A BRIEF ENQUIRY

第9章

Andletusnotsleepinthedelusionthatweshallderiveallneedfulsecurityfromourown"intelligenceandvirtue."Thepeoplemay,indeed,preservetheirlibertiesforever,iftheywilltakecaretobealwaysvirtuous,alwayswise,andalwaysvigilant.Andtheywillbeequallysecure,iftheycanassurethemselvesthattherulerstheymayselectwillneverabusetheirtrust,butwillalwaysunderstandandalwayspursuethetrueinterestsofthepeople.But,unhappily,therearenosuchpeopleandnosuchrulers.

Agovernmentmustbeimperfect,indeed,ifitrequiresuchadegreeofvirtueinthepeopleasrendersallgovernmentunnecessary.Governmentisfounded,notinthevirtues,butinthevicesofmankind;notintheirknowledgeandwisdom,butintheirignoranceandfolly.Itsobjectistoprotecttheweak,torestraintheviolent,topunishthevicious,andtocompelalltotheperformanceofthedutywhichmanowestomaninasocialstate.Itisnotaself-actingmachine,whichwillgoonandperformitsworkwithouthumanagency;itcannotbeseparatedfromthehumanbeingswhofillitsplaces,setinmotion,andregulateanddirectitsoperations.

Solongastheseareliabletoerrinjudgment,ortofailinvirtue,solongwillgovernmentbeliabletorunintoabuses.Untilallmenshallbecomesoperfectasnottorequiretoberuled,allgovernmentsprofessingtobefreewillrequiretobewatched,guarded,checkedandcontrolled.

Todothiseffectuallyrequiresmorethanwegenerallyfindofpublicvirtueandpublicintelligence.Agreatmajorityofmankindaremuchmoresensibletotheirintereststhantotheirrights.Wheneverthepeoplecanbepersuadedthatitistheirgreatestinteresttomaintaintheirrights,then,andthenonly,willfreegovernmentbesafefromabuses.

LookingatourownFederalGovernment,apartfromtheStates,andregardingit,asJudgeStorywouldhaveus,asaconsolidatedgovernmentofallthepeopleoftheUnitedStates,weshallnotfindinitthissalutarycountervailinginterest.Inanenlargedsense,itis,indeed,thegreatestinterestofalltosupportthatgovernmentinitspurity;for,althoughitisundoubtedlydefectiveinmanyimportantrespects,itismuchthebestthathasyetbeendevised.Unhappily,however,thegreatestinterestofthewholeisnotfelttobe,althoughintruthitis,thegreatestinterestofalltheparts.Thisresultsfromthefact,thatourcharacterisnothomogeneous,andourpursuitsarewhollydifferent.Rightlyunderstood,thesefactsshouldtendtobindusthemorecloselytogether,byshowingusourdependenceuponeachother;anditshouldteachusthenecessityofwatching,withthegreaterjealousy,everydeparturefromthestrictprinciplesofourunion.Itisatruth,however,nolessmelancholythanincontestable,thatifthiseverwastheviewofthepeople,ithasceasedtobeso.Anditcouldnotbeotherwise.WhateverbethetheoryofourConstitution,itspractice,oflateyears,hasmadeitaconsolidatedgovernment;thegovernmentofanirresponsiblemajority.Ifthatmajoritycanfind,eitherinthepursuitsoftheirownpeculiarindustry,orintheofficesandemolumentswhichflowfromthepatronageofthegovernment,aninterestdistinctfromthatoftheminority,theywillpursuethatinterest,andnothingwillbelefttotheminoritybutthepoorprivilegeofcomplaining.Thusthegovernmentbecomestyrannousandoppressive,preciselyinproportionasitsdemocraticprincipleisextended;andinsteadoftheenlargedandgeneralinterestwhichshouldcheckandrestrainit,apeculiarinterestisenlisted,toextenditspowersandsustainitsabuses.Publicvirtueandintelligenceavaillittle,insuchaconditionofthingsasthis.Thatvirtuefallsbeforethetemptation"sofinterestwhichyoupresenttoit,andthatintelligence,thusdeprivedofitsencouraginghopes,servesonlytopointoutnewobjectsofunlawfulpursuit,andsuggestnewandbasermethodsofattainingthem.

