第8章

"Thosenationswhohavegoneinsearchofgrandeur,powerandsplendor,havealwaysfallenasacrificeandbeenthevictimsoftheirownfolly.

Whiletheyacquiredthosevisionaryblessings,theylosttheirfreedom."

Theconsolidationistsforgetthesewholesometruths,intheireagernesstoinvestthefederalgovernmentwitheverypowerwhichisnecessarytorealizetheirvisionsinagreatandsplendidnation.Hencetheydonotdiscriminatebetweentheseveralclassesoffederalpowers,butcontendforallofthem,withthesameblindanddevotedzeal.Itisremarkablethat,intheexerciseofallthosefunctionsoftheFederalGovernmentwhichconcernourforeignrelations,scarcelyacasecanbesupposed,requiringtheaidofanyimpliedorincidentalpower,astowhichanyseriousdoubtcanarise.Thepowersofthatgovernment,astoallsuchmatters,aresodistinctlyandplainlypointedoutintheveryletteroftheConstitution,andtheyaresoampleforallthepurposescontemplated,thatitisonlynecessarytounderstandthemaccordingtotheirplainmeaningandtoexercisethemaccordingtotheiracknowledgedextent.Noauxiliariesarerequired;

thegovernmenthasonlytogoonintheexecutionofitstrusts,withpowersatonceampleandunquestioned.Itisonlyinmatterswhichconcernourdomesticpolicy,thatanyseriousstruggleforfederalpowerhaseverarisen,orislikelytoarise.Here,thatloveofsplendoranddisplay,whichdeludessolargeaportionofmankind,uniteswiththatself-interestbywhichallmankindareswayed,inaggrandizingtheFederalGovernment,andaddingtoitspowers.Hewhothinksitbettertobelongtoasplendidandshowygovernment,thantoafreeandhappyone,naturallyseekstosurroundallourinstitutionswithagaudypageantry,whichbelongsonlytoaristocraticormonarchicalsystems.Butthegreatstruggleisforthosevariousandextendedpowers,fromtheexerciseofwhichavaricemayexpectitsgratifications.

Hencethedesireforaprofuseexpenditureofthepublicmoney,andhencethethousandschemesunderthenameofinternalimprovements,bymeansofwhichhungrycontractorsmayplunderthepublictreasury,andwilyspeculatorspreyuponthelessskillfulandcunning.Andhence,too,anothersortoflegislation,themostviciousofthewhole,which,professingafairandlegitimateobjectofpublicgood,looks,really,onlytothepromotionofprivateinterests.Itisthusthatclassesareunitedinsupportingthepowersofgovernment,andaninterestiscreatedstrongenoughtocarryallmeasuresandsustainallabuses.

Letitbeborneinmindthat,astoallthesesubjectsofdomesticconcern,thereisnoabsolutenecessitythattheFederalGovernmentshouldpossessanypoweratall.TheyareallsuchastheStategovernmentsareperfectlycompetenttomanage;andthemostcompetent,becauseeachStateisthebestjudgeofwhatisusefulornecessarytoitself.Thereis,then,noroomtocomplainofanywantofpowertodowhatevertheinterestsofthepeoplerequiretobedone.ThisisthetopicuponwhichJudgeStoryhaslavishlyexpendedhisstrength.Lookingupongovernmentasamachinecontrivedonlyforthepublicgood,hethinksitstrangethatitshouldnotbesupposedtopossessallthefacultiescalculatedtoanswerthepurposesofitscreation.

Andsurelyitwouldbestrangeifitwere,indeed,sodefectivelyconstructed.

ButtheauthorseemstoforgetthatinoursystemtheFederalGovernmentstandsnotalone.Thatisbutapartofthemachine;completeinitself,certainly,andperfectlycompetent,withoutborrowingaidfromanyothersource,toworkoutitsownpartofthegeneralresult.Butitisnotcompetenttoworkoutthewholeresult.TheStategovernmentshavealsotheirparttoperform,andthetwotogethermaketheperfectwork,then,areallthepowerswhichitisnecessarythatgovernmentshouldpossess;notlodgedinoneplace,butdistributed;notthepoweroftheStategovernments,noroftheFederalGovernment,buttheaggregateoftheirseveralandrespectivepowers.IntheexerciseofthosefunctionswhichtheStategovernmentsareforbiddentoexercise,theFederalGovernmentneednotlookbeyondtheletterofitscharterforanyneedfulpower;andintheexerciseofanyotherfunction,thereisstilllessnecessitythatitshoulddoso;

because,whateverpowerthatgovernmentdoesnotplainlypossess,isplainlypossessedby,theStategovernments.Ispeak,ofcourse,ofsuchpowersonlyasmaybeexercisedeitherbytheoneortheother,andnotofsuchasaredeniedtoboth.Imeanonlytosay,thatsofarastheStatesandthepeoplehaveentrustedpowertogovernmentatall,theyhavedonesoinlanguageplainandfallenoughtorenderallimplicationunnecessary.

