第10章

Fleetsandarmiesareraised,and,theaidofforeigntroopsengagedtoassistthesedestructivepurposes.TheKing"srepresentativeinthiscolonyhathnotonlywithheldallpowersofgovernmentfromoperatingforoursafety,buthavingretiredonboardanarmedship,iscarryingonapiraticalandsavagewaragainstus,temptingourslavesbyeveryartificetoresorttohim,andtrainingandemployingthemagainsttheirmasters.

"Inthisstateofextremedanger,wehavenoalternativeleft,butanabjectsubmissiontothewillofthoseoverbearingtyrants,oratotalseparationfromthecrownandGovernmentofGreatBritain,unitingandexertingthestrengthofallAmericafordefence,andformingallianceswithforeignpowersforcommerceandaidinwar.Wherefore,appealingtotheSearcherofallHeartsforsincerityofformerdeclarations,expressingourdesiretopreserveourconnectionwiththatnation,andthatwearedrivenfromthatinclinationbytheirwickedcouncils,andtheeternallawsofself-preservation;resolvedunanimously,thatthedelegatesappointedtorepresentthiscolonyingeneralCongress,beinstructedtoproposetothatrespectablebody,todeclaretheunitedcoloniesfreeandindependentStates,absolvedfromallallegianceto,ordependenceupontheCrownorParliamentofGreatBritain;andthattheygivetheassentofthiscolonytothatdeclaration,andtowhatevermeasuresmaybethoughtproperandnecessarybytheCongress,forformingforeignalliances,andaconfederationofthecolonies,atsuchtimeandinsuchmannerastothemmayseembest.

Provided,thatthepowerofforminggovernmentfor,andtheregulationsoftheinternalconcernsofeachcolony,belefttotherespectivecoloniallegislatures.

"Resolved,Unanimously,thatacommitteebeappointedtoprepareadeclarationofrights,andsuchaplan,ofgovernment,aswillbemostlikelytomaintainpeaceandorderinthiscolony,andsecuresubstantialandequallibertytothepeople.

Andacommitteewasappointedofthefollowinggentleman:

Mr.ArchibaldCary,Mr.MeriweatherSmith,Mr.Mercer,Mr.HenryUs,Mr.Treasurer,Mr.Beaty,Mr.Dandridge,Mr.EdmundRandolph,Mr.Gilmer,Mr.Bland,Mr.Digges,Mr.Carrington,Mr.ThomasLudwelLee,Mr.Cabell,Mr.Jones,Mr.Blair,Mr.Flaming,Mr.Tazewell,Mr.RichardCary,Mr.Bullit,Mr.Watts,Mr.Banister,Mr.Page,Mr.Starke,Mr.DavidMason,Mr.Adams,Mr.Read,andMr.ThomasLewis."ItisimpossibletocontemplatethisproceedingonthepartofVirginia,withoutbeingconvincedthatsheactedfromherownfreeandsovereignwill;andthatshe,atleast,did"presume"toestablishagovernmentforherself,withouttheleastregardtotherecommendationorthepleasureofCongress.

12.ThelanguageoftheSupremeCourtisveryfullindeclaringthatthecoloniesdidnotlosetheirsovereignindependenceofeachotherandbecomeonepeoplebyvirtueoftheDeclarationofIndependenceofGreatBritain."Nosovereigntydidorcouldexistoverthem,unlessthatofGreatBritainshouldberestoredbyareconciliation;

whichnothappening,theirDeclarationofIndependence,intheirseparateconventions,becameabsolute,andtheseStateswereindependent,accordingtotheuniversalopinionofthecountry,whichismostclearlyexpressedinthelanguageofthisCourt."(4Cranch,212,McIlvainev.Coxe.),"TheauthorityofthisCourtisrespected,theDeclarationofIndependenceistothejudicialmindwhatitistothecommoneye,aproclamationtotheworld,bytheseparateStates,assembledinCongressbytheirrespectivedeputies,votingforandsigningtheinstrumentbyStates,apublicationoftheirexistingpoliticalcondition,eachasanindependentState.""TheydeclaredtheseunitedcoloniestobeindependentStates,notoneState,"(orcountry")16astheStateofGreatBritain.""Eachdeclareditselfsovereignandindependent,accordingtothelimitsoftheirterritory."

