第7章

Ihaveplacedinthelastranktheinstitutionofanexperimentalfarm梟otbecauseitsutilitywouldbeinferiortoalltheothers，butbecauseitsfunctionsmaybeeasilysuppliedbyindividualindustry。Inacountrysowellreplenishedwithknowledge，wealth，andzeal，asEngland，thereisnodistrictwhichcouldnotfurnishanabundanceofexperimentsinthisdepartment。Littlemorewouldbenecessarythantoprovidearegisterintowhichtheymightbecollected，andinwhichtheymightreceivethedegreeofpublicitynecessaryfordisplayingtheirutility。SucharegisterEnglandoncepossessedintheworkoftheenlightenedandpatrioticArthurYoung。Sucharegister，numerousandexcellentasthehintsdispersedthroughoutitwere，wasfar，howeverfromsupplyingtheplace，andrenderinguselessasystemofregularandconnectedresearches，inwhichinstructionshouldconstitutethesoleobject。

Inenumeratingthebranchesofknowledgewithwhich，onaccountoftheirsuperiorutility，itismostdesirablethatthegreatmassofthepeopleshouldbeacquainted，itmaywellbesupposedthatI

oughtnottoforgettheknowledgeofthelaws。Butthatthisknowledgemaybediffused，adeterminatesystemofcognosciblelaws，capableofbeingknown，isnecessary。Unhappily，suchasystemdoesnotyetexist：wheneveritshallcometobeestablished，theknowledgeofthelawwillhardlybeconsideredworthyofthenameofscience。Thelegislatorwhoallowsmoreintelligibletermstoexistwithinthecompassoflanguage，thanthoseinwhichheexpresseshislaws，deservestheexecrationofhisfellow—men。

Ihaveendeavouredtopresenttotheworldtheoutlinesofasystem，which，shoulditeverbefilledup，Iflattermyselfwouldrenderthewholesystemoflawscognoscibleandintelligibletoall。

Astothoseartsandscienceswhichmaybelearnedfrombooks，梥uchastheartoflegislation，historyinallitsbranches，moralphilosophyandlogic；comprehendingmetaphysics，grammar，andrhetoric，梩hesemaybelefttobegatheredfrombooks。Thoseindividualswhoaredesirousofalleviatingthepainsofstudybythecharmsofdeclamationuponthesesubjects，maybepermittedtopayfortheiramusements。Thereis，however，onebranchofencouragement，whichthehandofgovernmentmightextendeventothesestudies。Itmightestablishineachdistrict，inwhichthelecturesofwhichwehavealreadyspoken，shouldbedelivered，anincreasinglibrary，appropriatedtothesestudies。Thiswouldbeatoncetobestowuponstudentstheinstrumentsofstudy，anduponauthorstheirmostappropriatereward。

Ishouldnotconsiderknowledgeinthesedepartments，atoncesousefulandsocurious，illacquired，whereitevenacquiredattheexpenseofLatinandGreek梐nacquaintancewithwhichisheldinsuchhighestimationinourdays，andforinstructioninwhichthefoundationsaresoabundant。CommonopinionappearstohaveconsideredthesciencesmoredifficultofattainmentthanthesedeadlanguagesThisopinionisonlyaprejudice，arisingfromthecomparativelysmallnumberofindividualswhoapplythemselvestothestudyofthescience，andfromitsnothavingbeenthecustomtostudythemtillthelabouroftheseotherstudieshasbeencompleted。But，customandprejudiceapart，itisinthestudyofthesciencesthatyoungpeoplewouldfindmostpleasureandfewestdifficulties。

Inthiscareer，ideasfindeasysuccessthroughthesensestothememoryandtheotherintellectualfaculties。Curiosity，thatpassionwhichevenininfancydisplaysmuchenergywouldherebecontinuouslygratified。Inthestudyoflanguage，onthecontrary，therearenosensibleobjectstorelievethememory；alltheenergyofthemindisconsumedintheacquisitionofwordsofwhichneithertheutilitynortheapplicationisvisible。Hence，thelongestandmostdetailedcourseofinstructionwhichneedbegivenuponallthesciencesbeforementioned，wouldnottogetheroccupysomuchtimeasisusuallydevotedtothestudyofLatinwhichisforgottenalmostassoonaslearnedTheknowledgeoflanguagesisvaluableonlyasameansofacquiringtheinformationwhichmaybeobtainedfromconversationorbooks。Forthepurposesofconversation。thedeadlanguagesareuseless；