Thisresultcouldscarcelybebroughtabout,iftheFederalGovernmentwereallowedtorestontheprinciplesuponwhichIhaveendeavoredtoplaceit.Thecheckingandcontrollinginfluenceswhichaffordsafetytopublicliberty,arenottobefoundinthegovernmentitself.Thepeoplecannotalwaysprotectthemselvesagainsttheirrulers;iftheycould,nofreegovernment,inpasttimes,wouldhavebeenoverthrown.Powerandpatronagecannoteasilybesolimitedanddefined,astorobthemoftheircorruptinginfluencesoverthepublicmind.ItistrulyandwiselyremarkedbytheFederalist,that"apoweroveraman"ssubsistenceisapoweroverhiswill."AslittleaspossibleofthispowershouldbeentrustedtotheFederalGovernment,andeventhatlittleshouldbewatchedbyapowerauthorizedandcompetenttoarrestitsabuses.ThatpowercanbefoundonlyintheStates.Inthisconsiststhegreatsuperiorityofthefederativesystemovereveryother.Inthatsystem,theFederalGovernmentisresponsible,notdirectlytothepeopleenmasse,buttothepeopleintheircharacterofdistinctpoliticalcorporations.Howevereasyitmaybetostealpowerfromthepeople,governmentsdonotsoreadilyyieldtooneanother.TheconfederatedStatesconferontheircommongovernmentonlysuchpowerastheythemselvescannotseparatelyexercise,orsuchascanbebetterexercisedbythatgovernment.Theyhave,therefore,anequalinterest,togiveitpowerenough,andtopreventitfromassumingtoomuch.Intheirhands,thepowerofinterpositionisattendedwithnodanger;itmaybesafelylodgedwherethereisnointeresttoabuseit.

Underafederativesystem,thepeoplearenotliabletobeactedon(atleast,nottothesameextent),bythoseinfluenceswhicharesoapttobetrayandenslavethem,underaconsolidatedgovernmentPopularmasses,actingundertheexcitementsofthemoment,areeasilyledintofatalerrors.

Historyisfullofexamplesofthegoodandgreatsacrificedtothehastyjudgmentsofinfuriatedmultitudes,andofthemostfatalpublicmeasuresadoptedundertheexcitementsofthemoment.Howeasyitisfortheadroitandcunningtoavailthemselvesofsuchoccasions,andhowimpossibleitis,forapeoplesoactedon,towatchtheirrulerswisely,andguardthemselvesagainsttheencroachmentsofpower?Inafederativesystem,thisdangerisavoided,sofarastheircommongovernmentisconcerned.Therightofinterpositionbelongs,nottothepeopleintheaggregate,buttothepeopleinseparateandcomparativelysmallsubdivisions.Andeveninthesesubdivisions,theycanactonlythroughtheformsoftheirownseparategovernments.

Thesearenecessarilyslowanddeliberate,affordingtimeforexcitementtosubside,andforpassiontocool.Havingtopassthroughtheirowngovernments,beforetheyreachthatoftheUnitedStates,theyareforbiddentoactuntiltheyhavehadtimeforreflection,andfortheexerciseofacoolandtemperatejudgment.Besides,theyaretaughttolook,nottoonegovernmentonly,fortheprotectionandsecurityoftheirrights,andnottofeelthattheyoweobedienceonlytothat.Consciousthattheycanfind,intheirownStategovernments,protectionagainstthewrongsoftheFederalGovernment,theirfeelingofdependenceislessoppressive,andtheirjudgmentsmorefree.Andwhiletheireffortstothrowoffoppressionarenotrepressedbyafeelingthatthereisnopowertowhichtheycanappeal,theseeffortsarekeptundercluerestraints,byaconsciousnessthattheycannotbeunwiselyexerted,excepttotheinjuryofthepeoplethemselves.ItisdifficulttoperceivehowaFederalGovernment,establishedoncorrectprinciples,caneverbeoverthrown,exceptbyexternalviolence,solongasthefederativeprincipleisdulyrespectedandmaintained.Alltherequisitechecksandbalanceswillbefound,intherightoftheStatestokeeptheircommongovernmentwithintheircommonsphere;andasufficientsecurityforthedueexerciseofthatrightisaffordedbythefact,thatitistheinterestoftheStatestoexerciseitdiscreetly.Sofarasourowngovernmentisconcerned,Iventuretopredictthatitwillbecomeabsoluteandirresponsible,preciselyinproportionastherightsoftheStatesshallceasetoberespected,andtheirauthoritytointerposeforthecorrectionoffederalabusesshallbedeniedandoverthrown.

ItshouldbetheobjectofeverypatriotintheUnitedStatestoencourageahighrespectfortheStategovernments.Thepeopleshouldbetaughttoregardthemastheirgreatestinterest,andasthefirstobjectsoftheirdutyandaffection.Maintainedintheirjustrightsandpowers,theyformthetruebalance-wheel,theonlyeffectualcheckonfederalencroachments.