LettheFederalGovernmentexerciseonlysuchpowerasplainlybelongstoit,rejectingallsuchasisevendoubtful,anditwillbefoundthatoursystemwillworkoutalltheusefulendsofgovernment,harmoniouslyandwithoutcontest,andwithoutdispute,andwithoutusurpation.26CHAPTERX.STRUCTUREANDFUNCTIONSOFTHEHOUSEOFREPRESENTATIVES.Ihavethusfinishedtheexaminationofthepoliticalpartofthesecommentaries,andthisistheonlyobjectwithwhichthisreviewwascommenced.Thereare,however,afewtopicsyetremaining,ofgreatpublicconcern,andwhichoughtnottobeomitted.Someofthese,itseemstome,havebeenpresentedbytheauthorinfalseanddeceptivelights,andothersofthem,fromtheirintrinsicimportance,cannotbetoooftenpresseduponpublicattention.Idonotproposetoexaminethemminutely,butsimplytopresenttheminafewoftheirstrongestlights.

InhisexaminationofthestructureandfunctionsoftheHouseofRepresentatives,JudgeStoryhasgivenhisviewsofthatclauseoftheConstitutionwhichallowsrepresentationtothree-fifthsoftheslaves.Heconsidersthecompromiseuponthissubjectasunjustinprinciple,anddecidedlyinjurioustothepeopleofthenon-slaveholdingStates.HeadmitsthatanequivalentforthissupposedconcessiontotheSouthwasintendedtobesecuredbyanotherprovision,whichdirectsthat"RepresentativesanddirecttaxesshallbeapportionedamongtheseveralStates,accordingtotheirrespectivenumbers";

butheconsidersthisprovision"morespeciousthansolid;forwhileinthelevyoftaxesitapportionsthemonthree-fifthsofpersonsnotfree,itontheotherhand,reallyexemptstheothertwo-fifthsfrombeingtaxedatallasproperty.Whereas,ifdirecttaxeshadbeenapportioned,asuponprincipletheyoughttobe,accordingtotherealvalueofpropertywithintheState,thewholeoftheslaveswouldhavebeentaxedasproperty.Butafarmorestrikinginequalityhasbeendisclosedbythepracticaloperationsofthegovernment.Theprincipleofrepresentationisconstantanduniform;

thelevyofdirecttaxesisoccasionalandrare.Inthecourseoffortyyears,nomorethanthreedirecttaxeshavebeenlevied,andthoseonlyunderveryextraordinaryandpressingcircumstances.Theordinaryexpendituresofthegovernmentare,andalwayshavebeen,derivedfromothersources.

Impostsuponforeignimportations,havesupplied,andwillgenerallysupply,allthecommonwants;andiftheseshouldnotfurnishanadequaterevenue,excisesarenextresortedto,asthesurestandmostconvenientmodeoftaxation.Directtaxesconstitutethelastresort;and,asmighthavebeenforeseen,wouldneverbelaiduntilotherresourceshadfailed."

Thisisaveryimperfect,and,asitseemstome,notaverycandidviewofagraveandimportantsubject.Itwouldhavebeenwelltoavoiditaltogether,ifithadbeenpermitted;forthepublicmindneedsnoencouragementtodwell,withunpleasantreflections,uponthetopicsitsuggests.InanexaminationoftheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates,however,somenoticeofthispeculiarfeatureofitwasunavoidable;butweshouldnothaveexpectedtheauthortodismissitwithsuchcriticismonlyastendstoshowthatitisunjusttohisownpeculiarpartofthecountry.Itismanifesttoeveryonethatthearrangementrestsuponnoparticularprinciple,butasamerecompromisebetweenconflictinginterestsandopinions.Itismuchtoberegrettedthatitisnotonallhandsacquiescedinandapproved,uponthatground;fornopublicnecessityrequiresthatitshouldbediscussed;

anditcannotnowbechangedwithoutseriousdangertothewholefabric.

ThepeopleoftheslaveholdingStatesthemselveshavenevershownadispositiontoagitatethequestionatall,but,onthecontrary,havegenerallysoughttoavoidit.Ithas,however,always"beencomplainedofasagrievance,"

bythenon-slaveholdingStates,andthattooinlanguagewhichleaveslittledoubtthatawishisverygenerallyentertainedtochangeit.Agraveauthor,likeJudgeStory,whotellsthepeople,asitwereexcathedra,thatthethingisunjustinitself,willscarcelyrepressthedissatisfactionwhichsuchanannouncement,fallinginwithpreconceivedopinions,willcreate,byasimplerecommendationtoacquiesceinitasacompromise,tendinguponthewholetogoodresults.Hisremarksmayrenderthepublicmindmoreunquietthanitnowistheycanscarcelytranquilizeorreconcileit.Formyself,Iamveryfarfromwishingtobringthesubjectintoseriousdiscussion,withanyviewtochange;butIcannotagreethatanarrangement,obviouslyinjurioustotheSouth,shouldbeheldupasgivingheradvantagesofwhichtheNorthhasreasontocomplain.