(Baldwin,74,15;12Wheaton,522,7.)InOctober,1776,Congressdirectedthateveryofficershouldswear,that"IacknowledgethethirteenUnitedStatesofAmerica,namely:NewHampshire,&c.,tobefree,independentandsovereignStates"ThenameofeachofthethirteenStateswasnamedasadistinctsovereignty.(2JournalofCongress,400.)InNovemberofthesameyear,CongressaddressedacircularlettertotherespectivelegislaturesoftheStates,speakingofthemas"somanysovereignand,independentcommunities,"andtoeachrespectivelegislatureitisrecommended,"&c.

(1LawsU.S.,12,13.)HowcansuchlanguagebereconciledwiththeideaofJudgeStory,that"thecoloniesdidnotseverallyactforthemselves?"

?[C.C.B.]

13.CommentingupontheseparateindependenceoftheStates,JudgeBaldwinsays:"SuchwasthesituationoftheStatesandpeople,from1770till1781,whentheseveralStatelegislaturesmadeanactofFederation,asALLIEDSOVEREIGNS,Whichwasonlyaleagueoralliance."Thisconfederationof1781mayberegardedastheactualdateoftheUnion.SomeofItsdetailswereafterwardsmodeled,curtailedorextended,buttheprincipleofalliedsovereignStateswasneverchanged.

?[C.C.B.]

14.ThattheUnionin1781wassimplyaleagueofseparatesovereigncommunities,issufficientlyattestedInArticleIII.oftheConfederation:"ThesaidStatesherebyseverallyenterintoafirmleagueoffriendshipwitheachotherfortheircommondefence,thesecurityoftheirliberties,andtheirmutualandgeneralwelfare,bindingthemselvestoassisteachotheragainstallforceofferedto,orattacksmadeuponthem,oranyofthem,onaccountofreligion,trade,oranyotherpretensewhatever."?[C.C.B.]

15.TakingtherelationoftheStatestoeachother,asitexistsundertheConstitution,andasdeclaredbythisCourt,inoneuniformandconsistentseriesofadjudication,from6Cr.136,to2Pet.590,1:that"theseveralStatesarestillforeigntoeachother,forallbutFederalpurposes";theirpositionan"asingleunconnectedsovereignpower"beforeandwithoutanyconfederationbetweenthem,isaninevitableconsequence."(Baldwin,83.)"AstheStatesarestillforeigntoeachother,forallbutFederalpurposes,theUnitedStatescouldhaveneitherarightofsoilnorjurisdiction,proprietyordominion,withinanyparticularState,butbyacessionfromtheStatebyitslegislature,oraconventionofthepeople.**TheConstitutionisacessionofjurisdictiononly,madebythepeopleofaState,"(Baldwin,94.)ButtheUnitedStatesmusthavethe"consentofaState,"and"purchasefromtheownersofthesoilitbeforeitcanbuildapost-office,custom-house,fort,dock-yard,oranyotherpublicstructure.ThusthesovereigntyofaStateoveritsownterritoryhasnotbeencededbytheadoptionoftheConstitution."BythetreatyofpeacewithGreatBritain,thepowersofgovernment,andtherightofsoil,whichhadpreviouslybeeninGreatBritain,passeddefinitelytotheseStates."(8Wheaton,584.)"ThentherecouldbenomodebywhichtheUnitedStatescouldacquireeither"thepowersofgovernment,"orthe"rightofsoil"inanyterritory,butbyacessionfromtheStates.**

AnditwasheldbythisCourt,thattheonlyterritorywhichinfactbelongedtotheUnitedStatedin1787wasacquiredbythecessionfromVirginia."