Anditpossessesasacheckthesedistinguishingadvantagesovereveryother,thatitcanneverbeappliedwithoutgreatdeliberationandcaution,thatitiscertaininitseffects,andthatitisbutlittleliabletoabuse.ItistruethataStatemayuseitspowerforimproperpurposes,oronimproperoccasions;buttheFederalGovernmentis,tosaytheleastofit,equallyliabletodangerouserrorsandviolationsoftrust.Shallwethenleavethatgovernmentfreefromallrestraint,merelybecausethepropercountervailingpowerisliabletoabuse?UponthesameprincipleweshouldabandonalltheguardsandsecuritieswhichwehavesocarefullyprovidedintheFederalConstitutionitself.Thetruthis,allchecksupongovernmentaremoreorlessimperfect;forifitwerenotso,governmentitselfwouldbeperfect.Butthisisnoreasonwhyweshouldabandonittoitsownwill.Wehaveonlytoapplytothissubjectourbestdiscretionandcaution,toconfernomorepowerthanisabsolutelynecessary,andtoguardthatpowerascarefullyaswecan.Perfectionisnottobehopedfor;butanapproximationtoit,sufficientlyneartoaffordareasonablesecuritytoourrightsandliberties,isnotunattainable.IntheformationoftheFederalGovernmentwehavebeencarefultolimititspowersanddefineitsduties.Ourobjectwastorenderitsuchthatthepeopleshouldfeelaninterestinsustainingitinitspurity,forotherwiseitcouldnotlongsubsist.Uponthesameprinciple,weshouldenlistthesameinterestinthewiseandproperapplicationofthosechecks,whichitsunavoidableimperfectionsrendernecessary.ThatinterestisfoundintheStates.HavingcreatedtheFederalGovernmentattheirownfreewill,andfortheirownuses,whyshouldtheyseektodestroyit?Havingclotheditwithacertainportionoftheirownpowers,fortheirownbenefitalone,whyshouldtheydesiretorenderthosepowersinoperativeandnugatory?Thedangeris,notthattheStateswillinterposetoooften,butthattheywillrathersubmittofederalusurpations,thanincurtheriskofembarrassingthatgovernment,byanyattemptstocheckandcontrolit.Flagrantabusesalone,andsuchaspubliclibertycannotendure,willevercallintoactionthissalutaryandconservativepoweroftheStates.

Butwhetherthischeckbethebestortheworstinitsnature,itisatleastonewhichoursystemallows.ItisnotfoundwithintheConstitution,butexistsindependentofit.AsthatConstitutionwasformedbysovereignStates,theyaloneareauthorized,wheneverthequestionarisesbetweenthemandtheircommongovernment,todetermine,inthelastresort,whatpowerstheyintendedtoconferonit.28Thisisaninseparableincidentofsovereignty;arightwhichbelongstotheStates,simplybecausetheyhaveneversurrenderedittoanyotherpower.Buttorenderthisrightavailableforanygoodpurpose,itisindispensablynecessarytomaintaintheStatesintheirproperposition.Iftheirpeoplesufferthemtosinkintotheinsignificanceofmeremunicipalcorporations,itwillbeinvaintoinvoketheirprotectionagainstthegiganticpoweroftheFederalGovernment.Thisisthepointtowhichthevigilanceofthepeopleshouldbechieflydirected.Theirhighestinterestisathome;

theirpalladiumistheirownStategovernments.Theyoughttoknowthattheycanlooknowhereelsewithperfectassuranceofsafetyandprotection.

Letthemthenmaintainthosegovernments,notonlyintheirrights,butintheirdignityandinfluence.Makeittheinterestoftheirpeopletoservethem;anintereststrongenoughtoresistallthetemptationsoffederalofficeandpatronage.ThenalonewilltheirvoicebeheardwithrespectatWashington;thenalonewilltheirinterpositionavailtoprotecttheirownpeopleagainsttheusurpationsofthegreatcentralpower.Itisvaintohopethatthefederativeprincipleofourgovernmentcanbepreserved,orthatanythingcanpreventitfromrunningintotheabsolutismofconsolidation,ifwesuffertherightsoftheStatestobefilchedaway,andtheirdignityandinfluencetobelost,throughourcarelessnessorneglect.

Endnotes1.GeneralHamiltononeoftheprincipalwritersoftheFederalist,wasundoubtedlyatheartamonarchist.Onmorethanoneoccasionheplainlyavowedhimselfsuch.IntheconventionwhichframedtheConstitution,heexertedhiscommandinginfluencetoimpartcentralized,consolidated,ormonarchicalpowerstotheFederalUnion.

But,signallyfailinginthis,inhissubsequentinterpretationsoftheConstitutionhedidwhathecouldtobendtheinstrumenttosuithisviews.

JudgeStoryandChiefJusticeKent,and,earlier,ChiefJusticeJay,belongedtothesamepoliticalpartyasGeneralHamilton.TheywereFederalists,andsoodiousdidthispartybecometotheAmericanpeople,thatitwasdrivenoutofpowerattheexpirationofoldJohnAdams"ssinglepresidentialtermin1800.?[C.C.B.]