andtranslationsofallthebookscontainedinthemmaybefoundinallthelanguagesofmodernEurope。What，then，remainstobeobtainedfromthem，notbythecommonpeople，butevenbythemostinstructed？Imustconfess，Icandiscovernothingbutafundofallusionswherewithtoornamenttheirspeeches，theirconversations，andtheirbooks梩oosmallacompensationforthefalseandnarrownotionswhichcustomcontinuestocompelustodrawfromtheseimperfectanddeceptivesources。Topreferthestudyoftheselanguagestothestudyofthoseusefultruthswhichthemorematureindustryofthemodernshasplacedintheirstead，istomakeadwelling—placeofascaffolding，insteadofemployingitintheerectionofabuilding：

itisasthough，inhismatureage，umanshouldcontinuetoprattlelikeachild。Letthosewhoarepleasedwiththesestudiescontinuetoamusethemselves；butletusceasetotormentchildrenwiththem，atleastthosechildrenwhowillhavetoprovidefortheirownsubsistence，tillsuchtimeaswehavesuppliedthemwiththemeansofslakingtheirthirstforknowledgeatthosespringswherepleasureiscombinedwithimmediateandincontestableutility。

Itisespeciallybyacompletecourseofinstruction，thattheclergy，whomightberenderedsouseful，oughttobepreparedfortheirfunctions。Withinthenarrowlimitsofeveryparish，therewouldthenbefoundonemanatleastwellinstructeduponallsubjectswithwhichacquaintanceismostdesirable。Inexchangeforthisknowledge，whichconstitutesthegloryofman，Iwouldexchangeasmuchasmightbedesiredofthatcontroversywhichishisscourgeandhisdisgrace。

TheintervalsbetweendivineserviceontheSabbathmightthenbefilledupbythecommunicationofknowledgetothosewhosenecessaryavocationsleavethemnootherleisuretimeforimprovement。

Anattendanceuponacourseofphysico—theology，itappearstome，wouldbeamuchmoresuitablemodeofemployingthistime，thanwastingitinthatidlenessanddissipationinwhichbothhealthandmoneyaresofrequentlylost。

Therearethreecauseswhichtendtostrengthenanattachmenttothedeadlanguages：桾hefirstis，theutilitywhichtheyformerlypossessed。Attherevivalofletters，therewasnothingtolearnbutLatinandGreek，andnothingcouldbelearntbutbyLatinandGreek。

Theperiodwhenthisutilityceasedhavingneverbeenfixed，customhasledustoregarditasstillsubsisting。

Asecondreasonis，thetimeandtroubleexpendedbysomanypersonsinlearningthem。

Thepriceofanythingisregulatednotonlybyitsutility，butalsobythelabourexpendedinprocuringit。

Fewwouldbewillingtoacknowledgethattheyhadspentalargeportionoftheirlifeinlearningthatwhich，whenlearnt，asnotworthknowing。

TherearemanyindividualswhohavelearntLatinandGreek，buthavelearnednothingelse。Canitbeexpectedthattheyshouldacknowledgetheselanguagesareuseless？Aswellmightaknight—erranthavebeenexpectedtoacknowledgethathismistresswasugly！

Thethirdcauseis，theirreputednecessity。Thisnecessity，thoughpurelyconventional，isnotthelessreal。Publicopinionhasattachedadegreeofimportancetoanacquaintancewiththem，andbewhoshouldbeknowntobeentirelyignorantofthem，wouldbebrandedwithdisgrace。Solongasthislawsubsistsitmustbeobeyed。Asingleindividualisseldomabletowithstandorchangethatlawestablishedbypublicopinion。

Asthepublicmindbecomesenlightened，theselawswillchangeofthemselves。Asovereignmay，however，hastenthesechangesifhebelievethemuseful，andifheconsidertheattemptworththetrouble。

Hemayrewardindividualsforteachingtheartsandscienceandthusestablishanewpublicopinion，whichshallatfirstcompetewith，andatlengthultimatelysubdue，thepreviousprejudice。

Hemayalsoattainthesameendbyanotherlesscostly，butmorestartlingmethod。Hemayprescribeanattendanceupondifferentscientificlectures，asanecessaryconditiontotheholdingofcertainoffices，andparticularlyofallhonoraryemployments。Tothosewhohavecompletedtheircourseofattendance，anhonorarydiplomamaybegiven，whichuponalloccasionsofpublicceremonyshallentitlethosewhopossessittoacertainprecedence。

Inthetimesoffeudalbarbarism，whenwarwastheonlyoccupationofthosewhodidnotbelongtothecommonalityortheclergy，theupperranksinsocietywerenecessarilymilitary。Theknightwasthewarriorwhocouldaffordtofightonhorseback；thesquirewasonewho，notbeingsorichastheknight，couldaffordtobehisprincipalattendant，andthisconstitutedtheirnobility。