Iwillnotpausetoinquirewhethertheruleapportioningrepresentativesaccordingtonumbers,which,aftermuch,contest,wasfinallyadoptedbytheconvention,bethecorrectoneornot.Supposingthatitisso,therulewhichapportionstaxationinthesameway,followsasamatterofcourse.Thedifficultiesunderwhichtheconventionseemtohavelabored,inregardtothissubject,maywellexciteoursurprise,atthepresentday.IftheNorthreallysupposedthattheyconcededanythingtotheSouth,byallowingrepresentationtothree-fifthsoftheirslaves,theywerecertainlybutpoorlycompensatedfortheconcession,bythatprovisionoftheConstitutionwhichapportionstaxationaccordingtorepresentation.ThisprinciplewasuniversallyacknowledgedthroughouttheUnitedStates,andis,infact,only,amodificationofthegreatprincipleuponwhichtherevolutionitselfwasbased.Thattaxationshouldbeapportionedtorepresentation,resultsfromthefederativecharacterofthegovernment;andthefactthatthisrulewasadopted,sustainstheviewswhichhavebeenpresenteduponthispoint.ItwouldhavebeenindeedstrangeifsomeoneState,havingonlyhalftherepresentativesofitsneighborState,mightyethavebeensubjectedtotwicetheamountoftaxation;Delaware,forinstance,withheronerepresentative,totwicethetaxesofPennsylvania,withhertwenty-eight.AdifferentrulefromthatwhichprevailsmightsubjecttheweakerStatestointolerableoppression.AcombinationamongafewofthestrongestStatesmight,byalittlemanagement,throwthewholeburthenoftaxationupontheothers,byselectingonlysuchsubjectsoftaxationastheythemselvesdidnotpossess,orwhichtheypossessedonlytoacomparativelysmallextent.

ItneverwouldhaveansweredtoentrustthepoweroftaxationtoCongress,withoutsomecheckagainsttheseandsimilarabuses,andnocheckcouldhavebeendevisedmoreeffectiveormoreappropriatethantheprovisionnowunderconsideration.AlltheStateswereinterestedinit,andtheSouthmuchmoredeeplythantheNorth.TheslavesoftheSouthaffordthereadiestofallpossiblesubjectsforthissortofpractice,anditwouldbegoingtoofartosaythattheywouldnot,atsomedayorother,beselectedforit,ifthisprovisionoftheConstitutiondidnotstandintheway.

ThesouthernStateswouldcertainlyneverhaveadoptedtheConstitutionwithoutsomesuchguaranteeasthisagainstthoseoppressionstowhichtheirpeculiarinstitutionsexposedthem;andtheweakerStates,whethernorthorsouth,wouldneverhaveadoptedit,becauseitmightleadtotheirutterannihilationintheconfederacy.ThisprovisionoftheConstitution,therefore,canscarcelybeconsideredasanequivalentforanythingconcededbysomeoftheStatestoothers.Itresultednecessarilyfromtheverynatureoftheirunion;itisanappropriateandnecessaryfeatureineveryconfederacybetweensovereignStates.Weought,then,toregardthatprovisionoftheConstitutionwhichallowsrepresentationtoonlythree-fifthsoftheslaves,asaconcessionmadebytheSouth;andoneforwhichtheyreceivednoequivalent,exceptintheharmonyitservedtoproduce.

Revertingtotherulethatrepresentationshallbeapportionedtopopulation,andsupposingthatallpartiesacquiesceintheproprietyofit,uponwhatprincipleistheruleitselffounded?Wehavealreadyseenthatthewholecountryhadadoptedtheprinciplethattaxation,shouldbeapportionedtorepresentation,and,ofcourse,infixingtheprincipleofrepresentation,thequestionoftaxationwasnecessarilyinvolved.Thereisnoperfectlyjustruleoftaxationbutproperty;everymanshouldcontributetothesupportofthegovernment,accordingtohisability,thatis,accordingtothevalueofthatpropertytowhichgovernmentextendsitsprotection.

Butthisrulenevercanbeappliedinpractice;becauseitisimpossibletodiscoverwhatistheamountoftheproperty,eitherofindividualsornations.InregardtoStates,populationisthebestmeasureofthisvaluewhichcanbefound,andis,inmostcases,asufficientlyaccurateone.