"WhatthenistheextentofjurisdictionwhichaStatepossesses?WeanswerwithouthesitationtheJurisdictionofaStateIsco-extensivewithitslegislativepower."(5Wheat.,375;Baldwin,87,88.)Therightofsoilandgeneraljurisdictionoverthewholeterritory,withintheboundariesoftheseveralStates,wasinvestedInthepeopleofeachState,asabsolutesovereignsofboth;neitherrightcanbeexercisedbutbyagrantfromthem,andwhatisnotgivenawaybycession,stillremainswiththem."

(Baldwin,99;2Peters,468.)In1795,Georgia,whichhadcedednoneofitsterritory,madesaleofalargetract,ontheYazooRiver.TheUnitedStatesdeniedtherightofGeorgiatomakesuchsale.ThequestionwasbroughtbeforetheSupremeCourtinthecaseofFletcherP.Peck,andtheCourtdecidedthatthetitleofthelandwasinGeorgia.(6Cranch142.)

ReferringtotheformationoftheUnion,theCourtheldthat:"Ajudicialsystemwastobeprepared,notforaconsolidatedpeople,butfordistinctsocieties,alreadypossessingdistinctsystems.(10Wheaton,46)"ThepowerhavingexistedpriortotheConstitution,andnothavingbeenprohibitedbythatinstrument,remainswiththeStates."(5Wheaton,16,17;2Peters,466.)?[C.C.B.]

16.Thephrase"toformamoreperfectunion"hasbeensometimesquotedtoprovethatthenewConstitutionwasdesignedtoalterfundamentallytheconfederatenatureoftheUnion.Butitissurprisingthatanygentlemancapableofcomprehendingtheforceoflanguageshouldmakesuchamistakeastoimaginethatthephrase"moreperfectunion"isimpliedaconsolidationoftheStates.UNIONandCONSOLIDATION

arewordsofaverydifferentsignification.TheobjectwasnottosinktheUnioninconsolidation,butto"formaMOREPERFECTUnion."ThenameofourfederationisnotCONSOLIDATEDSTATESbutUNITEDSTATES.AnumberofStatesheldtogetherbycoercion,orthepointofthebayonet,wouldnotbeaUNION.Unionisnecessarilyvoluntary?theactofchoice,freeassociation.NorcanthisVOLUNTARYsystembechangedtooneofforcewithoutthedestructionof"THEUNION."TheAustrianEmpireiscomposedofseveralStates,astheHungarians,thePoles,theItalians,etc.,butitcannotbecalledaUNION?itisadespotism.IstherelationbetweenRussia,andbayonet-heldPolandaUNION?IsItnotaninsultandamockerytocallthecompulsoryrelationbetweenEnglandandIrelandaUNION?Inallthesecasesthereisonlysuchaunionasexistsbetweenthetalonsofthehawkandthedove,orbetweenthejawsofthewolfandthelamb.AUNIONOF

STATESnecessarilyimpliesseparatesovereignties,voluntarilyactingtogether.

Andtobruisethesedistinctsovereigntiesintoonemassofpoweris,simply,todestroytheUnion?tooverthrowoursystemofgovernment.TheSupremeCourthasalwaysbeenclearenoughonthispoint:"NopoliticaldreamerwaseverwildenoughtothinkofbreakingdownthelineswhichseparatetheStates,andofcompoundingtheAmericanpeopleIntoonecommonmass.

Ofconsequence,whentheyact,theyadintheirStates,"(4Wheaton,403

McCulloughv.Maryland)?[C.C.B.]

