someareoriginal，andallarehighlyvaluable。Somearealsotobeconsideredasrestrictionsonthejudicialpower。

Theconstitutionsofsomeofthestatescontainbillsofrights；othersdonot。Adeclarationofrights，therefore，properlyfindsaplaceinthegeneralConstitution，whereitequalizesallandbindsall。

Eachstateisobliged，whileitremainsamemberoftheUnion，topreservetherepublicanformofgovernmentinallitsstrengthandpurity。Thepeopleofeachstate，bytheamendedconstitution，pledgethemselvestoeachotherforthesacredpreservationofcertaindetailedprinciples，withoutwhichtherepublicanformwouldbeimpureandweak。

Theywillnowbeviewedinsuccession。

Thefirstamendmentprohibitscongressfrompassinganylawrespectinganestablishmentofreligion，orpreventingthefreeexerciseofit。

ItwouldbedifficulttoconceiveonwhatpossibleconstructionoftheConstitutionsuchapowercouldeverbeclaimedbycongress。Thetimehaslongpassedbywhenenlightenedmeninthiscountryentertainedtheopinionthatthegeneralwelfareofanationcouldbepromotedbyreligiousintolerance，andundernootherclausecouldapretenceforitbefound。

Individualstateswhoselegislaturesarenotrestrainedbytheirownconstitutions，havebeenoccasionallyfoundtomakesomedistinctions；butwhenweadverttothosepartsoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates，whichsostronglyenforcetheequalityofallourcitizens，wemayreasonablydoubtwhetherthedenialofthesmallestcivicrightunderthispretencecanbereconciledtoit。InmostofthegovernmentsofEurope，someonereligioussystemenjoysapreference，enforcedwithmoreorlessseverity，accordingtocircumstances。Opinionsandmodesofworshipdifferingfromthosewhichformtheestablishedreligion，aresometimesexpresslyforbidden，sometimespunished，andinthemildestcases，onlytoleratedwithoutpatronageorencouragement。ThusahumangovernmentinterposesbetweentheCreatorandhiscreature，interceptsthedevotionofthelatter，orcondescendstopermititonlyunderpoliticalregulations。Frominjusticesogross，andimpietysomanifest，multitudessoughtanasyluminAmerica，andhencesheoughttobethehospitableandbenignreceiverofeveryvarietyofreligiousopinion。Itistrue，thatinherearlyprovincialstage，theequalityofthoserightsdoesnotseemtohavebeenuniversallyadmitted。

Thosewhoclaimedreligiousfreedomforthemselves，didnotimmediatelyperceivethatotherswerealsoentitledtoit；butthehistoryofthesternexclusionorreluctantadmissionofothersectsinseveraloftheprovinces，wouldbeanimproperdigressioninthiswork。Intracingtheannalsofsomeoftheprovinces，itispleasingtoobservethatintheveryoutset，theirenlightenedfounderspubliclyrecognisedtheperfectfreedomofconscience。

Therewasindeedsometimesaninconsistency，perhapsnotadvertedtointheocclusionofpublicofficestoallbutChristians，whichwasthecaseinPennsylvania，butitwasthenoflittlepracticalimportance。Intheconstitutionadoptedbythatstatein1776，thesameinconsistency，thoughexpressedinlanguagesomewhatdifferent，wasretained，butinherpresentconstitution，nothingabridges，nothingqualifies，nothingdefeats，thefulleffectoftheoriginaldeclaration。Boththeelectorandtheelectedareentitled，whatevertheirreligioustenetsmaybe，tothefullestenjoymentofpoliticalrights，providedinthelatterdescription，thepartypubliclydeclareshisbeliefinthebeingofaGod，andafuturestateofrewardsandpunishments。Thisqualificationisnotexpresslyrequiredofanelector，andperhapswasintroducedinrespecttothoseelected，chieflyforthepurposeofmoreparticularlyexplainingthesenseofaprecedingsection。

Itisindeedtosuchadegreedoubtfulwhetheranycanbefoundsoweakanddepravedastodisbelievethesecardinalpointsofallreligions，thatitcanscarcelybesupposedtohavebeenintroducedforanyotherpurpose。4