Infuturetimes，whenotheroccupationsshallbepursuedandothermannersestablished，itispossiblethatknowledgemayconferrankinEurope，astheappearanceofithasforalongtimepastinChina。Wealth，independentlyofanyconvention，possessesrealpower，andwillalwaysminglewitheverythingwhichtendstoconferrespect。Thephilosopher，tohistitleofhonour，willunitetheideaofanindividualsufficientlywealthytohavesupportedtheexpenseofalearnededucation。

Knowledge，whethertrueorpresumptive，mightthusbecomeamarkofdistinction，asthelengthofthenailsisinChina。

Butitmaybesaid，thatsomethingmorethanattendanceuponacourseofscientificlecturesisnecessary，ifanythingistobelearned；andthatthelawwhichshouldbestowhonouruponattendancewouldnotinsurestudy。Ifitwerenecessarytohaveanobilitycomposedofrealphilosophers，othermethodsmustbepursued；butwhentheobjectinviewismerelytochangethespeciesofknowledgeinwhichtheyaretobeinstructed，fromwhatisuselesstowhatisuseful，whatmoreneedberequired？Wheninterestingobjectsofstudyaresubstitutedforthosewhichareuninteresting，theywouldnotstudyless。

Iknowthatpublicexaminationsarepowerfulmeansforexcitingemulation，butIhavenodesiretoplaceadditionalobstaclesinthewayofaplanwhosenoveltyalonewouldrenderitbuttooalarming：

aproject，whichtomanywillappearromantic，neednotbeaccompaniedbyanaccessorywhoseaspectisalarming，andwhoseutilityisproblematic。

Themoststupidandinattentivecouldscarcelyattenduponalongcourseofinstructionwithoutgainingsomeadvantage：

theywouldatleastbefamiliarizedwiththetermsofart，whichconstitutenotonlythefirst，butthegreatestdifficulty；theywouldformsomeideaoftheprincipaldivisionsofthecountrytheytraversed；andshouldtheyeverbedesirousofdirectingamoreparticularexaminationtoanyparticulardivision，theywillatleastknowinwhatdirectiontoseekforit。Asalltheworldwouldthenbeoccupiedwiththestudyofthesciences，theywouldpretendthustoemploythemselves，andwouldbeashamedtobeentirelyignorantofthosethingswhichwerethesubjectsofgeneralconversation。

Russiaisaninstanceoftheeasewithwhichanewdirectionmaybegiventotheopinionsofawholepeople。Nobilityofbirthisbutlittlerespected：梠fficialrankistheonlygroundofdistinction。Thischangehasbeeneffectedbyafewsimpleregulations。Unlesshebeanofficer，noindividual，howrichornoblybornsoeverbemaybe，canvote。orevensit，intheassemblyofthenobility。

Theconsequencehasbeen，thatallclasseshavepressedintotheserviceofthestate。Iftheydonotintendtomakeittheirprofession，theyquititwhentheyhaveattainedtherankwhichconfersthisprivilege。{ConcludingnotebyDumont}

RRAppendixSection1TheRationaleofRewardAppendix（A）ToBookI，ChapterVIIIOnSubscriptionstoMattersofOpinion0fthetwoEnglishUniversities，Oxfordisthemostancientandmostdignified。OfitsnumerousstatuteswhicharepennedinLatin，asmanyasmayfillamoderateduodecimovolumearepublished，asthetitle—pagedeclares，fortheuseofyouth：andofthesecareistaken（forthehonourofthegovernmentletitbespoken）

thatthoseforwhoseobservancethearedesigned，shallnot，withouttheirowndefault，beignorantsince，ateveryman’sadmission，acopyisputintohishands。Allthestatutes，aswellthosethatareseenasthosethatarenotseen，everystudentathisadmissionissworninLatintoobserve，``SohelpmeGod’’，saysthematriculatedperson，``touchingasIdothemostholyGospelofChrist。’’

Thebarbers，cooks，bed—makers，errand—boys，andotherunletteredretainerstotheUniversity，aresworninEnglishtotheobservanceoftheseLatinstatutes。Theoaththussolemnlytaken，therehasnot，wemaybemorallycertain，foracourseofmanygenerations，perhapsfromthefirsteraofitsinstitution，beenasinglepersonthathaseverkept。Nowthoughcustomary，itisperhapsnotstrictlyproper，asittendtoconfusionandtofalseestimates，toapplythetermperjury，withoutdistinction，tothebreachofanassertiveandtothatofapromissivedeclaration———tothebreachofaoathandtothatofavow；andtobrandwiththesamemarkofinfamyasolemnaverment，whichatthetimeofmakingitwascertainlyfalse，———andasingledeparturefromadeclaredresolution，whichatthetimeofdeclaringitmightpossiblyhavebeensincere。[2]