2.TheresolutionsofVirginia,in1765,showthatsheconsideredherselfmerelyasanappendageoftheBritishCrown;thatherlegislaturewasaloneauthorizedtotaxher;andthatshehadarighttocallonherKing,whowastheKingofEngland,toprotectheragainsttheusurpationsoftheBritishParliament.

3.AtthistimeallthecolonieswereinthehabitofcallingEngland"home,"andthe"mothercountry,"butnosuchlanguageas"oursistercolonies"wasinvogue.Therewaslittleornointercoursebetweenthecolonies.Theirfirstintimateacquaintancewitheachothergrewoutofincidentsconnectedwiththeolder,Frenchwarin1756.WhenMr.QuincyofBoston,visitedCharleston,S.C.,1773,hespokeofthatcolonyas,"thisdistantshore."WhenthefirstCongressassembledin1774,themembersallmetas"strangers."Andtheycametogetherwithnodesigntoamalgamationortoblendtheirseparateand,astoeachother,independentsovereignties,butsimplytocombineagainstacommonfoe.Theynomoreproposedtoblendtheirseparatesovereigntiesthanacommunityofgentlemenproposetomakecommonstockofalltheirpropertywhentheytotakemeanstodetectandpunishburglarsandhorse-thieves.

?[C.C.B.]

4.Thehistoricalfactherestated,isperfectlyauthenticatedandhasneverbeendisputed;nevertheless,thefollowingextractsfromtheJournalsofCongressmaynotbeoutofplace:"Wednesday,September14,1774.HenryWisner,adelegatefromthecountyofOrange,inthecolonyofNewYork,appearedatCongress,andproducedacertificateofhiselectionbythesaidcounty,whichbeingreadandapproved,hetookhisseatinCongressasadeputyfromthecolonyofNewYork."

"Monday,September20,1774,JohnHening,Esq.,adeputyfromOrangecounty,inthecolonyofNewYork,appearedthismorning,andtookhisseatasadeputyfromthatcolony."

"Saturday,October1,1774SimonBocrum,Esq.,appearedinCongressasadeputyfromKing"scounty,inthecolonyofNewYork,andproducedthecredentialsofhiselection,whichbeingreadandapproved,hetookhisseatasadelegatefromthatcolony."Itisevident,fromtheseextracts,thatalthoughthedelegatesfromcertainportionsofthepeopleofNewYorkwereadmittedtoseatsinCongressasdelegatesfromthecolony,yet,inpointoffact,theywerenotelectedassuch,neitherweretheyeverrecognizedassuch,byNewYorkherself.Thetruthis,aswillpresentlyappear,themajorityofherpeoplewerenotripeforthemeasurespursuedbyCongress,andwouldnothaveagreedtoappointdelegatesforthewholecolony.

5.AreferencetothecredentialsoftheCongressof1774willshow,beyondalldoubt,thetruecharacterofthatassembly.Thefollowingareextractsfromthem:NewHampshire,"Todevise,consultandadoptsuchmeasuresasmayhavethemostlikelytendencytoextricatethecoloniesfromtheirpresentdifficulties;tosecureandperpetuatetheirrights,liberties,andprivileges,andtorestorethatpeace,harmony,andmutualconfidence,whichoncehappilysubsistedbetweentheparentcountryandhercolonies."

Massachusetts."Toconsultonthepresentstateofthecolonies,andthemiseriestowhichtheyare,andmustbereduced,bytheoperationofcertainactsofParliamentrespectingAmerica;andtodeliberateanddetermineuponwiseandpropermeasurestobebythenrecommendedtoallthecolonies,fortherecoveryandestablishmentoftheirjustrightsandliberties,civilandreligious,andtherestorationofunionandharmonybetweenGreatBritainandthecolonies,mostardentlydesiredbyallgoodmen."

RhodeIsland."ToconsultonpropermeasurestoobtainarepealoftheseveralactsoftheBritishParliamentforlevyingtaxonhisMajesty"ssubjectsinAmericawithouttheirconsent,anduponpropermeasurestoestablishtherightsandlibertiesofthecoloniesuponajustandsolidfoundation,agreeablytoinstructionsgivenbythegeneralassembly."

Connecticut"Toconsultandadviseonpropermeasuresforadvancingthebeatgoodofthecolonies,andsuchconferencetoreportfromtimetotimetotheColonialHouseofRepresentatives."

NewYork.Onlyafewofhercountieswererepresented,somebydeputiesauthorizedto"represent,"andsomebydeputiesauthorizedto"attendCongress."

NewJersey."TorepresentthecolonyintheGeneralCongress."

Pennsylvania."ToformandadoptaplanforthepurposesofobtainingredressofAmericangrievances,ascertainingAmericanrightsuponthemoatsolidandconstitutionalprinciples,andforestablishingthatunionandharmonybetweenGreatBritainandthecolonieswhichisindispensablynecessarytothewelfareandhappinessofboth."