Justandliberalprinciplesonthissubject，throwalustreroundtheConstitutioninwhichtheyarefound，andwhiletheydignifythenation，promoteitsinternalpeaceandharmony。Nopredominantreligionoverpowersanother，thevotariesofwhicharefewandhumble；nolordlyhierarchyexcitesodiumorterror；legalpersecutionisunknown，andfreedomofdiscussion，whileittendstopromotetheknowledge，contributestoincreasethefervourofpiety。

Thefreedomofspeechandofthepressformspartofthesamearticle，andinpartrelatestothesamesubject；itembracesallmattersofreligious，moral，political，orphysicaldiscussion。Tacitus，ingloomymeditationontheimperialdespotismofRome，exclaims，"Howrarearethosehappytimeswhenmenmaythinkwhattheypleaseandsaywhattheythink。"Underthedenialofsuchrights，lifeisindeedoflittlevalue。Thefoundationofafreegovernmentbeginstobeunderminedwhenfreedomofspeechonpoliticalsubjectsisrestrained；itisdestroyedwhenfreedomofspeechiswhollydenied。Thepressisavehicleofthefreedomofspeech。Theartofprintingilluminatestheworld，byarapiddisseminationofwhatwouldotherwisebeslowlycommunicatedandpartiallyunderstood。Thismayeasilybeconceived，ifweweretofiguretoourselvesthetotalsuppressionofprintingforevenashorttimeinthiscountry。

Ournewspapersarenowmorenumerousthansuchpublicationsareinanequalamountofpopulationinanyotherpartoftheworld。Whereveranewsettlementisformed，andeveryyearpresentsmanysuch，aprintingpressisestablishedassoonasasufficientnumberofinhabitantsiscollected。Informationisthemoralfood，forwhichtheactiveAmericanintellecteverhungers。

Butthelibertyofspeechandofthepressmaybeabused，andsomayeveryhumaninstitution。Itisnot，however，tobesupposedthatitmaybeabusedwithimpunity。Remedieswillalwaysbefoundwhiletheprotectionofindividualrightsandthereasonablesafeguardsofsocietyitselfformpartsoftheprinciplesofourgovernment。Aprevioussuperintendencyofthepress，anarbitrarypowertodirectorprohibititspublicationsarewithheld，butthepunishmentofdangerousoroffensivepublications，whichonafairandimpartialtrialarefoundtohaveapernicioustendency，isnecessaryforthepeaceandorderofgovernmentandreligion，whicharethesolidfoundationsofcivilliberty。

Therightofthepeoplepeaceablytoassembleandpetitiongovernmentforaredressofgrievancesconcludesthearticle。

Ofthisrightintheabstracttherecannotbeadoubt。Towithholdfromtheinjured，theprivilegeofcomplaint，andtodebartherulersfromthebenefitofinformationthatmayapprizethemoftheirerrors，ismutuallyunjust。Itmay，however，beurged，thathistoryshowshowthosemeetingsandpetitionshavebeenabused，andwemaybeturnedtoanEnglishstatute，which，thoughillobserved，issaidtobestillinforce，5andwhichisunderstoodtohavebeenfoundedonthemischiefsanddisordersexperiencedfromlargeandtumultuousassemblies，presentingpetitionsfortheredressofgrievancesinthereignofCharlesI。Butbesidesthewellknownirrelevancyoftheargumentfromtheabuseofanythingagainstitsuse，wemustrememberthatbyrequiringtheassemblytobepeaceable，theusualremediesofthelawareretained，iftherightisillegallyexercised。

Theprecedingarticleexpresslyreferstothepowersofcongressalone，butsomeofthosewhichfollowaretobemoregenerallyconstrued，andconsideredasapplyingtothestatelegislaturesaswellasthatoftheUnion。Theimportantprinciplescontainedinthemarenowincorporatedbyadoptionintotheinstrumentitself；theyformpartsofthedeclaredrightsofthepeople，ofwhichneitherthestatepowersnorthoseoftheUnioncaneverdeprivethem。

Asubsequentarticledeclares，thatthepowersnotdelegatedtocongressbytheConstitution，norprohibitedbyittothestates，arereservedtothestatesrespectively，ortothepeople。Whatweareabouttoconsiderarecertainlynotdelegatedtocongress，noraretheynoticedintheprohibitionstostates；theyarethereforereservedeithertothestatesortothepeople。

Theirhighnature，theirnecessitytothegeneralsecurityandhappinesswillbedistinctlyperceived。