But，iftheythemselvesaretobebelievedwhohavemadetheoath，andwhobreakit，———theuniversityofOxford，forthiscenturyandhalfhasbeen，andatthetimeIamwritingis，acommonwealthofperjurers。ThestreetsofOxford，saidthefirstLordChathamonce，``arepavedwithdisaffection’’。

Thatweaknessisoutgrown：buthemighthaveaddedthen（ifthathadbeenthestatesman’scare）andanyonemayaddstill，``andwithperjury’’。

Thefaceofthis，asofotherprostitutions，varieswiththetime：perjurersintheiryouth，theybecomesubornersofperjuryintheiroldage。

Itshouldseemthattherewasonceatime，whenthepersonssubjectedtothisyoke，orsomeoneontheirbehalf，begantomurmur：for，toquietsuchmurmurs，oratanyratetoanticipatethem，apractitioner，ofafacultynowextinct，thenverymuchinvogue，———aphysicianofthesoul，acasuist，wascalledin。Hisprescription，attheendofeveryoneoftheseabridgededitionsofthestatutes———hisprescriptionunderthetitleofEpinomisseuexplanatiojuramenti&；c。standsannexed。Thiscasuistiskindenoughtoinformyou，thatthoughyouhavetakenanoathindeed，toobserveallthesestatutes———andthatwithoutexception，yet，inninety—nineinstancesoutofahundred，itamountstonothing。What，inthoseinstances，youarehoundtodois———nottokeepyouroath，buttotakeyourchoicewhetheryouwilldothatorsuffer———nottodowhatyouarebid；but，ifyouhappentobefoundout（forthisproviso，Itakeforgranted，istobesupplied）

tobearyourpenalty。For———whatnowdoyouthinkyoursovereignseriouslywishesyoutodo，whenheforbidsyoutocommitmurder？Thatyoushouldabstainfrommurderatallevents？Nosurely；butthat，ifyouhappentobefoundoutandconvicted，youshouldsitquietwhilethehalterisfittedtoyourneck。

Whoisthiscasuist，whobyhissuperiorpowerwashesawaytheguiltfromperjury，andcontroulsthejudgmentsofthealmighty？Isitthelegislatorhimself？Bynomeans：thatindeedmightmakeadifference。Thesanctionofanoathwouldthennotwithcertaintybeviolated；itwouldonlywithcertaintybeprofaned。ItwasaBishopSaunderson，who，inthebosomofaProtestantchurch，beforehewasmadeabishop，hadsetupakindofconfessionalbox，whithertenderconsciencesrepairedfromallpartstohealtheirscruples。

Thisinstitution，whetheritwerethefruitofblindnessorofasinisterpolicy，hasansweredinanadmirabledegree，someatleastofthepurposesforwhichitwasprobablydesigned。Ithasdriventheconsciencesofthegreaterpartofthosebywhomtheefficientpartsofgovernmentareonedaytobefilled，intoanet，ofwhichtheclergyholdthecords。Thefearandshameofeveryyoungmanofsense，ofspirit，andreflection，onwhomtheseoathsareimposed，mustatonetimeorothertakethealarm。What！sayshetohimself，amIaperjurer？

Ifheaskhisownjudgment，itcondemnshim。Whatthenshallhedo？Perjury，wereitonlyfortheshameofit，isnolightmatter：ifhiseducationhavebeeneversoloose，hehasfrequentlyhearditcondemned；ifstrictandvirtuous，hehasneverhearditmentionedwithoutabhorrence。But，whenhethinksoftheguiltofit，hellyawnsunderhisfeet。Whatthenshallhedo？Whitherthenshallhebetakehimself？Hefliestohisreverendinstructorsinastateofdesperation。``Thesemenareolderthanmyself’’，sayshe；``theyaremorelearned，theyarethereforewiser：onthemreststhechargeofmyeducation。Myownjudgment，indeed，condemnsme；butmyownjudgmentisweakanduninformed。WhymaynotItrusttoothers？See，theirhandsareoutstretchedtocomfortme！Wherecanhetheblameinlisteningtothem？inbeingguidedbythem？inshort，insurrenderingmyjudgmentintotheirhands？Arenottheymyrulers，myinstructors？theverypersonswhommyparentshaveappointedtotakechargeofmetocheckmypresumption，andtoinformmyignorance？WhatobligationamIunder，nay，whatlibertyhaveItoopposemyfeeblelightstotheirs？Dotheynotstandchargedwiththedirectionofmyconscience？———chargedbywhatsoeverIoughttoholdmostsacred？AretheynottheministersofGod’sword？thedepositariesofourholyreligion？theverypersons，towhoseguidanceIvowed，inthepersonofmygodfathersandgodmothers，tosubmitmyself，underthenameofmyspiritualpastorsandmasters？Andaretheynotableandwillingtodirectme？Inallmattersofconsciencethen，letmelaydowntomyselfthefollowingasinviolablerules：———nottobegovernedbymyownreason；

