第4章

IntheconflictsbywhichthecountrywasdistractedafterthedepartureoftheRomans，eachsuccessfulcompetitorexactedfromthosehehadsubdued，anoathoffidelityandsubmission。

Fromthispracticetheusagearoseofrequiringasimilarengagementfromtheirownfollowers，astheysubsequentlydispersedthemselvesthroughthecountryandwhenHaroldwasoverthrownbytheBastardofNormandy，thenecessityofexactingitbecamemoreobvious，notonlyfromthediscontentwhichhisseveritiesexcited，butfromtheimpressionwhichtheillegitimacyofhisbirthmightmakeonhissubjects。

Theoathoffealtyandhomagenecessarilyaccompaniedthenumerousgrantsofland，wrestedfromitsoriginalowners，andbestoweduponhisadherents；

theoathofallegiancewasincorporatedwiththeoathoffealty，andwhoeverwillreflectontheconditionofthetimeswillbesatisfiedthatallegiancewasnotsworntothenation，buttotheindividualwhosevictoriousarmshadrenderedhimtherulerofthenation。

Hencecertainconsequenceswereunderstoodtoflow；theallegiancethussolemnlypledgedcouldnotbewithdrawn，unlesstheprotectionwhichwasimpliedinreturn，shouldbewithheldorbecomeimpracticable。

Ifthemonarchwasdrivenoutbyasuccessfulcompetitor，whotookpossessionofthethrone，theallegiancewasconsideredastransferredtohim，andthesubjectwhodisobeyedthereigningsovereign，washeldtoviolatehisoath。

Butfromthisallegiance，eitheroriginalortransferred，hecouldnotwithdrawhimself；hewassupposednevertoceasebeingthesubjectofthereigningsovereign。Allegianceequallypermanentwasheldtoresultfrombirth。Thekingcouldseenonebuthisownsubjectswithinhisowndomain，Boundasheallegedtoprotectall，allwereboundtobefaithfultohim。

Butallegiancesprungfromthebirthofthoseonlywhowerebornunderhisdominion。ItisobservedbyCoke，thatifenemiesweretoobtainpossessionofatownorfort，andhaveissuethere，thatissuewouldnotbesubjectsofthekingofEngland，fortheywouldhavenoclaimtohisprotection。4

Ifthisviewofthesubjectbecorrect；ifallegiance，atleastsincetheNormanConquest，istobeconsideredasproceedingfromforceandnotfromcontract；ifitislegallyduetothekingandnottothesocietywhichhegoverns，wecanremainundernodifficultyinrespecttoitsinalienablequalityaccordingtotheirlaws。

Therightsorexpectationsofthepeoplewereseldomtakenintoaccount；

thekingmight，bytreatywithaforeignpower，alienateanentireterritory；

anditsinhabitants，withouttheirpreviousknowledgeorconsent，becompelledtoserveanothersovereign。5Thusallegiancewasrenderedperpetualatthepleasureofthesovereign，notofthepeople；andtheformer，notthelatter，possessedasortofpropertyinit；butwithusitsindefeasiblenaturerestsonbettergrounds。

Theinstantaneousresultonourpoliticalcharacter，fromthedeclarationofindependence，wastoconvertallegiancefromcompulsionintocompact，andwhileitstillremainedduetothesovereign，toseethat。sovereignonlyinthewholecommunity。

Inthenativewehaveobservedthatitiscoevalwithlife；inhimwhomigratesfromanothercountry，itcommencesasapermanentdutywithnaturalization；

inbothitlaststilldeath，unlessitisreleasedbysomeprocedure，mutualonthepartofboththestateandtheindividual。

Whethertheindividualalonemayrelinquishit，isaquestionwhichinthisaswellasothercountrieshasbeenoftendiscussed，andonwhichanopinioncannotbegivenwithoutdiffidence，sinceithasnotyetreceivedadecisioninthehighesttribunalofourcountry。

Inthefirstplace，wemaydisposewithlittlecomparativedifficultyofthecaseofthenaturalizedcitizen。Hisaccessionisvoluntary，andhisengagementisneitherinitstermsnorinitsnaturelimitedtoanytime。Hethereforebindshimselfbycontractforhislife，andthestate，whichdifferentlyfromthedoctrineoftheEnglishandothermonarchies，cannotafterwardsdeprivehimofthequalitythusacquired，whichcannotagainbyitsownact，converthimintoanalienisequallyboundforthesameterm。

ThisiswellexpressedbyLockeinhistreatiseoncivilgovernment。

"Hethathasoncebyactualagreementandexpressdeclarationgivenhisconsenttobeofanycommonweal，isperpetuallyandindispensablyobligedtobeandremainunalterablyasubjectofit，andcanneverbeagaininthelibertyofastateofnature，unlessbyanycalamity，thegovernmenthewasundershallbedissolved，orbysomepublicactitcutshimofffrombeingamemberofit。"

UnderourConstitutionthelastwouldbeimpossiblewithouthisownconsent，andthecitizencannomoredissolvethiscontractthanhecananyotheroflessmomentwithouttheconsentoftheoppositeparty。

Buttherearetwootherclassesofcitizens，andwemustexaminewhetherthesameprinciplecanbeappliedtothem。Itwould，perhaps，besufficienttosay，thatiftheobligation，towhichthenaturalizedcitizensubjectshimself，isclearlyanobligationforlife；thatofthenativecannotbeforashorterterm。Naturalizationisbutamodeofacquiringtheright，subjecttothedutiesofacitizen；itisthefactitioussubstitutionoflegalformforactualbirth，anditcanneitherexceednorfallshortofthecapacitiesandobligationswhichbirthcreates。Itwouldbeabsurdindeed，iftheforeignerwasgiventounderstand，thatbynaturalizationhehadbecomeboundforlife，inthemidstofnativecitizens，noneofwhomwereunderthesameobligation。