17.Thephrase,"WETHEPEOPLEOFTHE

UNITEDSTATES,"inthepreambletotheConstitution,raileduponbythefriendsofthemonarchistprinciplesofgovernment,toprovetheconsolidatednatureofFederalUnion,hasbeentwistedintomostabsurdshapes.Thephraseis,WE,THEPEOPLEOFTHESTATES,notthepeopleofAMERICA.TheveryphraseshowstheFederalUniontobeagovernmentofStates,andnotofthepeopleofallAmerica,asaconsolidatedbody."UNITEDSTATES"hasaverydifferentlegalsignificationtothatofconsolidatedStates."ThepeopleoftheUnitedStates,"inthepreambleoftheConstitution,hasthesamemeaningas"thepeopleoftheseveralSTATES,"InthesecondsectionofArticleFirstofthesameinstrumentTheideaofseveraltyorseparateness,andnotthatofconsolidation,isclearlyimplied.Indeed,thisisthegrammaticalmeaningofthephrase.Thequalifyingadjective"united"isannexedtothewordstates,andnottotheword"people."Itispreciselythesamemeaningasthephrase"LesEtasUnis"intheFrenchlanguage,i.e.,the"statesunited."WhenPatrickHenryIndignantlyasked,"WhatrighthadtheframersoftheConstitutiontosay,"We,thepeople,"insteadof"we,theStates?""Mr.Madisonreplied:"Whoarethepartiestothegovernment?Thepeople;butthennotthepeopleascomposingONEGREAT

BODY;butthepeopleascomposingTHIRTEENSOVEREIGNTIES."TheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesisagrantbygrantorstoagrantee.Thegrantorsarethe"severalStates,"notasaconsolidatedpeople,butasseparateandindependentsovereignties?"thepeople"asorganizedinto"several"

distinctsovereigncommunities.ThustheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStatesdeclaresthat"theStatesformaconfederatedgovernment;yettheseveralStatesretaintheirindividualsovereignties,andwithrespecttotheirmunicipalregulations,aretoeachothersovereign."(2Peters,690;12

Wheaton,334.)Again:"ThepowersretainedbytheStatesproceednotfromthePEOPLEOFAMERICA,butfromthepeopleoftheSEVERALSTATES,andremainaftertheadoptionoftheConstitutionwhattheywerebefore."(4Wheaton,193,17,54;203,9.)ThusallauthorityproventhattheGovernmentoftheUnionIsoneoftheSTATESunited,andnotofthePeopleconsolidated.

?[C.C.B.]

18.ThisassertionofJudgeStoryiscontradicted,notonlybytheorganizationofthegovernment,butbytheuniformlanguageofthosewhoframedandadoptedit.BothHamiltonandMadisonconstantlyspokeoftheUnionasa"compact."IntheEighty-fifthArticleoftheFederalist,HamiltoncallstheConstitutiona"compact,"

andsaysthatthirteenIndependentStatesare"thepartiestothecompact."

Madison:"ItIsacompactbetweenthirteensovereignties."IntheResolutionsof1798hesays:"ThepowersoftheFederalGovernmentresultfromacompacttowhichtheStatesareparties."AgainsaysMadison:"Incaseofadeliberate,palpable,anddangerousexerciseofotherpowersnotgrantedinthecompact,theStateswhoarepartiestheretohavetheright,andareIndutyboundtointerpose."IntheConventionofMassachusettswhichadoptedtheConstitution,JudgeParsonssaid:"ThegovernmentandpowerswhichtheCongresscanadministerarethemoreresultofacompact."WashingtonperpetuallyspokeoftheratificationoftheConstitutionasACCEDINGtoaCOMPACT(SeelettertoBushrodWashington,Nov.10,1797;toGeneralKnox,June17,1788;toJohnJay,July20,1788;toGouverneurMorris,December141789.)Jefferson,intheKentuckyResolutions,says:"TheStatesarenotunitedontheprincipleofunlimitedsubmissiontotheGeneralGovernment,butbythatofCOMPACT,"

&c.Mr.Webster,InhisgreatspeechtotheyoungmenofAlbany,1851,calledtheConstitutiona"COMPACT."ThusitiscertainthattheframersoftheConstitutionthoughttheyweremakinga"compactbetweensovereignStates."AndtheINTENTIONoftheframersandpartiestoaninstrumentistheLAWinthecase.?[C.C.B.]

19.IntheConstitutionalconvention,GovernorPatterson,ofNewJersey,said:"Letusconsiderwithwhatpowerswearesenthere.ThebasisofourpresentauthorityisfoundedonarevisionoftheArticlesofthepresentConfederation,andtoalterandamendtheminpartswheretheymayappeardefectiveTheobjectwasnottoformanewgovernment,butto"alterandamend"thatwhichalreadyexisted.?[C.