Inthesecondarticle，itisdeclared，thatawellregulatedMilitiaisnecessarytothesecurityofafreestate；apropositionfromwhichfewwilldissent。Althoughinactualwar，theservicesofregulartroopsareconfessedlymorevaluable；yet，whilepeaceprevails，andinthecommencementofawarbeforearegularforcecanberaised，themilitiaformthepalladiumofthecountry。Theyarereadytorepelinvasion，tosuppressinsurrection，andpreservethegoodorderandpeaceofgovernment。Thattheyshouldbewellregulated，isjudiciouslyadded。Adisorderlymilitiaisdisgracefultoitself，anddangerousnottotheenemy，buttoitsowncountry。Thedutyofthestategovernmentis，toadoptsuchregulationsaswilltendtomakegoodsoldierswiththeleastinterruptionsoftheordinaryandusefuloccupationsofcivillife。InthisalltheUnionhasastrongandvisibleinterest。

Thecorollary，fromthefirstposition，is，thattherightofthepeopletokeepandbeararmsshallnotbeinfringed。

Theprohibitionisgeneral。NoclauseintheConstitutioncouldbyanyruleofconstructionbeconceivedtogivetocongressapowertodisarmthepeople。Suchaflagitiousattemptcouldonlybemadeundersomegeneralpretencebyastatelegislature。Butifinanyblindpursuitofinordinatepower，eithershouldattemptit，thisamendmentmaybeappealedtoasarestraintonboth。

InmostofthecountriesofEurope，thisrightdoesnotseemtobedenied，althoughitisallowedmore，orlesssparingly，accordingtocircumstances。

InEngland，acountrywhichboastssomuchofitsfreedom，therightwassecuredtoProtestantsubjectsonly，ontherevolutionof1688；anditiscautiouslydescribedtobethatofbearingarmsfortheirdefence，"suitabletotheirconditions，andasallowedbylaw。"6Anarbitrarycodeforthepreservationofgameinthatcountryhaslongdisgracedthem。Averysmallproportionofthepeoplebeingpermittedtokillit，thoughfortheirownsubsistence；agunorotherinstrument，usedforthatpurposebyanunqualifiedperson，maybeseizedandforfeited。

Blackstone，inwhomweregretthatwecannotalwaystracetheexpandedprinciplesofrationalliberty，observeshowever，onthissubject，thatthepreventionofpopularinsurrectionsandresistancetogovernmentbydisarmingthepeople，isoftenermeantthanavowed，bythemakersofforestandgamelaws。7

Thisrightoughtnot，however，inanygovernment，tobeabusedtothedisturbanceofthepublicpeace。

Anassemblageofpersonswitharms，foranunlawfulpurpose，isanindictableoffence，andeventhecarryingofarmsabroadbyasingle，individual，attendedwithcircumstancesgivingjustreasontofearthathepurposestomakeanunlawfuluseofthem，wouldbesufficientcausetorequirehimtogivesuretyofthepeace。Ifherefusedhewouldbeliabletoimprisonments。8

Nosoldiershallintimeofpeacebequarteredinanyhousewithouttheconsentoftheowner，(heretherestrictionisgeneral，)norintimeofwar，butinamannertobeprescribedbylaw；andthismustbeconstruedalawoftheUnitedStateswhenthewarisgeneral，orofthestatewhenintheauthorizedexerciseoftherightofself-defenceonthesuddenemergenciesadvertedtointheConstitution，immediatestateoperationshavebecomenecessary。Intheformercase，thesoleconductofthewarisgiventothegeneralgovernment，anditoughtnottobedependenton，orcontrolledbythestategovernmentsinitsmodesofproceeding。

Inthelatter，thestate，relyingonitsownenergies，isentitledtothebenefitofthesameprinciple。Thepracticewouldbeneedlesslyburthensometothepeopleintimeofpeace，andbyagovernmenthavingimproperviews，itmightberenderedanindirectandodiousmeanofcompellingsubmissiontoimpropermeasures。Duringawar，whenitbecomesnecessarytogarrisonatown，orstationabodyoftroopsforatimeinaparticularplace，thecommoninterestwillnaturallysupersedeminorobjections。

Bythegeneraltermsoldier，wearetounderstandas，wellthemilitiainactualserviceasregulartroops。