Butweneednotrestonthispostulate。Thecompactcreatedamongthecitizens，bythedeclarationofindependence，waswellunderstoodbythemselvesatthemoment，nottobeofatemporarynature，andinthepoweroftheindividualatpleasuretodissolve。Itwasessentialnotonlytothepermanence，buttotheformationofthenewgovernment，thateveryoneeithertakinganactivepartinitsestablishment，orgivingevidenceofhisconsentbyremainingwithinit，shouldbeconsideredasboundtoit，solongasitcontinued。Theirsituationatthemomentwasnotthatofaliens，whowereheldbyapriorallegiance，whiletheyundertookanother。Hewhothusunitedhimselfwiththenewlyformedstate，instantlyceased，incontemplationofourlaw，tobeasubjectofGreatBritain。Hecouldthereafter，justifynohostilemeasureagainstusbyalleginghisancientallegiance。Whatheonceowedtothatpowerwasnowwhollytransferredtothenewstate，withallitsqualitiesandaccompaniments，exceptone。Thecorrelativeofprotection，couldnot，asbefore，bedestroyedatpleasurebythereceiveroftheallegiance。Theobligationwasmutualandperpetual。Ifanyqualificationofitwasintended，itwouldhavebeenexpressed，butwedonotfindinanyofthestateconstitutions，orinthatoftheUnitedStates，theslightestsuggestionthattheallegiancetobepaidtothem，waslesssolemn，lessentire，lesspermanentthanthatwhichwaspreviouslyduetothemonarchofGreatBritain。Thusthequestionstandsinrespecttothisclassofcitizens。

Thenextinquiryis，whetherthiscontractwasconfidedtotheindividualorextendedalsotohisissue。Sofarasrelatestotheparent，ananswertothisquestionmaybefoundinthemerestatementofit。Noonecansupposethattheparentintended，thatwhilehewasapermanentcitizenofthestate，hischildrenshouldnotpartakeofthesamerights，enjoythesameliberty，andbeprotectedbe，thesamegovernment。Natureitselfimpressesontheparentalmind，adesiretopromotetheinterestsofchildren，andcausesittorevoltattheideaofwithholdingfromthemwhatmaynotonlybesharedwiththem，butwhatalsobecomesmorevaluablebybeingsoshared。

Thepleasingsensationintheparent，ofpassingfromtheconditionofanoppressedsubject，tothatofacitizenofafreerepublic，wouldsurelybeimpairedbyaconsiderationthathisoffspringwouldacquirenobirthrightinthecommunityofhischoice。Inrespecttohim，therefore，wecannotdoubtthedesire，andhaveonlytoexaminethepower，offixingthepoliticalrelationsofhisdescendants。Theprinciplewhichnextpresentsitselfis，thatwhatallthemembersofthestatemusthavethusunderstood，mustalsohavebeensounderstoodbythestate，whichisonlythecollectionofthosemembers。Thecompactsofarasrelatestothestate，ofcourseextendstotheindividualandtoallhisdescendants，andtherefore，asthechildisentitledtothebenefitofbeingrecognisedasacitizen，thestateisentitledinitsturn，toviewthechildasunderitsallegiance。

Itmayhoweverbeurged，thataninfantcannotbinditselfbycontract，butifitisnecessarytoanswertheobjection，itissufficienttosaythataninfantmayexpresslybinditselffornecessaries，asfoodandraiment，thatacontractisalwaysimpliedwheresucharticlesarefurnished，andthatthereciprocalcompactofprotectionandallegiance，mustberankedamongconsiderationsofthehighestorderandfirstnecessity。Thedignityofthesubjectishoweversomewhataffectedbyrestingitonagroundsonarrow；andwhenweconsideralltheobligationscastonapoliticalsocietybythevoluntaryformationofit，wemaydiscardthesmallerrulesofprivatecontract，andmoresafelyrelyonthebroadbasisofthegeneralgood，inherentinitsnature，andnecessarytoitsself-preservation。

Whenthechildhasattainedanagesufficientlymature，accordingtocivilinstitutions，toenableittodeterminethechoice，itwouldseem，inconsistencywiththeprinciplesalreadylaiddown，thattheindividualmustbeallowedareasonabletimetoenablehimtoselectthecountryinwhichhewillreside，andthesocietytowhichhewilladhere。Ofhiswillingnesstocontinue，nopublicdeclarationseemstoberequisite。Hisactsdemonstratehischoice；buttherewouldbeagreatdifficultyinfixingthetimeinwhichacontrarydeterminationoughttobeformedanddeclared。Thelawhasassignedtwenty-oneyearsastheageofdiscretion；butinwhomisthejudgmentsufficientlyripenedatsoearlyaperiod，toenablehimtodetermineonasubjectsomomentous，andhowlongafterthatperiodhasbeenreached，shallbeallowedfordeliberation?Thesedifficultiesappeartobealmostinsuperable，andseemtorendertheprincipleitselfinadmissible，unlessitshouldbespeciallyprovidedforbythelegislature。Butwheretheadulthasforasufficientlengthoftime，byeveryexternalact，manifestedhisadhesiontothepoliticalsocietyinwhichhewasborn，therecanexistnorightinhimtoshakeoffhisallegiancewithouttheconsentofthestate，andbecomeastranger，orinthecourseofevents，anenemytohiscountry。Byhisactshehasboundhimselfascloselyasthealienwho，seekingtobenaturalized，hastakenanexpressoath。Theobligationsresultingfromhisbirtharerivettedbyhisvoluntaryconductafterwards，andhecannotdisputetheindissolubletie，ofwhichhehasthusdoubledtheeffect。

Tothesepositionssomeobjectionsmaybemade，whichitwillbeendeavouredtoanswer。

TheleadingoneisthegreatactofJuly4，1776，bywhichtwoandahalfmillionsofsubjectsthrewofftheirallegiancetoGreatBritain，anditisarguedthatwhatmightbedonebythemcollectively，couldbedonebythemindividually；butanobviousfallacyappearsintheverystatementofthisproposition。