AlthoughthewealthofaStatecannotbeascertained,itspeoplecanbeeasilycounted,andhencethenumberofitspeoplegivesthebestruleforitsrepresentation,andconsequentlyforitstaxation.

ThepopulationofaStateisreceivedasthebestmeasureofthevalueofitsproperty,becauseitisingeneraltrue,thatthegreaterthenumberofpeople,thegreateristheamountofproductiveindustry.Butofwhatconsequenceisit,bywhatsortofpeoplethisamountofproductionisafforded?ItwasrequiredthateachStateofourUnionshouldcontributeitsdueproportiontothecommontreasury;apropositionascertainedbythenumberofitspeople.Ofwhatconsequenceisitwhetherthiscontributionbemadebythelaborofslaves,orbythatoffreemen?AllthattheStateshadarighttorequireofoneanotherwas,thateachshouldcontributeitsallottedproportion;butnoStatehadarighttoenquirefromwhatparticularsourcesthatcontributionarose.EachStatehavingaperfectrighttoframeitsownmunicipalregulationsforitself,theotherStateshadnorighttosubjecthertoanydisabilitiesordisadvantagesonaccountofthem.IfMassachusettshadarighttoobjecttotherepresentationoftheslavesofVirginia,Virginiahadthesamerighttoobjecttotherepresentationoftheapprentices,thedomesticservants,oreventhemechanicsofMassachusetts.

ThepeculiarprivateconditionandrelationsofthepeopleofaStatetooneanothercouldnotproperlybeenquiredintobyanyotherState.ThatisasubjectwhicheachStateregulatesforitself;anditcannotenterintothequestionoftheinfluencewhichsuchStateoughttopossess,inthecommongovernmentofalltheStates.ItisenoughthattheStatebringsintothecommonstockacertainamountofwealth,resultingfromtheindustryofherpeople.Whetherthosepeoplebemenorwomen,bondorfree,orboundtoserviceforalimitedtimeonly,istheexclusiveconcernoftheStateitself,andisamatterwithwhichtheotherStatescannotintermeddle,withoutimpertinence,injusticeandoppression.Sofar,then,fromlimitingrepresentationtothree-fifthsoftheslaves,theyoughtalltoberepresented,forallcontributetotheaggregateoftheproductiveindustryofthecountry.

And,eventhen,therulewouldoperateinjuriouslyupontheslave-holdingStates;for,ifthelaborofaslavebeasproductiveasthatofafreeman,(andinagricultureitisso),thecostofsupportinghimismuchless.Therefore,ofthesameamountoffoodandclothing,raisedbythetwoclasses,agreatersurpluswillremainofthatoftheslave,andofcourseagreateramountsubjecttothedemandsofthepublicnecessities.

TheremarksofJohnAdams,deliveredinconvention,27areveryforcibleuponthispoint.AccordingtoMr.Jefferson"sreportofthem,heobserved,"thatthenumbersofpeoplearetakenasanindexofthewealthoftheState,andnotassubjectsoftaxation;that,astothismatteritwasofnoconsequencebywhatnameyoucalledyourpeople,whetherbythatoffreemenorofslaves;thatinsomecountriesthelaboringpoorarecalledfreemen,inotherstheyarecalledslaves;butthatthedifference,astothestate,wasimaginaryonly.Whatmattersitwhetheralandlord,employingtenlaborersonhisfarm,givesthemannuallyasmuchmoneyaswillbuythemthenecessariesoflife,orgivesthemthosenecessariesatshorthand?ThetenlaborersaddasmuchwealthtotheState,increaseitsexportsasmuch,intheonecaseasintheother.Certainlyfivehundredfreemenproducenomoreprofits,nogreatersurplusforthepaymentoftaxes,thanfivehundredslaves.ThereforetheStateinwhicharethelaborerscalledfreemenshouldbetaxednomorethanthatinwhicharethelaborerscalledslaves.Supposebyanextraordinaryoperationofnatureoroflaw,one-halfthelaborersofaStatecould,inthecourseofonenight,betransformedintoslaves,wouldtheStatebemadepoorer,orlessabletopaytaxes?Thattheconditionofthelaboringpoorinmostcountries,thatofthefishermenparticularlyofthenorthernStates,isasabjectasthatofslaves.Itisthenumberoflaborerswhichproducesthesurplusfortaxation,andnumberstherefore,indiscriminately,arethefairindextowealth."