Thefollowingarticledeclares，thattherightofthepeopletobesecureintheirhouses，papers，andeffects，againstunreasonablesearchesandseizures，shallnotbeviolated，andnowarrantsshallissuebutuponprobablecause，supportedbyoathoraffirmation，particularlydescribingtheplacetobesearched，andthepersonsorthingstobeseized。

Hereagainwefindthegeneraltermswhichprohibitallviolationsofthesepersonalrights，andofcourseextendbothtothestateandtheUnitedStates。

Thetermunreasonableisusedtoindicatethatthesanctionofalegalwarrantistobeobtained，beforesuchsearchesorseizuresaremade，butwhenuponprobablecause，supportedbyoathoraffirmation，suchawarrantisissued，notonlymayothereffects，butthepapersoftheaccusedbetakenintothecustodyofthelaw。

Thefollowingpartofthe6tharticlehasmoreimmediatereferencetothejudicialproceedingsoftheUnitedStates，andmaythereforebeconsideredasrestraintsonlyonthelegislationoftheUnitedStates。

Inallcriminalprosecutions，theaccusedshallenjoytherightofaspeedyandpublictrialbyanimpartialjuryofthestateanddistrictwhereinthecrimeshallhavebeencommitted，whichdistrictshallhavebeenpreviouslyascertainedbylaw。Forthebetterunderstandingofthisprovision，itispropertoexplainthatithadalreadybeenprovidedintheConstitution，9thatthetrialsofoffencesshouldbehadinthestatewheretheywerecommitted；

but，inorganizingthejudiciarysystem，ithadappearedtocongresspropertoformjudicialdistricts，anditwasfoundinconvenienttomakethemalwayscommensuratewiththeboundariesofstates。ThustwodistrictsbadbeenformedoutofthestateofMassachusetts，andtwooutofVirginia。10Byvirtueofthisamendment，anoffencecommittedinthatpartofMassachusettswhichlayeastwardofNewHampshirecouldonlybetriedinthedistrictofMaine。Itisawiseandmercifulmeasure。ItwouldhavebeenhighlyoppressivetocarryamailfromNorfolk，inVirginia，totakehistrialatHarrodsburginKentucky。

Anotherpartofthesixtharticleiscalculatedtosecuretotheaccusedaprotectionwhich，tothosefamiliaronlywiththehabitsofthiscountry，wouldappearsuperfluous。Theaccusedistobeinformedofthenatureandcauseoftheaccusation，tobeconfrontedwiththewitnessesagainsthim；tohavecompulsoryprocessforobtainingwitnessesinhisfavour，andtohavetheassistanceofcounselinhisdefence。

Itseemsmonstrousthatinanycountrythetestimonyonwhichapersonmightbeconvictedshouldbetakeninhisabsence。Yetitiscertain，thatinsomeplaces，thetestimonyonwhichapersonmightbeconvictedofthegreatestcrimeswasoftentakenwithouthisbeingpresent，sometimesevenwithouthisknowingwhothewitnesseswere。Theevidencethuscollectedwasembodiedintheaccusation，andhewasrequiredtodefendhimselfagainstinvisibleenemies。Thisseverityhasindeedbeenmitigatedinmoderntimes，butitisbelievedtobenotyettotallyabolished。

Apersonaccusedoughttohavealltheaidofthelawtohisdefence；

thoseonwhosetestimonyhemustrely，may，fromintimidationorcorruption，beunwillingtoassisthim。Thepublicisconsideredasalwayshavingitintheirpowertocompeltheappearanceofwitnessesagainsthim。Itisjustthatheshouldbearmedinthelikemanner。Nojudgecannowrefusetoissueprocessagainstthosewhomtheaccusedshallnominatetohim?

andtocompelthem，toenterintorecognizancetoappearandtestifyonthetrial。Circumstancesmayevenrenderitnecessarythatheshouldgofurther。Ifthereisaprobabilitythatthewitnesswillleavethestateordistrictbeforethetrialcomeson，itseemstobetherightoftheaccusedtodemandsecurityforhisappearance。

Butwithallthesehumaneprovisions，somethingmoreiswanting。Themostinnocentman，pressedbytheawfulsolemnitiesofapublicaccusationandtrial，maybeincapableofsupportinghisowncause。Hemaybeutterlyunfittocross-examinethewitnessesagainsthim，topointoutthedefectsoftheirtestimony，andtocounteractitbyproperlyintroducingandapplyinghisown。Hencetheimportance，wemightsay，theright，ofhavingtheaidofmeneducatedandaccustomedtomanagecriminaltrials，towhose，knowledgeandskillbemaysafelycommittheconductofhisdefence。Willitbebelieved，that，evenatthisday，inEngland，apersonindictedofanycapitalcrime(unlessinthecaseofhightreasonbyexpressstatute)isnotallowedthebenefitofcounsel，excepttoaddressthejudgeonaquestionoflaw?