Whentheprotectionofthecrownwaswithdrawn；whentheaspectandthearmofpaternalpowerwereconvertedintovirtualexclusionfromthepaleoftheBritishfamily；arightofcollectiveresistancewascreatedwhich，unlesssimilarmeasurescouldbeexertedagainstanindividual，canneverexistinanindividual。Ourcasedifferedinformonlyfromthecessionofterritoriesandtheirinhabitantsalreadynoticed。Ifeitherbycessiontoanotherorbyunmeritedseveritytothosewhoarenormallyretainedassubjects，thelegitimateprotectionisthuswhollywithdrawn；

thedissolutionofallegianceistheactofthesovereign，andifassentedtobyitssubjects，isbindingonboth。Itdependsthereforeuponfactstodeterminewhetherthecauseofourseparationwassufficient，andonthesefactsnoAmericanmindcanhesitate。

Thetreatyof1783maybesafelyreferredtoinconfirmationofthisopinion。InrecognisingtheindependenceoftheUnitedStates，therighttodeclareitontheprinciplesweasserted，mayjustlybeconsideredasalsorecognized。GreatBritaindidnotbyprofessingtograntusindependence，(agrantwhichwouldnothavebeenaccepted，)affecttoreleaseusfrompresentallegiance；butonthecontrarymustbeconsideredasretrospectivelyacknowledgingthatbyherownactshehadentitledustodiscontinueit。

Anotherobjectionarisesfromtheacknowledgedrightofemigration，ofwhich，withus，noinhabitantisdeprived，while，inmanyothergovernments，expresspermissionisnecessary；buttheerrorofthisconsistsinsupposingthatemigrationimpliesthedissolutionofallegiance。

Emigrationinitsgeneralsense，merelysignifiesremovalfromoneplacetoanother；itsstrictandmoreappropriatemeaningistheremovalofaperson，hiseffectsandresidence:butinnosensedoesitimplyorrequirethatitshouldtakeplace。withaviewtobecomeasubjectorcitizenofanothercountry。

Motivesofhealthortrade，convenienceorpleasure，mayleadtoemigration；

butifadeprivationofcitizenshipwerethenecessaryandimmediateconsequence，(andunlessitis，theargumentiswithoutweight，)emigrationwouldoftenbeacauseofterrorandsometimesapunishment，insteadofabenefit，inwhichsensetherightisconsidered。

Thosewhocontendfortheaffirmativeoftheproposition，mustbeabletoprovethatthequalityofcitizenshipceasesatthemomentofdeparture；

thatiftheemigrantreturnshecannotberestoredtohisformerrank，withoutpassingthroughtheregularformsofnaturalization；thatifrealestatehaddescendeduponhimduringhisabsence，hecouldnotinherititwithouttheaidofalawinfavourofaliens，andthatifthecountrytowhichhehasremoved，becomesengagedinwarwithus，andhedidnotchoosetoremainthere，hewouldbeliableonhisreturn，tobetreatedasanalienenemy。InVirginia，whatistermedexpatriationisauthorizedbyanactofassemblypassedin1792。6Thisisafaircompactwhichanindependentstatehasarighttomakewithitscitizens，andamountstoafullreleaseofallfutureclaimsagainsttheemigrantwho，iftakeninwaragainstthestate，wouldnotbeliabletothechargeoftreason。Butthereleaseiseffectiveonlysofarasrelatestothestatewhichgrantsit。ItdoesnotalterhisrelationtotheUnitedStates，anditwasquestionedinthecaseofTalbotv。Janson7howfarsuchalawwouldbecompatiblewiththeConstitutionoftheUnitedStates。

TheVirginiaactmakesnodistinctionbetweenthetimeofpeaceandofwar。

Whetherthecitizen，havingformedtheunnaturaldesignofaidingtheactualenemiesofhiscountry，couldmakeuseofitslegalformstoenablehimtocommitsuchacrimewithimpunity，remainstobedecidedbythetribunalsofthatstate。

Adistinctioncertainlynotunreasonablehasbeentakenbetweencitizenshipandallegiance。Perpetualallegianceisadoctrineoflessforceandefficacyinsomecountriesthaninothers。Itdependsontheirrespectivesystemsoflaw。

TheoriginofallegianceinEnglandhasbeenalreadydescribed。Itsformerextensionthroughalmosteverypartofthiscountryisunquestionable，andinmanystatesitcontinuesunimpairedinitsqualitiesandnature。

ItisindirectlyrecognisedintheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates，andbytheactsofcongress，whichhavebeensincepassed。TheindefeasiblequalityconceivedtobeincidenttoithasnotyetbeendecidedonbytheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates；butintheCircuitCourts，Ellsworth，chiefjustice，declared，thatamemberofthecommunity8cannotdissolvethesocialcompactsoastofreehimselffromourlaws，withouttheconsentorthedefaultofthecommunity。Andinanothercase，Washington，J。declaredthatnocitizencanthrowoffhisallegiancetohiscountrywithoutsomelawauthorizinghimtodoso。9Butinthosecountrieswherethedoctrineofallegiance，inthesenseweaffixtoit，doesnotexistatall，orwhereitisapartoftheirlawthatitmaybethrownoffincertaincases，ourpositionsdonotapply。

Itmaystillfurtherbeurged，thattherenunciationofallforeignallegianceinsertedintheoathofnaturalizationimpliesapowertorenouncewhatisduetousaswellaswhatisduetoaforeignstate。

IfthiswerefoundintheConstitution，itmightoccasionsomedifficulty；

butitisthelanguageofcongress，onwhomitdoesnotresttogiveabindingexpositionoftheConstitution。Itwasnotrequiredinthefirstactprescribingthemodeofobtainingnaturalization，anditwasprobablyintroducedfrompoliticaljealousy，andbywayofcautiontothenewcitizen。

Thenecessityofretainingitisnotveryperceptible。Ifanaturalizedcitizenshouldcommittreasonagainstus，byunitingwithahostilecountryfromwhichhehademigrated，hewouldnotbemoreamenabletothelaw，becauseofhisrenunciation，norlessso，ifithadnevertakenplace；

anditwouldhavenoeffectinthecountrywhichhehadleft，eitherbywayofaggravationorextenuationofanyoffenceforwhichhemightberesponsibletothem。10