ItisobviousthattheseremarksweremadeforverydifferentpurposefromthatwhichIhaveinview.Thesubjectthenbeforetheconventionwastheproperruleoftaxation,anditwasMr.Adams"spurposetoshowthat,astothatmatter,slavesshouldbeconsideredonlyaspeople,and,consequently,asanindexoftheamountoftaxablewealth.Theconventionhadnotthendeterminedthatrepresentativesanddirecttaxesshouldberegulatedbythesameratio.Whentheydiddeterminethis,theremarksofMr.Adamsseemtomeconclusive,toshowthatrepresentationofalltheslavesoughttohavebeenallowed;nordoIseehowthosewhoheldhisopinionscouldpossiblyhavevotedotherwise.Ifslavesarepeople,asformingthemeasureofnationalwealth,andconsequentlyoftaxation,andiftaxationandrepresentationbeplaceduponthesameprinciple,andregulatedbythesameratio,thenthatslavesarepeople,infixingtheratioofrepresentation,isalogicalsequiturwhichnoonecanpossiblydeny.

Butitisobjectedthatslavesareproperty,andforthatreason,arenotmoreentitledtorepresentationthananyotherspeciesofproperty.

Buttheyarealsopeople,and,uponanalogousprinciples,areentitledtorepresentationaspeople.Itisinthischaracteralonethatthenon-slaveholdingStateshavearighttoconsiderthem,ashasalreadybeenshown,andinthischaracteraloneisitjusttoconsiderthem.Weoughttopresumethateveryslaveoccupiesaplacewhich,butforhispresence,wouldbeoccupiedbyafreewhiteman;and,ifthiswereso,everyone,andnotthree-fifthsonly,wouldberepresented.ButtheStateswhoholdnoslaveshavenorighttocomplainthatthisisnotthecaseinotherStates,solongasthelaboroftheslavecontributesasmuchtothecommonstockofproductiveindustry,asthelaborofthewhiteman.ItisenoughthataStatepossessesacertainnumberofpeople,ofliving,rationalbeings.Wearenottoenquirewhethertheybeblackorwhite,nortawny,norwhataretheirpeculiarrelationsamongoneanother.IftheslaveoftheSouthbeproperty,ofwhatnatureisthatproperty,andwhatkindofinteresthastheownerinit?Hehasarighttotheprofitsoftheslave"slabor.Andso,themasterofanindentedapprenticehasarighttotheprofitsofhislabor.Itistrue,oneholdstherightforthelifeoftheslave,andtheotheronlyforatimelimitedintheapprentice"sindentures;butthisisadifferenceonlyintheextent,andnotinthenatureoftheinterest.Itisalsotrue,thattheownerofaslavehas,inmostStates,arighttosellhim;butthisisonlybecausethelawsoftheStateauthorizehimtodoso.And,inlikemanner,theindenturesofanapprenticemaybetransferredifthelawsoftheStatewillallowit.Inalltheserespects,therefore,theslaveandtheindenturedapprenticestanduponpreciselythesameprinciple.Toacertainextent,theyarebothproperty,andneitherofthemcanberegardedasafreeman;

andiftheonebenotentitledtorepresentation,theotheralsoshouldbedeniedthatright.Whateverbethedifferenceoftheirrelationstotheseparatemembersofthecommunity,intheeyeofthatcommunitytheyarebothpeople.Here,again,Mr.Adamsshallspeakforme;andourcountryhasproducedfewmenwhocouldspeakmorewisely:"Aslavemay,indeed,fromthecustomofspeech,bemoreproperlycalledthewealthofhismaster,thanthefreelaborermightbecalledthewealthofhisemployer;butastotheState,bothareequallyitswealth,andshouldthereforeequallyaddtothequotaofitstax."Yea;and,consequently,theyshouldequallyaddtothequotaofitsrepresentation.

JudgeStorysupposesthatitisagreatadvantagetotheslave-holdingStatesthat,whilethree-fifthsoftheslavesareentitledtorepresentation,two-fifthsareexemptedfromtaxation.Whyconfineittothree-fifths?

Supposethatnoneofthemwereentitledtorepresentation,theonlyconsequencewouldbe,thattheStatewouldhavefewerrepresentatives,andforthatreason,wouldhavealessamountoftaxestopay.Inthiscase,alltheslaveswouldbeexemptedfromtaxation;and,accordingtoourauthor,theslaveholdingStateswouldhavegreatreasontobecontentwithsodistinguishinganadvantage.And,forthesamereason,everyotherStatewouldhavecausetorejoiceatthediminutionofthenumberofpeople,foralthoughitsrepresentationwouldtherebybedecreased,itstaxeswouldbedecreasedinthesameproportion.Thisisthetruemodeoftestingtheauthor"sposition.