Delaware.Toconsultandadvisewiththedeputiesfromtheothercolonies,todetermineuponallsuchprudentandlawfulmeasuresasmaybejudgedmostexpedientforthecoloniesimmediatelyandunitedlytoadopt,inordertoobtainreliefforanoppressedpeople,(a)andtheredressofourgeneralgrievances."

Maryland."Toattendageneralcongress,toeffectonegeneralplanofconductoperatingonthecommercialconnectionofthecolonieswiththemothercountry,forthereliefofBoston,andthepreservationofAmericanliberty."

Virginia."ToconsiderofthemostproperandeffectualmannerofsooperatingonthecommercialconnectionofthecolonieswiththemothercountryastoprocureredressforthemuchinjuredprovinceofMassachusettsBay,tosecureBritishAmericafromtheravageandruinofarbitrarytaxes,andspeedilytoprocurethereturnofthatharmonyandunion,sobeneficialtothewholeempire,andsoardentlydesiredbyallBritishAmerica."

NorthCarolina."TotakesuchmeasuresastheymaydeemprudenttoeffectthepurposeofdescribingwithcertaintytherightsofAmericans,repairingthebreachmadeinthoserights,andforguardingthemforthefutureagainstanysuchviolationsdoneunderthesanctionofpublicauthority."Forthesepurposesthedelegatesare"investedwithsuchpowersasmaymakeanyactsdonebythemobligatoryinhonor,oneveryinhabitanthereof,whoisnotanalientohiscountry"sgood,andanapostatetothelibertiesofAmerica."

SouthCarolina."Toconsidertheactslatelypassed,andbillsdependinginParliamentwithregardtotheportofBoston,andthecolonyofMassachusettsBay;whichactsandbills,intheprecedentandconsequences,affectthewholeContinentofAmerica.AlsothegrievancesunderwhichAmericalabors,byreasonoftheseveralactsofParliamentthatimposetaxesordutiesforraisingarevenue,andlayunnecessaryrestraintsandburdensontrade;andofthestatutes,parliamentaryacts,androyalinstructions,whichmakeaninvidiousdistinctionbetweenhisMajesty"ssubjectsinGreatBritainandAmerica,withfullpowerandauthoritytoconceit,agreetoandprosecutesuchlegalmeasuresasintheopinionofthesaiddeputies,sotobeassembled,shallbemostlikelytoobtainarepealofthesaidacts,andaredressofthosegrievances.[Theaboveextractsaremadefromthecredentialsofthedeputiesoftheseveralcolonies,asspreadupontheJournalofCongress,accordingtoacopyofthatbound(asappearsbyagiltlabelonthebackhereof)forthePresidentofCongress?nowinpossessionofB.Tucker,Esq.)

Itisperfectlyclearfromtheseextracts,1.Thatthecoloniesdidnotconsiderthemselvesas"onepeople,"andthat,theywerethereforeboundtoconsiderthequarrelofBostonastheirown;butthattheymadecommoncausewithMassachusetts,onlybecausetheprinciplesassertedinregardtoher,equallyaffectedtheothercolonies;2.Thateachcolonyappointeditsowndelegates,givingthempreciselysuchpowerandauthorityassuiteditsownviews;3.Thatnocolonygaveanypowerorauthority,exceptforadvisementonly;4.Thatsofarfromdesigningtoestablish"ageneralornationalgovernment,"andtoform,themselvesinto"anationdefacto,"theirgreatpurposewastobringaboutareconciliationandharmonywiththemothercountry.ThisisstillfartherapparentfromthetoneofthepublicaddressesofCongress.5.ThatthisCongresswasnot"organizedundertheauspicesandwiththeconsentofthepeople,actingdirectlyintheirprimary,sovereigncapacity,andwithouttheinterventionofthefunctionariestowhomtheordinarypowersofgovernmentweredelegatedinthecolonies,"but,onthecontrary,thatitwasorganizedbythecoloniesassuch,andgenerallythroughtheirordinarylegislatures;andalwayswithcarefulregardtotheirseparateandindependentrightsandpowers.

IftheCongressof1774was"ageneralornationalgovernment,"

neitherNewYorknorGeorgiawaspartytoit;forneitherofthemwasrepresentedinthatCongress.ItisalsoworthyofremarkthattheCongressof1774

hadnoagentsofitsowninforeigncountries,butemployedthoseoftheseveralcolonies.SeetheresolutionsfordeliveringtheaddresstotheKingpassedOctober25,1774,andthelettertotheagents,approvedonthefollowingday.

(a)Massachusetts,theparticularwrongsofwhicharejustbeforerecitedatlarge.