C.B.]

20.TherewasapartyIntheConvention,which,thoughintheminority,wasrespectableforitsintellect,whichwantedtoformanationalorconsolidatedgovernment.FromtheopeningoftheConventioninMay,untilthe25thofJune,therehadbeenaresolutionthat"Anationalgovernmentoughttobeestablished."

Butonthelastmentioneddateitwasmovedtostrikeoutthisword"National,"

andInsertinitsplace"UnitedStates."Thispassedoverwhelminglyintheaffirmative,andthusendedthebusinessofanationalgovernment.

OnthisoccasionGovernorPattersonsaid:"Canwe,onthisground,(ofamendingtheArticlesofConfederation),formanationalgovernment?I

fancynot.Ourcommissionsgivenocomplexiontothebusiness,andwecannotsupposethatwhenweexceedtheboundsofourduty,thepeoplewillapproveourproceedings.

WearemethereasthedeputiesofthirteenIndependentsovereignStates,forfederalpurposes.Canweconsolidatetheirsovereignty,andformonenation,andannihilatethesovereigntiesofourStates,whohavesentushereforotherpurposes?IdeclarethatIneverwillconsenttosuchasystem.MyselformyStateneverwillsubmittotyrannyordespotism."

LutherMartainsaid:"TheGeneralGovernmentisonlyIntendedtoprotectandguardtherightsoftheStates,ASSTATES.ThebasisofallancientandmodernconfederaciesisthefreedomandtheindependencyoftheStatescomposingthem."SuchweretheideaswhichprevailedIntheframingandadoptionoftheConstitution.(SeeElliot"sDebates,Madison"sandMartain"sReports.)?[C.C.B.]

21.ThisfactprovesbeyonddisputethattheUnionisagovernmentofStatesasindependentcommunities,andnotofthepeopleasonebody.WhentheConstitutionwasadoptedandthepresentUnionwentintooperationin1799,therewereelevenStateshavingfifty-ninerepresentatives,ofwhichfourStateshadthirty-two,whiletheothersevenhadbuttwenty-seven,andyettheminorityofthepeoplecouldelectthePresidentanddispenseallthepowersoftheUnion.In1790,whenthefirstcensuswastaken,fourStateshadapopulationofonemillionsevenhundredandtenthousand,whiletheotherninehadonlyonemillionthreehundredandninetythousand.ThusfourStates,havingamajorityofthepopulation,hadbuteightsenators,whilethenineStates,withaminorityofthepeople,hadeighteensenators.That,surely,wasnotagovernmentofthewholepeople,asonebody,butoftheStatesassovereigncommunities.Whenthesecondcensuswastaken,in1800,thetotalpopulationwasfourmilliontwohundredandforty-seventhousand,ofwhichfourStateshadtwomilliontwohundredandtwenty-sixthousand,andtheothertwelvehadtwomilliontwenty-onethousand.ThenfourStateshadamajorityofthewholepeopleoftwohundredandfirethousand,buttheyhadonlyeightvotesintheSenate,andeighty-twoforPresident;whilethetwelveStates,withaminorityofpopulation,hadtwenty-fourvotesintheSenateandninety-oneforPresident.

Whenthethirdcensuswastaken,In1810,therewereseventeenStates,withatotalpopulationoffivemillionsevenhundredandsixty-fivethousand,ofwhichfourStateshadamajorityoftwohundredandthirty-onethousand,buttheyhadonlyeightvotesIntheSenateandonehundredandoneforPresident,whiletherest,withaminorityofthepeople,hadtwenty-sixvotesintheSenateandonehundredandfourteenforPresident.Whenthefourthcensuswastaken,in1820,sixStateshadapopulationoffourmilliononehundredandninety-ninethousand,theothereighteenhadbutthreemillionsixhundredandfifty-seventhousand.ThensixStateshadamajorityoffivehundredandforty-twothousandofthepeople,buttheyhadonlytwelvevotesIntheSenateandonehundredandtwenty-sixforPresident,whiletheresthadthirty-sixvotesintheSenateandonehundredandthirty-fiveforPresident.Atthenextcensus,1830,sixStateshadamajorityoftwohundredandtwenty-fourthousandofthetotalPopulation,whiletheyhadbuttwelvevotesintheSenateandonehundredandthirty-sixforPresident,andtheminorityofthepeople,butthemajorityofStates,hadthirty-sixsenatorsandonehundredandfifty-threevotesforPresident,Thus,IntheFederalGovernment,thewordsmajorityandminoritydonotapplytothenumberofpeople,buttothenumberofStates.CananythingmoreberequiredtoprovethattheUnionisagovernmentofStatesasseparatebodies,andnotofthepeopleasonepopulation??[C.C.B.]