Thoseobservationsonthefactsofthecase，which，inthehandsofableandexperiencedadvocates，mightsecuretheacquittalofaninnocentman，arewhollyprohibited。Thetremblingprisonermaymakeafruitlessefforthimself，andhefrequentlyhastheconsolationtobetold，thatthecourtishiscounsel，andwillcalltheattentionofthejurytowhatevermayoperateinhisfavour。Anemptyfiction，whichoftendeludeshimwhoreliesonit。Twobenevolenteffortshaverecentlybeenmadeinthehouseofcommonstoprocurethisrighttosuchdefendants，but，beingopposedbythewholeforceoftheministerialparty，theybothfailed。

Theprotectionoftheindividualagainstallunnecessaryseverityintheprosecutionofjustice，characterizesthegreatestpartofthefifth，andthewholeoftheeighthamendment。

Thelatterdeclares，thatexcessivebailshallnotberequired，norexcessivefinesimposed，norcruelandunusualpunishmentsinflicted。

DuringthearbitraryreignsoftheStuartsinBritain，particularlyofthetwolast，onefrequentmodeofoppressingthosewhowereobnoxioustothecourt，wastocausecriminalproceedingstobeinstitutedagainstthem，todemandbailinextravagantsums，andontheirfallingtoprocureit，tocommitthemtoprison。

Whentherevolutiontookplace，amongotherprovisionsdemandedbythepeople，andreadilyassentedtobyWilliamIII。wastheclausewhichhasbeentranscribedintothisamendment。Ifexcessivebailisdemandedbyonemagistrate，anothermaymoderateitonahabeascorpus，issuedtothekeeperoftheprisoninwhosecustodythepartyis。Thispowerisnot，however，tobeabused，byreducing，thebailbelowareasonablesum。

Insuchacase，thelattermagistratewouldhimselfbeliabletoafine，ifthecriminalshouldnotappearattheappointedtime。

Excessivefinesconstituteonemodeofinflictingcruelpunishments。

Thisrestrictionappliesequallytothelegislativeandtothejudicialauthority。Inrespecttotheformer，however，itisrathertobeconsideredinthelightofarecommendationthanasaconditiononwhichtheconstitutionalityofthelawdepends。Thejudicialauthoritywouldnotundertaketopronouncealawvoid，becausethefineitimposedappearedtothemexcessive；and，therefore，ifthelegislatureshouldcommit，andpersistin，grosserrorsinthisrespect，theultimateremedymustbesoughtamongthechecksonthelegislativepower，whichwillhereafterbebroughtintoview。

Theprohibitionofunusualpunishmentsappliesalike，underthequalificationsalreadynoticed，tothelegislativeandtothejudicialpower。

Thelawsofafreecountryseldomleavethesortofpunishmenttobeinflictedtothediscretionofthejudge，althoughthemeasureorextentofit，asforinstancethequantumofalimitedfine，orthedurationofatermofimprisonment，which，bythelawisnottobeexceeded，isoftensubmittedtohim。Thepeculiarcircumstancesofeachcase，thecontritionorgeneralgoodcharacteroftheoffender，maysuggestandjustifyamoderationofthefullextentofthepunishment。Butalawwhichsubjectsanoffendertoanysortofpunishment，isunknowntoourcivilcode。Ifthelawissilentinrespecttothemodeofpunishmentwhichissometimesthecasewhenanactisprohibitedingeneralterms，withoutsayingmore，thecourtisunderstoodtobeconfinedtotheusualmoderatepunishmentoffineandimprisonment，oroneofthem。Ifafinealoneisimposed，imprisonmentmaybeanadjunct，toenforcethepaymentofit。