6.TheJournalsofCongressaffordthemostabundantandconclusiveproofsofthis.Inordertoshowthegeneralcharacteroftheirproceedings,itisenoughformetorefertothefollowing:

Onthe11thOctober,1774,itwas"Resolvedunanimously,ThatamemorialbepreparedtothepeopleofBritishAmerica,statingtothemthenecessityofafirm,unitedandinvariableobservationofthemeasuresrecommendedbytheCongress,astheytendertheinvaluablerightsandlibertiesderivedtothemfromthelawsandConstitutionoftheircountry."

Thememorialwasaccordinglyprepared,inconformitywiththeresolution.

Congresshavingpreviouslyhadunderconsiderationtheplanofanassociationforestablishingnon-importation,&c.,finallyadoptedit,October20,1774.Afterrecitingtheirgrievances,theysay:

"And,therefore,forourselvesandtheinhabitantsoftheseveralcolonieswhomwerepresent,firmlyagree,andassociate,underthesacredtiesofvirtue,honorandloveofourcountry,asfollows."Theythenproceedtorecommendacertaincourseofproceeding,suchasnon-importationandnon-consumptionofcertainBritishproductions;theyrecommendedtheappointmentofacommitteeineverycounty,cityandtown,towatchtheirfellow-citizens,inordertoascertainwhetherornot"anypersonwithinthelimitsoftheirappointmenthasviolatedthisassociation";andiftheyshouldfindanysuch,itistheirdutytoreportthem,"totheend,thatallsuchfoestoTherightsofBritishAmericamayliepubliclyknown,anduniversallycontemnedastheenemiesofAmericanliberty;and,thenceforth,werespectivelywillbreakoffalldealingswithhimorher."Theyalsoresolve,thattheywill"havenotrade,commerce,dealingsorintercoursewhatsoever,withanycolonyorprovinceinNorthAmerica,whichshallallnotaccedeto,orwhichshallhereafterviolatethisassociation,butwillholdthemasunworthyoftherightsoffreemen,andasinimicaltothelibertiesoftheircountry."

Thislooksverylittlelikethelegislationofthe"generalornationalgovernment"ofa"nationdefacto."Themostimportantmeasuresofgeneralconcernareresteduponnostrongerfoundationthan"thesacredtiesofvirtue,honor,andtheloveofourcountry,"andhavenohighersanctionthanpubliccontemptandexclusionfromtheordinaryintercourseofsociety.

7.ThatthepowersgrantedtothedelegatestothesecondCongressweresubstantiallythesamewiththosegrantedtothedelegatestothefirst,willappearfromthefollowingextractsfromtheircredentials:NewHampshire."Toconsentandagreetoallmeasures,whichsaidCongressshalldeemnecessarytoobtainredressofAmericangrievances."DelegatesappointedbyaConvention.

Massachusetts."Toconcert,agreeupon,directandorder(inconcertwiththedelegatesoftheothercolonies)"suchfurthermeasuresastothemshallappeartobethebestcalculatedfortherecoveryandestablishmentofAmericanrightsandliberties,andforrestoringharmonybetweenGreatBritainandthecolonies"DelegatesappointedbyProvincialCongress.

Connecticut."Tojoin,consultandadvisewiththeothercoloniesinBritishAmerica,onpropermeasuresforadvancingthebestgoodofthecolonies."DelegatesappointedbytheColonialHouseofRepresentatives.

ThecolonyofNewYorkwasnotrepresentedinthisCongress,butdelegateswereappointedbyaconventionofdeputiesfromthecityandcountyofNewYork,thecityandcountyofAlbany,andthecountiesofDutchessUlster,Orange,Westchester,KingsandSuffolk.Theygavetheirdelegatespowerto"concertanddetermineuponsuchmeasuresasshallbejudgedmosteffectualforthepreservationandre-establishmentofAmericanrightsandprivileges,andfortherestorationofharmonybetweenGreatBritainandthecolonies."Queen"sCountyapprovedoftheproceeding.

Pennsylvania.Simplyto"attendthegeneralCongress."

DelegatesappointedbyProvincialAssembly.

NewJersey."ToattendthecontinentalCongress,andtoreporttheirproceedingsatthenextsessionoftheGeneralAssembly."

DelegatesappointedbytheColonialAssembly.

Delaware."Toconcertandamuponsuchfurthermeasures,asshallappeartothembestcalculatedfortheaccommodationoftheunhappydifferencesbetweenGreatBritainandthecoloniesonaconstitutionalfoundation,whichtheHousemostardentlywishfor,andthattheyreporttheirproceedingstothenextsessionofGeneralAssembly."DelegatesappointedbytheAssembly.

Maryland"Toconsentandagreetoallmeasures,WhichsaidCongressshalldeemnecessaryandeffectualtoobtainaredressofAmericangrievances;andthisprovincebindthemselvestoexecutetotheutmostoftheirpower,allresolutionswhichthesaidCongressmayadopt."

DelegatesappointedbyConvention,andsubsequentlyapprovedbytheGeneralassembly.