ItwillbefoundthateveryStatevaluestherightofrepresentationatapriceinfinitelybeyondtheamountofdirecttaxestowhichthatrightmaysubjectit;and,ofcourse,thesouthernStateshavelittlereasontobethankfulthattwo-fifthsoftheirslavesareexemptedfromtaxation,sincetheylose,inconsequenceofit,therightofrepresentationtothesameextent.Theauthor,however,seemstohaveforgottenthisconnectionbetweenrepresentationandtaxation;helooksonlyatthesourceswhencetheUnionmaydrawwealthfromtheSouth,withoutenquiringintotheprinciplesuponwhichherrepresentationmaybeenlarged.Hethinksthatdirecttaxesoughttobeapportioned,"accordingtotherealvalueofpropertywithintheState;inwhichcase"thewholeoftheslaveswouldhavebeentaxableasproperty."Ihavealreadyremarkedthatthisis,indeed,thetruerulebutitiswhollyimpracticable.Itwouldbealikeimpossibletofixasatisfactorystandardofvaluation,andtodiscoverthetaxablesubjects.Noapproximationtothetruthcouldbehopedfor,withoutahostofofficers,whosecompensationwouldconsumealargeproportionofthetax,while,fromtheverynatureoftheirduties,theywouldbeforcedintominuteexaminations,inconsistentwiththefreedomofourinstitutions,harassingandvexatiousintheirdetails,andleadinginevitablytopopularresistanceandtumult.Andthisprocessmustbegonethroughateverynewtax;fortherelativewealthoftheStateswouldbecontinuallychanging.Hence,populationhasbeenselectedasthepropermeasureofthewealthoftheStates.But,uponourauthor"sprinciple,theSouthwouldbe,indeed,littlebetteroffthanthelambintheembraceofthewolf.Theslavesareeasilyfound;theycanneitherbeburiedunderground,norhidinthesecretdrawersofabureau.Theyarepeculiar,too,toaparticularregion;andotherregions,havingnoneofthem,wouldyethaveavoiceinfixingtheirvalueussubjectsoftaxation.Thattheywouldbearsomethingmorethantheirdueshareofthisburthen,isjustascertainasthatman,underallcircumstances,willactaccordingtohisnature.Inthemeantime,notbeingconsideredaspeople,theywouldhavenorighttobeheardintheirowndefense,throughtheirrepresentativesinthefederalcouncils.Ontheotherhand,thenon-slave-holdingStateswouldberepresentedinproportiontothewholenumbersoftheirpeople,andwouldbetaxedonlyaccordingtothatpartoftheirwealthwhichtheymightchoosetodisclose,orwhichtheycouldnotconceal.Andintheestimateofthiswealth,theirpeoplewouldnotbecountedastaxablesubjects,althoughtheyholdtotheirrespectiveStatespreciselythesamerelation,aslaborersandcontributorstothecommontreasury,asisheldbytheslavesoftheSouthtotheirrespectiveStates.Therule,whichconsidersslavesonlyaspropertytobetaxed,andnotaspeopletoberepresented,islittleelsethanaruleimposingonthesouthern.Statesalmosttheentireburthensofthegovernment,andallowingtothemonlytheshadowofinfluenceinthemeasuresofthatgovernment.

Thetruthis,theslave-holdingStateshavealwayscontributedmorethantheirjustproportiontothewealthandstrengthofthecountry,andnotlessthantheirjustproportiontoitsintelligenceandpublicvirtue.

Thisistheonlyperfectlyjustmeasureofpoliticalinfluence;butitisameasurewhichcannotbeappliedinpractice.Wereceivepopulationasthebestpracticablesubstituteforit;andasallpeople,whateverbetheirprivateandpeculiarconditionsandrelations,arepresumedtocontributetheirsharetothestockofgeneralwealth,intelligenceandvirtue,theyareallentitledtotheirrespectivesharesofinfluenceinthemeasuresofgovernment.Theslave-holdingStates,therefore,hadarighttodemandthatalltheirslavesshouldberepresented;theyyieldedtoomuchinagreeingthatonlythree-fifthsofthemshouldpossessthatright.Icannotdoubtthatthiswouldhavebeenconcededbytheconvention,hadtheprinciple,thatrepresentativesanddirecttaxesshouldbeapportionedaccordingtothesameratio,beenthenadoptedintotheConstitution.Itwouldhavebeenperceivedthat,whiletherepresentationofthesouthernStateswouldthushavebeenincreased,theirshareofthepublictaxeswouldhavebeenincreasedinthesameproportion;andthustheywouldhavestood,inallrespects,uponthesamefootingwiththeotherStates.ThenorthernStateswouldhavesaidtothem,"Countyourpeople;itisofnoconsequencetouswhatistheirconditionathome;theyarelaborers,andthereforetheycontributethemine,amountoftaxablesubjects,whetherblackorwhite,bondorfree.Wethereforerecognizethemaspeople,andgivethemrepresentationassuch.Allthatwerequireis,thatwhenwecometolaydirecttaxes,theyshallberegardedaspeoplestill,andyoushallcontributeforthempreciselyaswecontributeforourpeople."Thisistheplainjusticeofthecase;andthisalonewouldbeconsistentwiththegreatprincipleswhichoughttoregulatethesubject.Itisaresultwhichisnolongerattainable,andtheSouthwill,astheyoughttodo,acquiesceinthearrangementasitnowstands.Buttheyhavereasontocomplainthatgreatauthors,inelaborateworksdesignedtoformtheopinionsofrisinggenerations,shouldsotreatthesubjectastocreateanimpressionthatthesouthernStatesareenjoyingadvantagesunderourConstitutiontowhichtheyarenotfairlyentitled,andwhichtheyoweonlytotheliberalityoftheotherStates;fortheSouthfeelsthatthesesupposedadvantagesare,infact,sacrifices,whichshehasmadeonlytoaspiritofconciliationandharmony,andwhichneitherjusticenorsoundprinciplewouldhaveexactedofher.