Theobligationonthelegislaturenottopasslawsinflictingunusualpunishmentsmustbeconsideredassubjecttosomequalification。Theestablishedformsofpunishmentmayhaveprovedineffectualtopreventthecommissionofsomekindsofoffences。Wemayinstancethepracticeofduelling，anoffenceagainstGodandsociety，whichnolawhasyetbeenfoundsufficienttoprevent。ItwouldbenoviolationoftheConstitutionifcongress，withinthesphereoftheirseparatelegislation，couldbytheinventionofsomenewpunishment，strikingatthefalsehonourwhichleadsfollytothefield，putanendtoacustomsoinhumanandabsurd。

Atcommonlawtherearetwomodesofinstitutingprosecutions；oneofwhichisbyaninformationfiledbytheofficerwhorepresentsthepublic，onhisownjudgmentanddiscretion，which，ifunadvisedlyorcorruptlydone，maysubjecttheindividualtocauselesstroubleandexpense。Theotherisbyanindictmentwhichispreparedbythesameofficer，andsenttoagrandjury，oritmaybedonebythegrandjurythemselves。Inbothofthesecases，witnessesarecarefullyexaminedonthepartofthepublic，andtheaccusedisnotputonhistrialunlessatleasttwelvegrandjurymen，ontheiroathsoraffirmations，findthatthereissufficientcauseforit。Inthefiftharticleitisexpresslydeclared，thatnoperson，exceptincasesarisinginthelandornavalforces，orinthemilitiawheninactualserviceintimeofwarorpublicdanger，shallbeheldtoanswerforacapitalorotherwiseinfamouscrime，unlessonapresentmentorindictmentofagrandjury，andinnocaseshallhebecompelledtobeawitnessagainsthimself。

Thatnooneshallbesubjectforthesameoffence，tobetwiceputinjeopardyoflifeorlimb，whichisalsoprovided，isperhapstoonarrow?noone，afterafulltrialandafairacquittal，oughttobesubjectedtoanothertrialforthesameoffence，whetheritbegreatorsmall，andsuchindeedisthesettledruleoflaw。Thepleaofaformeracquittal，isacompletebartoeverysubsequentprosecutionforthesameoffence。

Itfollowsfromalltheantecedentprecautions，thatnoonecanbedeprivedoflife，liberty，orproperty，withoutdueprocessoflaw；andtherepetitionofthisdeclaration，isonlyvaluable，asitexhibitsthesummaryofthewhole，andtheanxietythatitshouldneverbeforgotten。

Butonepartoftheclause，connectedwiththelastmentioned，requiresmoreparticularexplanation。

Insomecountrieswhenthepublicinterestmayoccasionallyrequirethatprivatepropertyshouldbeappropriatedtopublicpurposes，thesovereignmakesuseofitwithoutceremony。Inothers，itcannotbetakenfromtheindividualonanytermswithouthisownconsent。Amiddlelineisthecorrectcourse。Aperverseandobstinateman，mightotherwiseimpedeorwhollypreventmeasuresofthemostcogentnecessityforthepublicbenefit，inwhichhisownwouldbeincluded。Thepeoplebydeclaring，thatprivatepropertyshallnotbetakenforpublicuse，withoutjustcompensation，haveagreedthatinsuchcasesandonsuchtermsitmaybetaken。Ofthenecessity，thelegislatureistheonlyjudge；itdoesnotrestwiththejudicialpowertodeterminewhetherthepublicexigencewassuchastorequireit:greatinconveniencesmightensuefromtheirassumingsucharight。Forexample，aparticularpieceofgroundmightappeartothelegislature，asuitablesiteforafortintimeofdanger，andiftheyproceededinalegalmannertovesttherighttothegroundinthepublic，itwouldnotbecompetentforthejudiciarytodecide，thatabetterspotmighthavebeenchosen，orthattherewasnonecessityforanyfort。

Inthismanner，thepropertyofanindividualmaybelegallytransferredagainsthiswilltothestate，butthelegislaturehasnopowertotransferthepropertyofA。toB。althoughitmayappearmorebeneficialtothestatethatB。shouldhaveit。11Thejustcompensationspokenof，shouldbeascertainedbyajuryimpartiallyselected，andshouldbepaidinmoney，theuniversalrepresentativeandcommonstandardofvalue。12

Amongthesejustandhumaneprovisions，weobserve，thattrialbyjuryisexpresslysecuredinallprosecutionsforoffencescommittedonland。