Thetemporaryallegiance，whichbeganwithhisresidenceamongus，isrenderedperpetualbyhisnaturalization，andtherenunciationisanuselessadjunct。11

Thelastobjectionwhichoccurstotheauthoris，thatindependentoftheoathofabjuration，theadmissionofaforeignertonaturalizationamongusimpliesthathemaywithdrawhisallegiancefromhisnativecountry，andthatotherwiseincaseofwar，hewouldbeinvolvedinthehardshipofbeingobligedtocommittreasonagainstoneortheother:butthesatisfactoryansweralwaysgiventothispropositionis，thatiftheindividualchoosestoentanglehimselfinadoubleallegiance，itishisownvoluntaryact。

Hemayresideamonguswithoutbeingnaturalized，hemayenjoymuchoftheprotection，andsomeoftheadvantagesofacitizen，yetretain，unimpairedeveninsensation，hisallegiancetohisnativecountrytillthemomenthechoosestoleaveus。Ifhedeterminescompletelytounitehischaracterandhisfortuneswithours，wereceivehimunderthecompactalreadyexplained，andhistemporaryallegiancebecomespermanentlybinding。

Anotherpointofconsiderablemomentremainstobenoticed。Havingshownwhatacitizen，nativeornaturalized，maynotdobywayofwithdrawinghisallegiance。wewillnowproceedtoshowinwhatcasesthestatemaynotwithdrawitsprotection。

Everypersonhasarighttoremainwithinastateaslongashepleases，exceptthealienenemy，thepersonchargedwithcrimesinanyoftheotherstates，orinaforeignstatewithwhomatreatytothateffectexists，andfugitivesfromserviceorlabourinanyofthestates。Tothetwolatterdescriptions，noasylumcanbytheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates，beafforded。

Thestatesareconsideredasacommonfamily，whoseharmonywouldbeendangered，iftheyweretoprotectanddetainsuchfugitives，whendemandedinonecase，bytheexecutiveauthorityofthestate，orpursuedintheotherbythepersonsclaiminganinterestintheirservice。

Inthecaseofalienenemies，thepublicgoodisconsulted。Therightofsendingthemaway，isanincidenttotherightofcarryingonpublicwar。ItisnotmentionedintheConstitution，butitproperlyappertainstothosewhoaretoconductthewar。

Whoevervisitsorresidesamongus，comesundertheknowledgethatheisliable，bythelawofnations，tobesentoff，ifwarbreaksoutbetweenhiscountryandours，beforeheisnaturalized。Soifthereisanytreatyinforce，bywhichweareboundtodeliverupafugitive，chargedbyanothernationwiththecommissionofcrimeswithinitsterritory，everyonearrivingamongusisconsideredashavingknowledgeofsuchcompact。

Butwhatevermaybeheldbycertaintheoreticalwriters，thereisnofoundationfortheopinion，thatweareboundbythegenerallawofnations，withoutsuchcompact，tosurrenderapersonchargedwithacrimeinanothernation。

Theprinciplesbywhichthisconclusionisattained，areasfollow。

Acriminalact，committedwithinthelimitsofanation，isanoffenceagainstthatnation，andnotagainstanyother。Itisthedutyofanationtopunishoffencesagainstitself，butnotagainstothers。Iftheoffenderescapes，ithasnopowertopursuehimintotheterritoriesofanother，noranyright，bythegeneralrulesoflaw，torequiretheothertodeliverhimup。Thenationinwhichheseeksanasylum，mayconscientiouslyretainandprotecthim。Inlegalacceptation，hehasbeenreceivedasaninnocentman；heholdsthischaracteramongus，tillheforfeitsitbythecommissionofacrimeagainstus；heisthen，onconviction，liabletopunishmentforsuchcrime，butwecannotpunishhimforacrimecommittedinanothercountry。

Naturegivestomankindtherightofpunishingonlyfortheirowndefenceandsafety。Henceitfollows，thathecanonlybepunishedbythosehehasoffended。

Todeliverthefugitivetothenationwhichclaims，inordertopunishhim，istoassistthepunishment，andthereforedirectlyatvariancewiththeseprinciples。12

Yetitisnottobeinferred，thatonestatehasarighttotransferitscriminalstoanother，andthatthelatterisboundtoreceivethem。

Itrestswitheveryindependentstatetoopenitsdoorstotheadmissionofforeignersonsuchtermsonly，asitmaythinkproper。

Duringourcolonialdependency，themothercountryassumedaprivilegeoftransportingcertainclassesofherconvictedoffenderstotheprovinces，andthewantoflabourersatfirstinducedustoreceivethemwithoutcomplaint。

Butitwassoondiscoveredtobeanalarmingevil，andmanyoftheprovincestookmeasurestoopposeit。Oneofthelastactsofthecongressundertheconfederation，wastorecommendtotheseveralstatestopassproperlawsforpreventingthetransportationofconvictedmalefactorsfromforeigncountriesintotheUnitedStates。Perhapsthepowerimpliedbythe9thsectionofthe2darticle，mightbeusefullyadaptedtotheregulationofthissortofpoliticalcommerce，inwhich，atpresent，wecannotbegainers，fortheUnitedStateshavenoconstitutionalpowertoexportorbanishoffenders。

Thepowertopassuniformlawsonthesubjectofbankruptcies，iscontainedinthesameparagraph。Itisheld，however，fromitsnature，nottobecompletelyexclusive。