Virginia."TorepresentthecolonyingeneralCongress,tobeheld,&c."DelegatesappointedbyConvention.

NorthCarolina."Suchpowersanmaymakeanyactsdonebythem,oranyofthem,orconsentgiveninbehalfofthisprovince,obligatoryinhonoruponeveryinhabitantthereof,"DelegatesappointedbyConventionandapprovedinGeneralAssembly.

SouthCarolina."Toconcert,agreeto,andeffectuallyprosecutesuchmeasures,asintheopinionofthesaiddeputies,andthedeputiestobeassembledshallbemostlikelytoobtainaredressofAmericangrievances."DelegatesappointedbyProvincialCongress.InthecopyoftheJournalsofCongressnowbeforeme,I

donotfindthecredentialsofthedelegatesfromRhodeIsland.TheydidnotattendatthefirstmeetingofCongress,althoughtheydidatthesubsequentperiod.GeorgiawasnotrepresentedinthisCongressuntilSeptember,1775.

Onthe13thMay,1775,LymanHallappearedasadelegatefromtheparishofSt.Johnsandhewasadmittedtohisseat,"subjecttosuchregulationsastheCongressshalldetermine,relativetohisvoting."HewasneverregardedastherepresentativeofGeorgia,norwasthatcolonythenconsideredasapartytotheproceedingsofCongress.Thisisevidentfromthefactthat,intheaddresstotheinhabitantsofGreatBritain,theyusethestyle,"ThetwelveUnitedColonies,bytheirdelegatesinCongress,totheinhabitantsofGreatBritain,"adoptedonthe8thJuly,1775.Onthe20thofthatmonthCongresswerenotifiedthataconventionofGeorgiahadappointeddelegatestoattendthem,butnoneofthemtooktheirseatstillthe13thSeptemberfollowing.Theywereauthorized"todo,transact,joinandconcurwiththeseveraldelegatesfromtheothercoloniesandprovincesupontheContinent,onallsuchmattersandthingsasshallappeareligibleandfit,atthisalarmingtime,forthepreservationanddefenceofourrightsandliberties,andfortherestorationofharmony,uponconstitutionalprinciples,betweenGreatBritainandAmerica."

Someofthecoloniesappointedtheirdelegatesonlyforlimitedtimes,attheexpirationofwhichtheywerereplacedbyothers,butwithoutanymaterialchangeintheirpowers.Thedelegateswere,inallthings,subjecttotheordersoftheirrespectivecolonies.

8.ThiswasdonebyPennsylvania.?[Sec92Dallas,Col.L.ofPenn.3.]

9.ThisstatementofJudgeStoryisinoppositiontothefollowinglanguageofJudgeHenryBaldwin,whowasconfessedlyoneoftheablestjuristswhohasgracedthebenchoftheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates:"TheirSEPARATEINDEPENDENCEWASPROCLAIMED,andtheyremainedtowardseachotherastheywerebefore,ascolonies,andthenasStates;theydidnotaltertheirrelations;thesamedelegatesfromthecoloniesactedastherepresentativesofTheStates;sodeclaredthemselves,andcontinuedtheirsessionwithoutnewcredentials.Theappointingpowerbeingthesame,theseparatelegislatureofeachState,asaState,nation,orempire;THEPEOPLEthesupremehead,astheKing,theEmperor,theSovereign.ThesecolonieswerenotdeclaredtobefreeandindependentStatesbysubstitutingCongressintheplaceofKingandParliament;norbythepeopleoftheStates,transferringtotheUNITEDSTATESthatallegiancetheyhadowedtotheCrown."Bald.29.?[C.C.B.]

10.AdocumentwhichIhavesometwithelsewherebutwhichmaybefoundintheAppendixtoProfessorTucker"selaborateandinstructiveLifeofJefferson,affordsimportantevidenceuponthispoint.AsearlyasMay,1775,theplanofa"confederationandperpetualunion"amongthecolonies,waspreparedandproposedforadoption.

Itwasnotinfactadopted,butitsprovisionsshow,inthestrongestmanner,inwhatlightthecoloniesregardedtheirrelationtooneanother.Theproposedunionwascalled"afirmleagueoffriendship";eachcolonyreservedtoitself"asmuchasitmightthinkproperofitsownpresentlaws,customs,rights,privileges,andpeculiarjurisdictions,withinitsownlimits;

andmayamenditsownConstitutionasmayseembesttoitsownAssemblyorConvention";theexternalrelationsofthecoloniesweretobemanagedbytheirgeneralgovernmentalone,andallamendmentsoftheir"Constitution,"

astheytermedit,weretobeproposedbyCongressand"approvedbyamajorityofthecolonyassembles."Itcanscarcelybecontendedthatthis"leagueoffriendship,"this"confederationandperpetualunion,"would,ifithadbeenadopted,haverenderedthepeopleoftheseveralcolonieslessidenticalthantheywerebefore.If,intheiropinion,theywere"onepeople"

already,noleagueorconfederationwasnecessary,andnoonewouldhavethoughtofproposingit.Theveryfact,therefore,thatitwasproposed,asanecessarymeasure"susceptiblefortheircommondefence"againsttheirenemies,forthesecurityoftheirlibertiesandtheirproperties,thesafetyoftheirpersonsandfamilies,andtheirmutualandgeneralwelfare,"

provesthattheydidnotconsiderthemselvesasalready"onepeople,"inanysenseortoanyextentwhichwouldenablethemtoeffectthoseimportantobjects.