nottoendeavouratthepresumptuousandunattainablemeritofconsistencynottoconsiderwhetherathingisrightorwronginitself，butwhat{\itthey}thinkofit。Onallpoints，then，letmereceivemyreligionattheirhands：whattothemissacred，letittomebesacred；whattothemiswickedness，letittomebewickedness；whattothemistruth，letittomebetruth；letmeseeastheysee，believeastheybelieve，thinkastheythink，feelastheyfeel，loveastheylove，fearastheyfear，hateastheyhate，esteemastheyesteem，performastheyperform，subscribeastheysubscribe，andswearastheyswear。Withthemishonour，peace，andsafety；withoutthem，isignominy，contentionanddespair。’’Suchcoursemusteveryyoungman，whoisbroughtupundertherodofatechnicalreligion，distinctfrommorality，andbestrewedwithdoubtsanddangers，takeonathousandoccasions，orrunmad。Towhomelseshouldheresortforcounsel？———towhomelseshouldherepair？TothecompanionsofhisownageTheywilllaughathim，andcallhimmethodist：formanyaonewhodreadsevenhobgoblinsalonelaughsatthemincompany。Totheirfriendsandrelationswhoareadvancedinlife，andwholiveintheworld？Theanswertheygetfromthem，iftheyarefortunateenoughtogetaseriousone，is———thatinallhumanestablishmentsthereareimperfections；butthatinnovationisdangerous，andreformationcanonlycomefromabove：thatyoungmenareapttobehurriedawaybythewarmthoftheirtemper，ledastraybypartialviewsofthings，ofwhichtheyareunabletoseethewhole：thattheseeffusionsofself—sufficiencyaremuchbetterrepressedthangivenwayto：thatwhatitisnotinourpowertocorrectitwerebettertosubmittowithoutnotice，thatprudencecommandswhatcustomauthorizes———toswimquietlywiththestream：thattobringmattersofreligionuponthecarpet，isareadywaytoexciteeitheraversionorcontempt：thathumanityforbidstheraisingofscruplesinthebreastoftheweak，———goodhumour，thebringingupoftopicsthatareaustere，———goodmannerstopicsthataredisgusting：thatpolicyforbidsouroffendingtheincuriouswiththedisplayofoursagacity，theignorantwiththeostentationofourknowledge，theloosewiththeexampleofourintegrity，andthepowerfulwiththenoiseofourcomplaints：

that，withregardtothepointinquestion，oaths，likeotherobligations，aretobeheldforsacredorinsignificant，accordingtothefashion：thatperjuryisnodisgrace，exceptwhenithappenstobepunished：andthat，asageneralrule，itconcernseverymantoknowandtoremember，ashetendershispeaceofmindandhishopesoffortune，thatthereareinstitutions，whichthoughmischievousarenottobeabolished，andthoughindefensiblearenottobecondemned。

Asortoftacitconventionisestablished：``Giveoursoulupintomyhands———Iensureitfromperdition。Surelytheterms，onyourpart，areeasyenough：exertionthereneedsnone：allthatisdemandedofyouis———toshutyoureyes，ears，lips，andtositquiet。Thetopicofreligionissurelyforbiddingenough，aswellasaforbiddentopic：

allthatyouhavetodothen，istothinknothingaboutthematter；looknotinto，touchnotthearkoftheLord，andyouaresafe。’’

RRAppendixSection2TheRationaleofRewardAppendix（B）ToBookI，ChapterVIIIMischievousnessofRewardlatent———ExemplificationsWhenarewardisgroundless，itmaybesoeithersimplygroundless，orpositivelymischievous：theact，whichitisemployedtoproduce，maybeeithersimplyuseless，orpernicious。