Untilitisexercised，thestatesaxenotforbiddentopassbankruptlaws，exceptsofarastheyimpairtheobligationofcontracts。Whencongressenactsageneralbankruptlaw，therightofthestatesissuspended，thoughnotextinguished。Fromtheexpirationorrepealofthebankruptlaw，theabilityofthestatetoexercisethepower，qualifiedasabovementioned，revives。13Andevenwhiletheactofcongressisinforce，thepowerofthestatecontinuesoversuchcasesasthelawdoesnotembrace。Hencethepowertopassinsolventlawsremainswiththestate。Bankruptlawsaregenerally，perhapsproperly，consideredasconfinedtothemercantileclass，whoaremoreexposedtopecuniaryvicissitudesthanthosewhopursueotheroccupations。Yetaspovertymayalsoassailthelatter，itwouldbehardtoexcludethemfromthehumaneprotectionofthestatelegislatures。Butasstatesareprohibitedfrompassinglawsimpairingtheobligationofcontracts，ithasbeencontendedthattheirpowertopassinsolventlawsisnowquestionable。Theanswertothisobjectionis，thatwithoutimpairingtheobligationofacontract，theremedytoenforceitmaybemodifiedasthewisdomofthelegislaturemaydirect。Confinementofthedebtormaybeapunishmentfornotperforminghiscontract，ormaybeallowedasthemeansofinducinghimtoperformit。Thestatemaywithholdthismeanandleavethecontractinfullforce。

Imprisonmentisnopartofthecontract，andsimplytoreleasetheprisonerdoesnotimpairitsobligations。14

Congressshallhavepowertocoinmoney，regulatethevaluethereof，andofforeigncoin，andfixthestandardofweightsandmeasures。

Inasubsequentsectionofthesamearticle，theseparatestatesareprohibitedfromcoiningmoneyandemittingbillsofcredit。15Theotherpartsofthissectionseemproperobjectsfortheexclusivepowerofcongress。Butuntilitshallbeexercised，eachstate，itispresumed，retainstherighttofixthestandardofweightsandmeasureswithinitsownprecincts。

ApowertoprovideforthepunishmentofcounterfeitingthesecuritiesandcurrentcoinoftheUnitedStates，isincidenttopartoftheantecedentsection，andinitselfpurportstheexclusionofstatepower。ButwhethertheexclusivecognizanceofsuchcasesmaybegiventothetribunalsoftheUnitedStates，ormaynotundersomecircumstancesbeconcurrentlyexercisedbythestatecourts，belongstoanotherhead，andwillbehereafterconsidered。

Thepowertoestablishpostofficesandpostroads，hasanecessaryconnexionwiththepromotionofcommerceandthegeneralwelfareoftheUnion。

Aregularsystemoffreeandspeedycommunication，isofvitalimportancetothemercantileinterest，butonawiderscalewemustalsoadmitittobeofthefirstconsequencetothegeneralbenefit。Intimeofpeace，ittendstokeepthepeopledulyinformedoftheirpoliticalinterests；

itassiststhemeasuresofgovernment，andtheprivateintercourseofindividuals。

Duringawar，therapidcommunicationofintelligence，bymeansofthepost，andthegreaterfacilityoftransferringbodiesofmenormunitionsofwar，todifferentplaces，bytheaidofgoodroads，areevidentadvantages。

Iftheseestablishmentsshouldinpracticeproducenorevenue，theexpensewouldbepropertychargeabletotheUnion，andtheproceedsoftaxationinthecommonformsbejustlyappliedtodefrayit。If，however，ashasprovedtobethecase，thepostofficeyieldsarevenue，whichiswiththeotherrevenuesoftheUnitedStatesapplicableonlytothegeneralservice，itisobvious，thatnostateoughttointerferebyestablishingapostofficeofitsown。Thisisthereforeanexclusivepowersofarasrelatestotheconveyanceofletters，&；c。Inregardtopostroads，itisunnecessary，andthereforewouldbeunwarrantableincongresswhereasufficientroadalreadyexists，tomakeanother；andontheotherhand，nostatehasapowertodenyorobstructthepassageofthemail，orthepassageoftroops，orthepropertyoftheUnitedStatesoveritspublicroads。

Thepowergiventocongress，inrespecttothissubject，wasbroughtintooperationsoonaftertheConstitutionwasadopted，andvariousprovisionshaveatdifferenttimesbeenenacted，foundedontheprincipleofitsbeinganexclusivepower。

Ithasbeenmadeaconstitutionalquestion，whethercongresshasarighttoopenanewmailroadthroughastateorstatesforgeneralpurposes，involvingthepublicbenefit，andthesamedoubthasbeenextendedtotherightofappropriatingmoneyinaidofcanalsthroughstates。Ifweadheretothewordsofthetext，weareconfinedtopostroads；butitappearstotheauthortobeoneofthoseimpliedpowerswhichmayfairlybeconsideredaswithintheprinciplesoftheConstitution，andwhichthereisnodangerinallowing。Thegeneralwelfaremayimperiouslyrequirecommunicationsofeitherofthesedescriptions。Astateisboundtoconsultonlyitsownimmediateinterests，andnottoincurexpenseforthebenefitofotherstates。TheUnitedStatesareboundtoupholdthegeneralinterestatthegeneralexpense。Torestrainthemtopointingouttheutilityofthemeasure，andcallingonparticularstatestoexecuteit，wouldbepartiallytorecalltheinefficiencyoftheoldgovernmentandtoviolatethemainprincipleofthepresentone。Ifanypoliticalevilcouldresultfromtheprocedure，itwouldpresentastrongargumentagainsttheallowanceofthepower；

butgoodroads，andfacile，aquaticcommunications，whiletheypromotetheprosperityofthecountry，cannotbeseriouslyallegedtoaffectthesovereigntyofthestates，orthelibertiesofthepeople。Theroadought，however，tobeanopen，notacloseone。Itisdoubtfulwhethertollsforpassageonit，canbeconstitutionallyexacted。

Inthesucceedingsection，theinterestsofscienceandtheusefulartsarelaudablyprovidedfor，byempoweringcongresstosecureforlimitedtimes，toauthorsandinventors，theexclusiverighttotheirrespectivewritingsanddiscoveries。