RegardingthisworkofJudgeStory,asawhole,itisimpossiblenottobestruckwiththelaboriousindustrywhichhehasdisplayedinthecollectionandpreparationofhismaterials.Hedoesnotoftenindulgehimselfinspeculationsuponthegeneralprinciplesofgovernment,butconfineshimself,withgreatstrictness,totheparticularformbeforehim.Consideringhimasamerelawyer,hisworkdoeshonortohislearningandresearch,andwillformaveryusefuladditiontoourlawlibraries.

Butitisnotinthislightonlythatwearetoviewit.Theauthorisapolitician,aswellasalawyer,andhastakenunusualpainstojustifyandrecommendhimownpeculiaropinions.Thishehasdone,oftenattheexpenseofcandorandfairness,and,almostinvariably,attheexpenseofhistoricaltruth.Wemaywelldoubt,therefore,whetherhisbookwillproducemoreevilthangood,tothecountry;sincethefalseviewswhichitpresents,ofthenatureandcharacterofourgovernment,arecalculatedtoexertaninfluenceoverthepublicmind,tooseriouslymischievoustobecompensatedbyanynewlightswhichitshedsuponotherpartsofourConstitution.Indeed,itislittlelessthanalaboredpanegyricuponthatinstrument.Havingmadeit,byforcedconstructions,andstrangemisapprehensionsofhistory,toconformtohisownbeauidealofaperfectgovernment,hecandiscern,initnothingthatisdeficient,nothingthatissuperfluous.

Anditishisparticularpleasuretoarmitwithstrongpowers,andsurrounditwithimposingsplendors.Inhisexaminationofthelegislativedepartment,hehasdisplayedanextraordinaryliberalityofconcessioninthisrespect.

ThereisnotasingleimportantpowereverexercisedorclaimedforCongresswhichhedoesnotvindicateandmaintain.Thelong-contestedpowerstoprotectmanufactures,toconstructroads,withanendlesslistofsimilarobjectstowhichthepublicmoneymaybeapplied,presentnoseriousdifficultytohismind.Anexaminationoftheseseveralsubjects,indetail,wouldswellthisreviewbeyonditsproperlimits,andisrenderedunnecessarybythegreatprincipleswhichithasbeenmyobjecttoestablish.Ialludetothemhere,onlyasillustratingthegeneralcharacterofthisbook,andasshowingthedangeroustendencyofitspoliticalprinciples.Itis,indeed,astrongargumentinfavoroffederalpower;andwhenwehavesaidthis,wehavegivenitthecharacterwhichtheauthorwillmostproudlyrecognize.Anditisnotforthelegislaturealone,thattheseunboundedpowersareclaimed;theotherdepartmentscomeinforafullshareofhisfavor.Evenwhenheisforcedtocondemn,hedoesitwithacensuresofaint,andsosoftenedandpalliated,astoamounttopositivepraise.

TheprinciplethatoursisaconsolidatedgovernmentofallthepeopleoftheUnitedStates,andnotaconfederationofsovereignStates,mustnecessarilyrenderitlittlelessthanomnipotent.Thatprinciple,carriedouttoitslegitimateresults,willassuredlyrenderthefederalgovernmentthestrongestintheworld.Thepowersofsuchagovernmentaresupposedtoresideinamajorityofthepeople;and,asitsresponsibilityisonlytothepeople,thatmajoritymaymakeitwhatevertheyplease.Towhomisthatmajorityitselfresponsible?Uponthetheorythatitpossessesallthepowersofthegovernment,thereisnothingtocheck,nothingtocontrolit.Inapopulationstrictlyhomogeneousininterests,characterandpursuits,thereisnodangerinthisprinciple.WeadoptitinallourStategovernments,andinthemitisthetrueprinciple;becausethemajoritycanpassnolawwhichwillnotaffectthemselves,inmodeanddegree,preciselyasitaffectsothers.ButinacountrysoextensiveastheUnitedStates,withgreatdifferencesofcharacter,interestsandpursuits,andwiththesedifferences,too,markedbygeographicallines,afairopportunityisaffordedfortheexerciseofanoppressivetyranny,bythemajorityovertheminority.Largemassesofmankindarenotapttobeswayed,exceptbyinterestalone;andwhereverthatinterestisdistinctandclear,itpresentsamotiveofactiontoostrongtobecontrolled.LetitbesupposedthatacertainnumberofStates,containingamajorityofthepeopleofalltheStates,shouldfindittotheirinteresttopasslawsoppressivetotheminority,andviolatingtheirrightsassecuredbytheConstitution.