Itwouldbeanugatorylessontosay，thatrewardshouldnotbeappliedtoproduceanyact，ofwhichthetendencyisacknowledgedtobepernicious；andthiswhethersuchacthavebeenaggregatedtothenumberofoffencesornot。Theonlycaseswhichitcanbeofanyuse，inthispointofview，tomention，arethoseinwhichthemischievousnessoftheact，orthetendencyoftherewardtoproduceit，isapttolieconcealed。

Tobeginwiththecaseswhichcomeundertheformerofthesedescriptions———thoseinwhichthemischievousnessoftheactisapttolieconcealed。Onegreatclassofpublicservices，forwhichrewardshavebeenormightbeoffered，arethosewhichconsistintheextensionofknowledge，or，accordingtothemorecommon，thoughobscureandimposingphrase，thediscoveryandpropagationoftruth。Nowthereisonewayinwhichrewardsofferedforthepropagationoftruth（thatisofwhatislookedupon，orprofessedtobelookedupon，astruth）cannotbuthaveapernicioustendency；andthatofwhatevernaturebetheproposedtruth。Apointbeingproposed，concerningwhichmeningeneralarethoughttoheignorantordivided，ifamansincerelydesiredthatthetruthrelativetothatpointshouldbeascertained，andinconsequenceofthatdesireiscontenttofurnishtheexpenseofareward，thenaturalcourseis———toinvitementotheinquiry。``Howstandsthematter？Whichofthetwocontradictorypropositionsisthetrueone？’’Toaquestionofsomesuchformasthis，herequiresananswer。Theservice，then，towhichheannexeshisreward，isthegivingananswertoaquestion———suchananswerasuponexaminationshallappeartobeatrueone，ortocomenearesttothetruth。Thetendencyofarewardthusoffered，toproducethediscoveryofthetruth，isobvious：

thetendencyofitwillatleastbetoproducethediscoveryofwhattohim，whoputsinforthereward，shallappeartobetruth。Whatelseshouldittendtoproduce？Myaimbeingtoestablishwhattoyoushallappeartobethetruth，whatothermeanshaveIofdoingthis，butbyadvancingwhatappearstometobeso？Accordingly，thustoapplythereward，istopromoteasincereandimpartialinquiry，andtopursuethebest，andindeedtheonlycoursethatbymeansofartificialrewardcanbepursuedforpromotingrealknowledge。

Anothercourse，whichhasbeensometimestaken，is_toassumethetruthoftheoneoftwocontradictorypropositionsthatmaybeframedconcerninganyobjectofinquiry，———andtomakethedemonstrationofthetruthofthatpropositiontheconditionofthereward。Inthiscourse，thetendencyoftherewardispernicious。Thehabitofveracityisoneofthegreatsupportsofhumansociety———avirtuewhichinpointofutilityoughttobe，andinpointoffactis，enforcedinthehighestdegreebythemoralsanction。Tounderminethathabit，istoundermineoneoftheprincipalsupportsofhumansociety。Thetendencyofarewardthusofferedistounderminethisvirtuoushabit，andtointroducetheoppositeviciousone。Thetendencyofitmayhetoproducewhatiscalledlogicaltruth，ornot，asmayhappen；butitis，atanyrate，toproduceethicalfalsehood：

itmaytendtopromoteknowledgeorerror，asitmayhappen；butittends，atanyrate，topromotemendacity。Thepropositioneitheristrueoritisfalse：and，bethatasitmay，menareeitheragreedaboutitsbeingtrue，ortheyarenot。Inasfarastheyareagreed，therewardisuseless；inasfarastheyarenot，ittendstomakethemactasiftheywere，andispernicious。

Itmaybesaid———No；allthatittendstodo，atleastallthatitisdesignedtodo，istocallforthsuch，andsuchonly，whoseopinionisreallyinfavouroftheproposition，andtoputthemupongivingtheirreasonsforit：itisnottocorrupttheirveracity，buttoovercometheirindolence。Butwhatevermaybethedesign，theformerisinfactitstendency。Ontheoneside，theyhaverewardtourgethem；ontheother，theyhaveimpunitytopermitthem。For，whenamandeclaresthathisopinionsonagivensubjectaresoandso，whocansaythattheyareotherwise？———whocansaywithcertainty，whatareaman’sprivateopinions？

Andiftheeffectbebad，whatsignifiestheintention？Orhowindeedcantheintentionbepureifitbeseenthattheeffectislikelytobeabadone？