22.SoabsolutelyIstheFederalGovernmentdependentontheStatesforitsexistenceatalltimes,thatItmaybeabsolutelydissolved,withouttheleastviolence,bythesimplerefusalofapartoftheStatestoact.If,forexample,afewStates,havingamajorityofelectoralvotes,shouldrefusetoappointelectorsofPresidentmadVice-President,therewouldbenoconstitutionalExecutive,andthewholemachineryofgovernmentwouldstop.

23.ThedecisionsoftheSupremeCourthavedeclaredthatitsjurisdictionislimitedbytheConstitution,lawsandtreatiesoftheUnitedStates,andthatithasnopowerofacting,exceptwherethesubjectissubmittedaccordingtotheformpresentedbylaw.(9Wheaton,738;5Peters,2;6Wheaton,264.)TheoriginaljurisdictionoftheSupremeCourtispointedoutbytheConstitution,andcannotbelessenednorenlargedbyactofCongress;forCongresscannottranscendthepowersentrustedtoitintheConstitution.(1Cranch,187,175.)TheSupremeCourthasnoJurisdictioninanycasewhereaStateisthedefendant(SeeEleventhAmendmenttotheconstitution;9Wheaton,732.)WheretwopartiesinaStateCourtsetupconflictingtitlesunderthesameactofCongress,theSupremeCourthasnopowertooverridethedecisionoftheStateCourt.ThedecisionoftheStateCourtisfinalinsuchcases.(3

Wheaton,433;6Wheaton,448)TheSupremeCourthasnoauthority,onawritoferror,todeclarealawofaStatevoidonaccountofitscollisionwiththeConstitutionofthatState.(3Peters,288.)TheSupremeCourthasnoauthoritytoissueahabeascorpusinthecaseofpersonsheldbytheactionoftheStateCourt.(1Wash.,239.)ManyothercasesmightbenamedwhichshowthelimitedjurisdictionoftheSupremeCourtoftheUnitedStates.IthasjurisdictionovernomatterwhichtheStateshavenotdelegatedintheConstitution.OverallmatterswhichtheStateshavenotdelegatedtotheFederalGovernment,theStateCourtsaresupreme.Mr.Chase,thepresentChiefJustice,speakingofthesovereigntyoftheStateofOhioin1854,said:"WehaverightswhichtheFederalGovernmentmustnotinvade?rightssuperiortoitspower,onwhichoursovereigntydepends."SuchapropositionnecessarilyfollowsfromthelimitednatureoftheFederalGovernment?[C.C.B.]

24.HunterandMartin,Cohenv.StateofVirginiaandothercases.

25.Thiswantofuniformityandfixedness,Inthedecisionsofcourts,renderstheSupremeCourtthemostunfitumpirethatcouldbeselectedbetweentheFederalGovernmentandtheStates,onquestionsinvolvingtheirrespectiverightsandpowers.SupposethattheUnitedStatesshouldresolvetocutacanalthroughtheterritoryofVirginia,andbeingresisted,theSupremeCourtshoulddecidethattheyhadarighttodoso.Supposethat,whentheworkwascompleted,asimilarattemptshouldbemadeInMassachusetts,andbeingresisted,thesamecourtshoulddecidethattheyhadnorighttodoso.TheeffectwouldbethattheUnitedStateswouldpossessarightinoneStatewhichtheydidnotpossesinanother.SupposethatVirginiashouldimposeataxonthearsenals,dock-yards,&c.,oftheunitedStateswithinherterritory,andthat,Inasuittodeterminetheright,theSupremeCourtshoulddecideinfavorofIt.