Atcommonlaw，itseemstohavebeenaquestionwhethertheinventorofanynewartorimprovementhadsuchaspecialpropertyinit，astoentitlehimtopursueanotherwhomadeuseofitaftertheinventorhadmadeitpublic。Buttherewasnodoubtthatifanotherpersonhadfallenonthesameinvention，withoutaknowledgeofthefirst，hewouldbeentitledtothebenefitofhisowntalents。Ithashoweverbeendeemedinmanycountriespoliticandwise，tosecuretothefirstinventorarewardforthetimeandstudyemployedinsuchpursuits。InEngland，thekingundertook，onthescoreofroyalprerogative，tograntexclusiveprivilegesofmakingandsellingarticlesofdomesticmanufacture，andofimportingforeignarticles，bywhichprotectiontosuchinventorswasoccasionallyobtained。

Butthispracticebegantobeabused，andsuchlicensesormonopolies，oftenconferredasrewardsonparticularfavourites，orusedmerelytopromotetheinterestofthecrown，hadincreasedinthereignofElizabethandJamesI。toanalarmingdegree，16andtherefore，byanactpassedinthetwenty-firstyearofthereignofthelatter，allsuchgrantsaredeclaredtobevoid；inthefifthsection，however，aprovisoisintroduced，whichisthefoundationofthepresentsysteminthatcountryrelativetopatents，byallowingthemtobegrantedtotheauthorsofanynewinventionsforatermnotexceedingfourteenyears。

Inrespecttowhatistermedliteraryproperty；therightwhichapersonmaybesupposedtohaveinhisownoriginalcompositions，?thesamedoubtsastothecommonlawareentertained，andtheprotectionofastatutehasbeenlikewiseextended，17whichatthesametimedisposedofthecommonlawquestion，astothosewhocompliedwithitsforms，bydeclaringthattheauthorshouldhavethebenefitofitforfourteenyears，andnolonger，unlesshewasstilllivingattheexpirationofthefirstterm，whenitmightberenewedforfourteenyearsmore。Butastheauthormightnotavailhimselfofthebenefitofthestatute，thequestionremainedunsettledtilltheyear1774，whenasmallmajorityofthetwelveJudgesdecidedagainstit。18Thisinterestingquestionmeritsmuchconsideration。Atpresentitissufficienttosay，thatasfromthenatureofourConstitution，nonewrightscanbeconsideredascreatedbyit，butitsoperationmoreproperlyistheorganizationanddistributionofaconcededpowerinrelationtorightsalreadyexisting，wemustregardtheseprovisionsasatleasttheevidenceofopinion，thatsuchaspeciesofproperty，bothintheworksofauthorsandintheinventionsofartists，hadalegalexistence。

Insomeofthestates，priortotheadoptionofthegeneralConstitution，actsofthelegislatureinfavourofmeritoriousdiscoveriesandimprovements，hadbeenpassed；buttheirefficacybeingconfinedtotheboundariesofthestates，wasoflittlevalue，andtherecanbenodoubtthat，assoonascongresslegislatedonthesubject，(whichwasasearlyasthesecondsession，1790，)allthestateprovisionsceased；althoughintheactof21Feb。1793，itiscautiouslyprovidedthattheapplicantforthebenefitoftheprotectionoftheUnitedStates，shallsurrenderhisrightunderanystatelaw；ofwhichhisobtainingapatentshallhesufficientevidence。

Todefineandpunishpiraciesandfeloniescommittedonthehighseasisanexclusivepower。

Theregulationofforeigncommerceappertainstocongressalone，andthepunishmentofoffencescommittedonthehighseasisanunavoidableincidenttothispower:assoonastheConstitutionwasadopted，thepowerofthestatesinthisrespectwasatanend。Buttheprincipleofthisexclusivejurisdictionmightperhapsbefurtherextended。Aftertheterritorialboundariesofanationareleft，theseabecomesthecommonpropertyofallnations，andtherightsandprivilegesrelativetheretobeingregulatedbythelawofnationsandtreaties，properlybelongtothenationaljurisdiction，andwouldbeinconvenientlyretainedbythestateswhich，inthisrespect，formonlypartsofthenation。

Itdoesnotseemtohavebeennecessarytodefinethecrimeofpiracy。

Thereisnoactonwhichtheuniversalsenseofnationshasbeensofullyanddistinctlyexpressed，asthereisnoactwhichissouniversallypunished。

Thepirateistheenemyofallnations，andallnationsaretheenemyofthepirate。

FelonyisatermderivedfromthecommonlawofEngland，andwhencommittedonthehighseas，amountstopiracy。Thepowertodefineeithermayhavebeenintroducedtoauthorizecongresstoqualifyandreducetheactswhichshouldamounttoeither。Itiscoupledwiththepowertopunish，andthispowerextendsnotmerelytocitizensoftheUnitedStates，buttoallothersexceptthecitizensorsubjectsofaforeignstatesailingunderitsflagandcommittingactswhichamounttopiracy；butgeneralpiracycommittedbypersonsonboardofavessel，actingindefianceofalllaw，andacknowledgingobediencetonogovernment，arepunishableinourcourts，andinthecourtsofallnations。19

Bythehighseaswearetounderstandnotonlytheoceanoutofsightofland，butwatersontheseacoastbeyondtheboundariesoflowwatermark，althoughinaroadsteadorbay，withinthejurisdictionorlimitsofoneofthestatesorofaforeigngovernment。20

Apowertodefineandtopunishoffencesagainstthelawofnationsiscontainedinthesameparagraph，butitisdoubtfulwhetherthepowertopunishoughttobeconsideredasanexclusiveone。Thelawofnationsformsapartofthecommonlawofeverycivilizedcountry；violationsofitmaybecommittedaswellonlandasatsea，andwhilethejurisdictionoftheseparatestatesisadmittedtobewithdrawnfromtheminregardtoactscommittedonthesea，itdoesnotseemtofollowthatitissupersededastothoseonshore。