Thosewhichmayhavebeencommittedonthehighseas，wouldproperlyfallwithintheadmiraltyjurisdiction，andmight，consistentlywithitsnature，bedecidedwithouttheinterventionofajury。Butinconferringoncongressthepowertodefineandtopunishsuchoffences，therighttodirectthemodeoftrialisgrantedasanecessaryincident。

Offencescommittedonthehighseas，beingasalreadyobserved，13withinthecognizanceofallnations，andtheoffenderliabletoprosecutionbythepowerwhichfirstapprehendshim，hemayconsequentlybesubjectedtoamodeoftrialinwhichajuryisunknown。Reasonsofgeneralpolicymaythereforepossiblysuggestthewithholdingtheabsoluterighttotrialbyjuryinsuchcases，andhence，itisomitted，notonlyintheoriginaltextbutintheamendments。Itisproperlyconfidedtocongress，whoselegislationonthesubject，may，asgoodreasonsoccasionlyarepresented，recall，abridge，ormodifythegrant。

Inrespecttocivilcontroversies，doubtsaroseinsomeofthestateconventions，whethertheoriginaltextwassufficientlyexplicit。Itdidnot，indeed，abolishtrialbyjuryinanycase，butitwasapprehendedthatapositivedeclarationinfavourofit，incivilcontroversies，alsowasexpedient。

Hencebythe7thamendment，itisprovided，thatintrialsatcommonlaw，whenthevalueincontroversyexceedstwentydollars，therightoftrialbyjuryshallbepreserved，andnofact，triedbyajuryshallbeotherwisere-examinedinanycourtoftheUnitedStates，thanaccordingtotherulesofthecommonlaw。

Bythefirstpartofit，congressisdisabledfromevertakingitaway；

andbythesecond，neitheralawcanbepassedbythem，norapracticeadoptedbythecourts，tore-examinefactstriedbyajury，otherwisethanaccordingtowellknownandlongestablishedprinciples。

Theword"appellate，"appliedintheoriginalinstrumenttothejurisdictionofthesupremecourt，wasbysomedeemedambiguousandinconsistentwithtechnicalphraseology；anappealisnotthemodeofre-examiningthedecisionsofcommonlawcourts，whichcanonlybedoneonawritoferror，bywhichtherecordofaninferiorcourtisbroughtbeforethesuperiorone；andnofactscanbeinquiredinto，whichdonotappearontherecord。Newtrialsmaybegranted，ifsufficientcauseisshown，bythecourtinwhichtheverdictisgiven，or，ifthejudgmentisreversedinthecourtabove，aveniredenovo，whichisadirectiontotheinferiorcourttosummonanotherjuryisissued，itthecaserequiresit，butinnoothermannercanthefactsbere-examined。Anappealistheprocessofre-examinationincourtsofadmiraltyandchanceryjurisdictionfromwhichtrialbyjuryissystematicallyexcluded，andinrespecttowhich，noalterationisintended。

Bythisveryproperamendment，allambiguityis，removed，andalldoubtissatisfied。Thereferencetothecommonlaw，precludesthenecessityoffullerdetail。Thetrialbyjuryisforeversecuredonitsancientbasis，andcannotbemultipliedbeyondit。

HereweclosethispartofourviewoftheConstitution。Intherestrictionsonthelegislativepower，weperceivetwogreatprinciples?thesecurityofthepeople"srights，andthepreservationofthegreatnationalsystem。

Wehavenoticedthosepartswhichnecessarilyexcludetheactionofthestatesonthesamesubject；butitwillalsobepropertoadverttothoseexpressrestrictionsonthestates，whichamounttothediminutionorrelinquishmentofsomuchofthestatesovereignty，asthepeoplethoughtitexpedienttotransfertotheUnitedStates。

Nostateshallenterintoanytreaty，alliance，orconfederation，norintoanyagreementorcompactwithanotherstate，orwithaforeignpower。Ifliterallyconstrued，thisrestrictionwouldbetotalandabsolute，andyet，asbetweenstates，somecompactscertainlymaybemade。

Thuswhenalargeriverformsaboundarybetweentwostates，acompactinregardtotheexerciseofjurisdictionontheriver，orinrespecttoitsfisheries，oritsislands，wouldbelawful。Andperhapsthetrueconstructionofthisclauseis，thatpoliticalcompactsinanyformarealoneintended。