SupposethatalikeattemptshouldbemadebyMassachusetts,and,uponasimilarappealtothatcourt,itshoulddecideagainstit;VirginiawouldenjoyarightInreferencetotheUnitedStates,whichwouldbedeniedtoMassachusetts.Othercasesmaybesupposed,involvinglikeconsequences,andshowingtheabsurdityofsubmittingtocourtsofjusticethedecisionofcontroversiesbetweengovernments,involvingtheextentandnatureoftheirpowers.IknowthatthedecisionsoftheSupremeCourtonconstitutionalquestions,havebeenveryconsistentanduniform;butthataffordsnoproofthattheywillbesothroughalltimetocome.Itisenoughforthepurposesofthepresentargument,thattheyMAYbeotherwise.

26.InthisextendedexaminationoftheratesbywhichtheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesistobeinterpreted,JudgeUpshurhas,wethink,completelydemolishedthedoctrinesofJudgeStoryonthatsubject;butthereisanimportantprincipletobeappliedintheinterpretationofallcompactsandlegalinstrumentswhichhasnotbeenmadesufficientlyplain.ItistherulelaiddownbyBlackstone,thattheintentionofthepartiestoacompacttothekeytoitsmeaning.Thetermsandlanguagemustbereferredtothetimeofitsenactment,andmustbetakenasunderstoodbythosewhosoemployedthem,andnotaccordingtoanysubsequentdefinition.(1Blackstone,69,60.)ThustheConstitutionoftheUnitedStatesmustbeexplainedasthosewhomadeandframeditintended.TheirINTENTIONistheLAW.Wesometimeshearsuchphrasesas"NewviewsoftheConstitution,"and"ProgressiveideasoftheConstitution."

Butwearetoseekforthemeaningofthatinstrument;notin"newviews,"

orin"progressiveideas"ofitsimport,butintheoldviewsofthosewhomadeit.WearetotakeintoconsiderationtheconditionofthecountryatthetimetheConstitutionwasframedandadopted,andthesettledjudicialandprofessionalopinionimmediatelyfollowingitsadoption.ThisrulehasbeenoftenaffirmedbytheSupremeCourt.(6Wheaton,410;2Peters,714;5Cranch.83;8Dallas.898.)

Anysubsequentconstructionofalaworinstrumentnotinagreementwiththesettledintentofthosewhoframed14istobedisregarded.

(1Peters,281,1.)

TheintentionoftheframersoftheConstitutionwasthatitshouldcontinueastheyframedit;itwasnotdesignedasatemporaryagreement,butasaneverlastinglaw.(1Wheaton,326.)Itslanguageistobetakeninitsnaturalandobvioussense,andnotinanynovelandnewconstruction.(4Wheaton,415.)"Itsspiritistoberespectednotlessthanitsletter,yetthespiritistobecollectedchieflybythewords."(aWheaton,262."itwasnotintendedtouselanguagewhichwouldconveytotheeyeoneidea,andafterdeepreflectionimpressonthemindanother."(4Wheaton,418.)SuchweretherulesbywhichtheConstitutionwasinterpretedbytheSupremeCourtundeviatinglyfromthefoundationofthegovernmentto1863.Sincethislastdateachangehascomeoverthespiritofthejudiciarywhichisinviolationofallthepastrulesofinterpretation,andindeedofjudicialproceedingsamongallenlightenednations.Thedoctrinehasbeenboldlyproclaimed,byleadingjournals,thatlawsandcompactsaretobeconstruedsoastobeinharmonywiththe"willofthepeople,"andjudgeshave,intoomanyinstances,succumbedtothismonstrousdelusion.Itamountstotheabrogationofallorganiclaw,bysubstitutingthepassionsandfanciesofthepeopletoitsplace.