ThispropositionwasdependingandundeterminedatthetimeoftheDeclarationofindependence.

11.Inpointoffact,Virginiadeclaredherindependenceonthe15thofMay,1776.ThefollowingbeautifulallusiontothatsceneisextractedfromanaddressdeliveredbyJudgeBeverlyTucker,ofWilliamandMaryCollege,beforethePetersburghLyceum,onthe15thofMay,1848:

Thatspectacle,onthisdaysixty-threeyearn,Virginiaexhibitedtotheworld;andthememoryofthatmajesticsceneitisnowmytasktorescuefromoblivion.ItwasonthatdaythatsherenouncedhercolonialdependenceonGreatBritain,andseparatedherselfforeverfromthatkingdom.

Thenitwasthat,burstingthemanaclesofaforeigntyranny,she,inthesamemomentimposedonherselfthesalutaryrestraintsoflawandorder.Inthatmomentshecommencedtheworkofformingagovernment,completewithinitself;andhavingperfectedthatwork,she,onthe29thofJuneinthesameyear,performedthehighestfunctionofindependentsovereignty,byadopting,ordaining,andestablishingtheConstitutionunderwhichallofuswereborn.Thenitwasthat,sufficienttoherselfforallthepurposesofgovernment,sheprescribedtheoathoffealtyandallegiancetohersoloandseparatesovereignty,whichallofus,whohaveheldanyofficeunderherauthority,havesolemnlycalledupontheSearcherofHeartstowitnessandrecord.Inthathour,gentlemen,itcouldnotbecertainlyknown,thattheothercolonieswouldtakethesamedecisivestep.Itwasindeed,expected.Inthesamebreathinwhichshehaddeclaredherownindependence,Virginiahadadvisedit.ShehadinstructedherdelegatesintheGeneralCongresstourgeit;anditwasbythevoiceofoneofhersons,whosenamewilleverproudlyliveinherhistory,thatthewordofpowerwasspoken,atwhichthechainthatboundthecoloniestotheparentkingdomfellasunder,asflaxthatseversatthetouchoffire.Buteventhen,andwhilethetermsofthegeneralDeclarationofIndependencewereyetunsettled,hershadalreadygoneforth.Thevoiceofherdefiancewasalreadyringinginthetyrant"sears;herswasthecrythatsummonedhimtothestrife;herswastheshoutthatinvitedhisvengeance:"Me!me!

Adsumquifeci;inme,converliteferrum.""

Thisbeautifuladdress,aboundinginpatrioticsentiments,andsoundpoliticaldoctrines,clothedintherichestlanguage,oughttobeinthehandsofeverycitizen,particularlyofthoseofVirginia.ThefollowingextractfromtheJournalsoftheConvention,containingthehistoryofthisinterestingevent;cannotfailtobeacceptabletoeveryAmericanreader:"Wednesday,May11th,1770.

"Theconvention,then,Accordingtotheorderoftheday,resolveditselfintoacommitteeonthestateofthecolony;and,aftersometimespenttherein,Mr.Presidentresumedthechair,andMr.Caryreportedthatthecommitteehad,accordingtoorder,hadunderconsiderationthestateofthecolony;andhadcometothefollowingresolutionsthereupon;

whichhehadreadinhisplace,andafterwardsdeliveredattheclerk"stable,wherethesamewereagaintwiceread,andunanimouslyagreedto,onehundredandtwelvemembersbeingpresent.

"Forasmuchasalltheendeavorsoftheunitedcolonies,bythemostdecentrepresentationsandpetitionstotheKingandParliamentofGreatBritain,torestorepeaceandsecuritytoAmericaundertheBritishGovernment,andareunionwiththatpeople,uponjustandliberalterms,insteadofaredressofgrievances,haveproducedfromanimperiousandvindictiveadministration,increasedinsult,oppression,andavigorousattempttoeffectourtotaldestruction.Byalateact,allthecoloniesaredeclaredtobeinrebellion,andoutoftheprotectionoftheBritishCrown,ourpropertiessubjectedtoconfiscation,ourpeople,whencaptivated,compelledtojoinintheplunderandmurderoftheirrelationsandcountrymen,andallformerrapineandoppressionofAmericansdeclaredlegalandjust.