Whatredressisthere,upontheprinciplesofJudgeStory?Isittobefoundinthefederaltribunals?Theyarethemselvesapartoftheoppressinggovernment,andare,therefore,notimpartialjudgesofthepowersofthatgovernment.Isittobefoundinthevirtueandintelligenceofthepeople?

Thisistheauthor"sgreatreliance.Heacknowledgesthatthesystem,asheunderstandsit,isliabletogreatabuses;buthesupposesthatthevirtueandintelligenceofthepeoplewill,underallcircumstances,proveasufficientcorrective.Ofwhatpeople?Ofthatverymajoritywhohavecommittedtheinjusticecomplainedof,andwho,accordingtotheauthor"stheory,arethesolejudgeswhethertheyhavepowertodoitornot,andwhetheritbeinjusticeornot.Undersuchasystemasthis,itisacruelmockerytotalkabouttherightsoftheminority.Iftheypossessrights,theyhavenomeanstovindicatethem.Themajorityalonepossessthegovernment;

theyalonemeasureitspowers,andwieldthemwithoutcontrolorresponsibility.

Thisisdespotismoftheworstsort,inasystemlikeours.Moretolerable,byfar,isthedespotismofoneman,thanthatofaparty,rulingwithoutcontrol,consultingitsowninterests,andjustifyingitsexcessesunderthenameofrepublicanliberty.Freegovernment,sofarasitsprotectingpowerisconcerned,ismadeforminoritiesalone.

Butthesystemofourauthor,whileitinvitesthemajoritytotyrannizeovertheminority,andgivestheminoritynoredress,isnotsafeeven,forthatmajorityitself.Itisasystemunbalanced,unchecked,withoutanydefiniterulestopreventitfromrunningintoabuse,andbecomingavictimtoitsownexcesses.Theseparationandcompleteindependenceoftheseveraldepartmentsofthegovernmentisusuallysupposedtoaffordasufficientsecurityagainstanundueenlargementofthepowersofanyoneofthem.Thisissaidtobetheonlyrealdiscoveryinpolitics,whichcanbeclaimedinmodemtimes;anditisgenerallyconsideredaverygreatdiscovery,and,perhaps,theonlycontrivancebywhichpubliclibertycanbepreserved.Theideaiswhollyillusory.Itistrue,thatpubliclibertycouldscarcelyexistwithoutsuchseparation,and,forthatreason,itwaswiselyadoptedinoursystems.Butweshouldnotrelyonitwithtooimplicitaconfidence,asaffordinginitselfanyadequatebarrieragainsttheencroachmentofpower,oranyadequatesecurityfortherightsandlibertiesofthepeople.Ihavelittlefaithinthesebalancesofgovernment;

becausethereisneitherknowledgenorwisdomenoughinmantorenderthemaccurateandpermanent.Inspiteofeveryprecautionagainstit,someonedepartmentwillacquireanunduepreponderanceovertherest.Thefirstexcessesareapttobecommittedbythelegislature;and,inaconsolidatedgovernment,suchastheauthorsupposesourstobe,thereisapeculiarpronenesstothis.Inallfreegovernments,thedemocraticprincipleiscontinuallyextendingitself.Thepeoplebeingpossessedofallpower,andfeelingthattheyaresubjecttonoauthorityexcepttheirown,learn,intheend,toconsidertheveryrestraintswhichtheyhavevoluntarilyimposeduponthemselves,intheirconstitutionofgovernment,asthemerecreaturesoftheirownwill,whichtheirownwillmayatanytimedestroy.

Hencethelegislature,theimmediaterepresentativesofthepopularwill,naturallyassumeuponthemselveseverypowerwhichisnecessarytocarrythatwillintoeffect.Thisisnotliberty.Truepoliticallibertydemandsmanyandsevererestraints;itrequiresprotectionagainstitself,andisnolongersafe,whenitrefusestosubmittoitsownself-imposeddiscipline.