Suchactsmaybeofvariouskinds，andalthoughthemostprominentsubjectsunderthisheadarethosewhichrelatetothepersonsandprivilegesofambassadors，yetinmanyotherparticulars，infringementsofthelawofnationsmaybepropersubjectsofstatejurisdiction。Butevenifanoutragewerecommittedonadiplomaticcharacter，andhepreferredtheredresstobeobtainedfromastatecourttothataffordedbythecourtsoftheUnitedStates，itisnotperceivedthatthisclausewouldprohibithimfromsodoing；yetwhetherthepowerisexclusiveornot，onwhichsomefurtherremarkswillbemade，thepowertodefineandtopunishthisclassofoffencesiswithgreatproprietygiventocongress。TheUnitedStatesbeingaloneresponsibletoforeignnationsforallthataffectstheirmutualintercourse，andtendstopromotethegeneralrelationsofgoodorderandjustdemeanour，itrestswiththemalonetodeclarewhatshallconstitutesuchcrimes，andtoprescribesuitablepunishments。

Whensuchlawsaremade，theybecomebindingrulesofdecisionaswellonthestatecourtsasonthecourtsoftheUnitedStates；butifcasesariseforwhichnosuchstatutoryprovisionhasbeenmade，boththesedescriptionsofcourtsarethrownuponthosegeneralprinciples，whichbeingenforcedbyothernations，thosenationshavearighttorequireustoapplyandenforceintheirfavour，orforthebenefitoftheircitizensandsubjects。

Thepowerofdeclaringwar，withallitstrainofconsequences，directandindirect，formsthenextbranchofpowersexclusivelyconfidedtocongress:

Therightofusingforce，orofmakingwar，belongstonations，sofarasitisnecessaryfortheirdefenceandthesupportoftheirrights。Buttheevilsofwararecertain，andtheeventdoubtful，andthereforebothwisdomandhumanityrequire，thateverypossibleprecautionshouldbeusedbeforeanationisplungedintoit。Inmonarchies，thekinggenerallypossessesthispower，anditisasoftenexercisedforhisownaggrandizementasforthegoodofthenation。Republics，thoughtheycannotbewhollyexoneratedfromtheimputationofambition，jealousies，causelessirritations，andotherpersonalpassions，enterintowarmoredeliberatelyandreluctantly。

Itisnoteasytoperceivewherethispowercould，withus，bemoreprudentlyplaced。Butitmustberemembered，thatwemaybeinvolvedinawarwithoutaformaldeclarationofit。Intheyear1800，wewereengagedinaqualified，butpublic，warwithFrance；21qualified，becauseitwasonlywagedonthehighseas?public，becausethewholenationwasinvolvedinit。ItwasfoundedonthehostilemeasuresauthorizedbycongressagainstFrance，byreasonofherunjustaggressionsonourcommerce?yettherewasnodeclarationofwar。Insuchawarwemayalsobeinvolvedbytheconductoftheexecutive，withouttheparticipationofthelegislature。Theintercoursewithforeignnations，thedirectionofthemilitaryandnavalpower，beingconfidedtothepresident，hiserrorsormisconductmaydrawhostilitiesuponus。Nootherrestraintappearstoexist，thanthatofwithholdingthesuppliestocarryiton，whichindeedcongresscaninnocasegrantbeyondthetermoftwoyears。ButinEngland，thekingis，inthisrespect，equallydependentontheparliament，anditshistoryshowsthatthisdependenceisnotalwaysadequatetopreventunpopularwars。

Theseveralstatesare，byanotherclause，prohibitedfromengaginginwar，unlessactuallyinvaded，orinsuchimminentdangeraswillnotadmitofdelay。

Butalthoughcongressalonecansubjectustothedubiousresultsofformalwar，asmallerportionofthegovernmentcanrestoreustopeace。

Hostilitiesmaybeterminatedbyatruce，whichthepresidentalone(itisconceived)maymake。Thedurationofatruceisindefinite。Itsuspendsallhostilitieswhileitcontinuesinforce；butitdoesnotrevivetreatieswhichwerebrokenbythecommencementofthewar，orrestorerightsofanysort，whichweresuspendedbyit。Itmaybegeneralorpartial?itmayextendtoallplacesandtoallthemutualforcesofthebelligerents，oritmaybeconfinedtoparticularplacesorparticulararmaments。Whenitceases，itisunnecessarytorepeatthedeclarationofwar。Butbeforeitsconventualtermination，unlesssomefreshcauseofcomplaintshouldhavearisen，itwouldbeinconsistentwithgoodfaithtorenewhostilities。

Treaties，bywhichpeaceiscompletelyrestored，may，asalreadyshown，bemadebythepresidentandsenatealone，withouttheconcurrence，andagainstthewillofthehouseofrepresentatives。

Ithasbeenmadeasubjectofdoubt，whetherthepowertomakewarandpeace，shouldnotbethesame，andwhyasmallerpartofthegovernmentshouldbeentrustedwiththelatter，thantheformer。Sufficientreasonsmaycertainlybeassignedforthedistinction。Peaceisseldomeffectedwithoutpreparatorydiscussions，oftenoflengthanddifficulty，theconductofwhich，ofcourse，belongsonlytothepresidentandsenate。Warisalwaysanevil；peaceisthecureofthatevil。Warshouldalwaysbeavoidedaslongaspossible，andalthoughitmayhappentobebroughtonusasbeforeobserved，withoutthepreviousassentofcongress，yetaregularandformalwarshouldneverbeenteredinto，withouttheunitedapprobationofthewholelegislature。Butalthoughapeaceisseldomobnoxiousandunacceptabletothepublic，yetitsnecessityorproprietymaynotalwaysbeapparent，andapublicdisclosureoftheurgentmotivesthatreallyexistinfavourofit，maybeprejudicial。Thepeoplehave，insuchcase，astrongermotiveforrelyingonthewisdomandjusticeofthepresidentandsenate，thaninthecaseofordinarytreaties。Theyarelesslikelythanalargerbodytobeinfluencedbypartialviewsoroccasionalinflammation，andtheverycircumstanceofthesmallnessoftheirnumbersincreasestheirresponsibilitytopublicopinion。