Ifastatehasreceivedaparticularinjuryfromaforeignpower，itisnottogivewaytothenaturalimpulseofgrantinglettersofmarqueandreprisal，forthiswouldinvadeanessentialattributeofthegeneralgovernment。

Thepowertocoinmoney，emitbillsofcredit，andmakeanythingbutgoldandsilveratenderinthepaymentofdebts，islikewisewithdrawnfromthem，althoughnotwithheldfromtheUnitedStates。

Therestrictionsofpassingbillsofattainderandexpostfactolaws，andgrantingtitlesofnobility，iscommontoboth，buttheexpressprohibitionofpassinglawsimpairingtheobligationofcontractsisconfinedtotheseparatestates，anditmay，asalreadynoticed，beinquiredwhyitwasnotextendedtotheUnitedStates。Beforeananswerisgiven，anexplanationofthesenseinwhichthetermcontractisheretobeexpounded，drawnfromthehighestauthority，willbeuseful。

Bycontractswearetounderstandeveryexecutedagreement，whetherbetweenindividualsorbetweenindividualsandastate，bywhicharightisvested，andeveryexecutoryagreementwhichconfersarightofaction，orcreatesabindingobligationinrelationtosubjectsofavaluablenature，suchasmaybeassertedinacourtofjustice；butitdoesnotcomprehendthepoliticalrelationsofagovernmentanditscitizens；civilinstitutionswhichmustbeliabletochangewithcircumstances，andtobemodifiedbyordinarylegislation，thosewhichdeeplyconcernthepublic，andwhichtopreservegoodgovernment，thepublicjudgmentmustcontrol。14

Theplenitudeofpowerpossessedbyastatelegislature，towhicheverythingthatisnotreservedisgranted，andthetemptationstoanerroneousexerciseofthispowerwhichsometimesoccur，renderexpressrestrictions，ifnotabsolutelynecessary，atleastveryuseful；butthelegislatureoftheUnitedStatescanhavenosuchpower，unlessitisexpresslygrantedtothem。

Asystemofbankruptcyimpairstheobligationofcontracts，whenitreleasesthepartyfromthenecessityofperformingthem；butcongressisexpresslyinvestedwiththispowerinregardtobankruptcy。Itisanenumerated，andnotanimpliedone，andinnootherform，cantheobligationofcontractsbeimpairedbythem。Asystemofbankruptcyispracticallylimitedtotwoobjects，thereliefofhonestinsolvencyandtheequaldistributionoftheremnantsofpropertyamongthecreditors。TheUnitedStatestherefore，possessnovagueandindefinitepower，thatmaybeexercisedtotheprejudiceofindividualsamongthemselves，ortheexaltationofthepublicauthorityoverprivaterights。

Theremainingrestrictionshavealreadybeengenerallynoticed，butwillherebetranscribedtoclosethesubject。

Nostateshall，withouttheconsentofthecongress，layanyimpostsordutiesonimportsorexports，exceptwhatmaybeabsolutelynecessaryforexecutingitsinspectionlaws，andthenetproduceofalldutiesandimposts，laidbyanystateonimportsorexports，shallbefortheuseofthetreasuryoftheUnitedStates，andallsuchlawsshallbesubjecttotherevisionandcontrolofthecongress。Nostateshall，withouttheconsentofcongress，layanydutyoftonnage，keeptroopsorshipsofwarintimeofpeace，orengageinwarunlessactuallyinvaded，orinsuchimminentdangeraswillnotadmitofdelay。

1。Seeamongotherinstances，thecase。

ofCommonwealthv。Smith，beforeChiefJusticeTilghman，1809。

2。3Dallas，386。Calderv。Bull。

3。SeeDalrymple"sMemoirs，vol。2，Mazure"slatehistoryoftheRevolutionof1688，&；c。

4。Therearenowbuttwostatesintheunionwhoseconstitutionscontainexclusiveprovisionsinregardtoreligiousopinions。InMaryland，noonewhodoesnotbelieveintheChristianreligioncanbeadmittedtoanofficeoftrustorprofit。InNorthCarolina，thesameexclusionisextendedtoallwhodenythetruthoftheProtestantreligion。Butineveryotherrespectthanthecapacitytoboldsuchoffices，allstandonthesamefootinginbothstates。

5。1Bl。143。4Bl。147。LordMansfieldontheTrialofLordGeorgeGordon。

6。1Will。&；Mary，c。2。