Thuswoulditstand，wereitdoubtfulwhetherthereareanypersonsorno，whoseunbiassedopinionsareontheoppositesidetothatonwhichthedemonstrationissoughttobeprocured。Butthecasealwaysis，thatitiscleartherearesuchpersons；thatitistheverypersuasionoftherebeingsuch，thatisthecauseofofferingthereward；andthatthemorenumeroustheyare，themorelikelyitistobeoffered，andthegreateritislikelytobe。Such，then，isthedangerofpromotingmendacity：toavoidwhichdanger，itmaybelaiddowninshortterms，asageneralrule，thatrewardshouldbegiven———notfordemonstration，butforinquiry。

Morethanthis，arewardthusappliedtendsalways，inacertaindegree，tofrustrateitsownpurpose；andissofar，notonlyinefficacious，butefficaciousontheotherside。Itdoesasgoodastellmankind，that，intheopinionofhimatleastbywhomtherewardisoffered，theprobabilityisthatmen’sopinionsaremostlikelyontheoppositeside；andinsofargivesthemreasontothinkthatthetruthisalsoontheoppositeside。``Peopleingeneral’’，amanwillnaturallysaytohimself，``arenotofthiswayofthinking：iftheywere，whatneedofallthispainstomakethemso？’’This，then，affordsanotherreasonwhyrewardshouldhegiven———notfordemonstration，butforinquiry。

Such，accordingly，hasbeenthecoursepursuedinrelationtoalmosteverybranchofscience，orsupposedscience。Thescience，orsupposedscienceofdivinity，furnishesexceptions，whichareperhapstheonlyones。Whatshouldwesaytoamanwhoshouldseektopromotephysicalknowledgebysuchdevices？Whatshouldwesaytoaman，whoinsteadofsettingmenhonestlyandfairlytoinquirewhether，inregardtolivingpowers，forexample，themomentumwereinthesimpleorintheduplicateproportionofthevelocity———whetherheatwereasubstance，oronlyaqualityofothersubstances———whetherbluntorpointedconductorsofelectricitywerethesafest，———shouldpaythemforendeavouringtoprove，thatinlivingforcesthemomentumisinthesimpleproportiononly，thatheatisonlyaquality，andthatbluntconductorsarethesafest？

Indivinityhowever，examplesofthismethodofapplyingrewardarefrequent。

Itmaybesaid，thatanexceptionoughttobemadefromtherule，inthecaseswherein，onwhicheversidethetruthmaybe，theutilityisclearlyonthesidethusfavoured。Thusthereisuse，forinstance，inthepeople’sbelievinginthebeingandattributesofaGod：

andthateveninapoliticalview，sinceuponthatdependsalltheassistancewhichthepoliticalcanderivefromthereligioussanction：

andthattherecanbenouseintheirdisbelievingit。Thatthereisuseagain，inthepeople’sbelievinginthetruthoftheJewishprophecies；

sinceuponthatdependsoneargumentinfavourofthetruthofthathistory，thetruthofwhichisonemaingroundofmen’sexpectationoftherewardsandpunishmentsbelongingtothatsanction。Thisobservationcertainlydeservesgreatattention。Itexhibitsareasonwhichtheremaybeformakinganexceptiontotherule。Itdoesnot，however，invalidatetheargumentsadducedasabove，infavourofit：itdoesnotdisprovetheprobabilityofthemischiefsontheapprehensionofwhichitisgrounded。Whatitdoes，istoexhibitabenefittoactinbalanceagainsttheseinconveniences。

If，then，theinterestsofreligionbeatvariancewiththoseofvirtue，anditbenecessarytoendangertheoneinordertopromotetheefficacyoftheother，———sothenitmustbe。

Itistobeobserved，thatalltheadvantagewhichcanaccruetothecausefromthisman\oeuvreiscomposedofthedifferencebetweenwhatitmayderivefromthesehirelingadvocates，andwhat，weretherenosuchartificialencouragementgiven，itwouldderivefromvolunteers。

Onthisheaditmaybeworthconsidering，whetherthecallingforthoftheonedoesnotcontributetopreventtheenlistmentoftheother。``Whatneedisthereforme，astranger，togivemyselfthetrouble，whentherearesomanyotherswhoseparticularbusinessitis，andwhoaresowellpaidforit？’’Ofthissortisthelanguagewhichamanwillverynaturallyholdwithhimselfonsuchoccasions。

Astrangecircumstanceitwouldbeindeed，———andonewhichwouldaffordnoveryfavourablepresumptioneitherofthetruthoroftheutilityofthecausewhichitismeanttofavour，———ifalltheunbiassedsuffragesofanyconsiderablemajorityinnumberorvalueofthethinkingmenshould，iflefttothemselves，beontheoppositeside。