Bythefifteenthandsixteenthparagraphsofthesameimportantsection，congressisempoweredtoprovideforcallingforththemilitiatoexecutethelawsoftheUnion，suppressinsurrections，andrepelinvasions，butinrespecttothetwolastmentionedobjects，itisnottobeunderstoodasanexclusivepower。Therecannotatleastbeanydoubt，thatonthefirstemergency，eachstateenjoysasimilarpower，ofwhichnoactofcongresscandeprivethem。FortheprincipleoftheConstitutionisnottodenytothestatestherightofself-protectioninsuchcases，buttoco-operatewiththecollectiveforceoftheUnioninaidofthestate。

Uniformityintheorganizationanddisciplineofthemilitia，shouldextendthroughtheUnion。Theimbecilityoftheconfederationinthisrespect，togetherwiththevarietyoftheperiodsofserviceforwhichthemilitiawereengaged，producedconsiderableinconvenienceduringthewaroftherevolution。Hence，congressisfurtherempoweredtoprovidefororganizing，arming，anddiscipliningthemilitia，andforgoverningsuchpartofthemasmaybeemployedintheserviceoftheUnitedStates。Thispowercannotbeconsideredasinfringingtherightsandprivilegesofthestates，since，howevernecessary，itcannoteffectuallybevestedelsewhere，andsinceitisaccompaniedwithanexpressreservationtothem，oftheappointmentoftheofficers，andoftheauthorityoftrainingthemilitia，accordingtothediscipline，prescribedbycongress。Thissubjectwillbehereafterresumed。

Thelastenumeratedpoweristoexerciseexclusivelegislationinallcaseswhatever，oversuchdistrict，notexceedingtenmilessquare，asmaybycessionofparticularstates，andtheacceptanceofcongress，becometheseatofthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates，andtoexerciselikeauthorityoverallplacespurchasedbytheconsentofthelegislatureofthestateinwhichthesameshallbe，fortheerectionofforts，magazines，arsenals，dock-yards，andotherneedfulbuildings。

Aprovisionofthiskind，ispeculiartotheUnitedStates，22andthereasonsinfavourofit，arecogent。

Ifthegeneralgovernmenthelditssessionswithinthelimits，andunderthejurisdictionofastate，itwouldbedependentonthatstateforprotectionandsafety。Ifitshouldhappen，thatatanytime，unkindopinions，inrespecttoif，existedonthepartofthestate，or，ifthestategovernmentweredeficientinfirmnessandpower，thegenerallegislaturemightbesubjectedtoinsultanddisgrace，inthemidstofitsmostimportantfunctions。

Itwouldthusbedishonouredintheeyesofforeignpowers，andpitiedordespisedathome。Noristhisanimaginaryorimprobableevent。Atthecloseofthewaroftherevolution，thecongress，thensittingatPhiladelphia，wassurroundedandinsultedbyasmall，butinsolentbodyofmutineersofthecontinentalarmy。ItappliedtotheexecutiveauthorityofPennsylvaniafordefence；butundertheillconceivedconstitutionofthestateatthattime，theexecutivepowerwasvestedinacouncil，consistingofthirteenmembers；andtheypossessedorexhibitedsolittleenergy，andsuchapparentintimidation，thatthecongressindignantlyremovedtoNewJersey，whoseinhabitantswelcomeditwithpromisesofdefendingit。ItremainedforsometimeatPrinceton，withoutbeingagaininsulted，till，forthesakeofgreaterconvenience，itadjournedtoAnnapolis。ThegeneraldissatisfactionwiththeproceedingsoftheexecutiveauthorityofPennsylvania，andthedegradingspectacleofafugitivecongress，suggestedtheremedialprovisionsnowunderconsideration。

Ithasbeencarriedintoeffect，bythecessionandacceptanceofatractoflandontheriverPotowmack，partlyfromthestateofVirginia，andpartlyfromthestateofMaryland。Theinhabitantsgenerallyweresatisfied。

Butsomeconsequences，thatperhapswerenotfullyforeseen，haveflowedfromit。TheinhabitantsoftheDistrictofColumbia，arenolongerinallrespectscitizensofastate，althoughtheyareunquestionably，toacertainextent，citizensoftheUnitedStates。Assuch，theyareentitledtothebenefitofallcommercialorpoliticaltreatieswithforeignpowers，andtotheprotectionoftheUnionathome。Buttheyhavenorepresentativesinthesenate；theycannotpartakeintheelectionofmembersofthehouseofrepresentatives，orofelectorsofpresidentandvicepresident。Thejudiciarypowerbetweencitizensofdifferentstates，doesnotextendtothem，23inwhichrespect，theyaremoreunfavourablysituatethanaliens；butsuitablecourtsofjustice，andcertainadequateprovisionsforitslocalgovernment，havebeenmadebycongress。Theimmediateresidenceofgovernment，hasgreatlycontributedtoitsprosperity，anditspoliticalanomalyhasproducednogeneralinconvenience。

Underasubsequenthead，someremarkswillbemadeonthejudicialrelationsaffectingthis，andotherseparateddistricts。

Theenumerationcloseswithadeclarationofthepowersofcongress，tomakealllawswhichshallbenecessaryandproperforcarryingintoexecutiontheforegoingpowers，andallothersvestedbytheConstitutioninthegovernmentoftheUnitedStates，orinanydepartmentorofficerthereof。

Itisimpossiblenottoperceiveinthis，asinsomanyotherinstances，thecircumspectionthatconfinedthelegislaturetoitsproperbounds；

thewisdomthat，withinthosebounds，leftnothingunsupplied。

Withoutthisclause，thespecificenumerationmighthavebeenconstruedbyamorbidjealousy，toimply，thatcongresspossessednootherpowersoflegislation；andsomepartsoftheexecutivedutiesmighthavedoubtfullyrestedonlyonthegeneraldescriptionintheConstitution。Eventhefunctionsofthejudicialtribunalsrequirelegislativedevelopementandassistance。

Allnecessarypower，andnopowerthatisnotnecessary，iscontainedinthisfinalprovision。