Great，indeed，mustbethepenuryofunboughtadvocates，thatcanmakeitadvantageous，———Idonotsaymerelytothecauseoftruth，buttoanycause，howeverwideofthetruth，———toapplytomercenariesforassistance。

Ofhowlittleweightthesuffragesofthelatterareincomparisonofthoseoftheformer，letanyonejudge，whohasobservedthesuperioreclâ；twithwhichthewordofalaymanisreceived，whenithappentobeonthesideoforthodoxy。

Buthoweverthemattermaystandwithregardtoquestionsofpoliticalimportanceinwhichutilityisclearlyononeside———whateverreasontherebeforviolatingthelawofimpartialityinthiscase，itceasesaltogetherwhenappliedtothemerelyspeculativepointswhichformthematterofthosearticlesoffaith，towhichonavarietyofoccasionssubscriptionsorothertestimoniesofacceptationarerequired。Thesewillserveasonesetofinstancesoftheotherbranchofthecases，wherethemischievouseffectsofrewardareapttolieconcealed；viz。~where，inthecaseofalineofconductproducedbyareward，apparentorno，thetendencyoftherewardtoproduceitisaptnottobeapparentatfirstglance———inasmuchasitmayescapeobservation，thattheadvantageheldforthactstothispurposeinthecapacityofareward。

Foranemolumenttooperateinthecapacityofareward，soastogivebirthtoactionofanykind，itisnotnecessarythatitshouldbedesignedsotodo。Wheneveranysuchconnectionisestablishedbetweenemolumentontheonepart，andaman’sconductontheother，thatbyactinginanymannerheseesthatheacquiresanemolumentorchanceofemolument，whichwithoutactinginsuchmannerhecouldnothave，———theviewofsuchemolumentwilloperateonhiminthecapacityofareward。

Itmattersnotwhetheritbethesoleactwhichistoentitlehimtothereward，oronlyoneactamongstmany。Itmattersnotwhetheritbetheacttowhichtherewardisprofessedlyannexed，oranyotheractofwhichnomentionismade。Itmaynotbehelduptoviewinthatcharacter：itmayevenbenothelduptoviewatall。Inthisunconspicuouswayanemolumentmayoperate，andinathousandinstancesdoesoperate，inthecapacityofareward，onalongandindefinitecourseofaction———inshort，onthebusinessofawholelife。Whenever，onthepartofthesameperson，twoactsaresoconnected，thattheperformanceoftheoneisnecessarytohishavingitinhispowertoperformtheother，arewardannexedtothelatteroperateseventuallyasifannexedtotheformer；and，whetherdesignedlyornot，itpromotestheproductionoftheoneactasmuchasoftheother。

Inthiscase，thehavingperformedtheprioractissaidtobeaqualificationforthebeingpermittedtoperformtheposterior。Theemolumentannexedtotheactprofessedlyrewarded，istherefore，inthiscaseasmucharewardforassumingthequalificat；on，asarewardforperformingtheact，fortheperformanceofwhichamanisrequiredtoqualifyhimselfbytheperformanceoftheother。

InEngland（forIwillgonofarther）thesubscribingadeclarationofthissortismadeaqualificationformanyoftheprincipalemolumentstowhichamancanaspire：foreveryprefermentinthechurch———forthelibertyofengagingintheinstructionofyouth———foradmissiontothebenefitsofthatmodeofeducationwhichislookeduponasmostliberalandadvantageous，andtherebytotheenjoyment，orthechanceoftheenjoymentofanyoneofthatamplestockofemolumentswhichhavebeenprovidedintheviewofinducingyoungpersonstoputthemselvesinthewayofthatfavouritemodeofeducation。Thearticles，orpropositions，towhichthissubscriptionisrequired，aretermedArticlesofReligion。Bysubscribingtothesearticles，amandeclaresthathebelievesthetruthofcertainfactswhichtheyaver。Amongthesefactstherearemany，which，whethertrueornot（apointwhichisnothingtothepresentpurpose）areplainly，inapoliticalview，ofnosortofimportancewhatsoever。Isayofnoimportance；

sincetheycontributenothingtothefurnishingeitherofanymotivetoprompttoaction，orofanyruleorprecepttodirectit。Betheytrue，orbetheyfalse———nothingistobedoneinconsequence———nothingtobeabstainedfrom。

Themischievoustendency，whichthegivingarewardhasinthiscase，ismuchmorepalpablethanwhatithasintheotherbecausetheprobabilityofitsgivingbirthtofalsehoodisthegreater。

1。Inthecaseofdemonstrativelectures，allthatitisabsolutelynecessaryamanshoulddois———simplytostatetheargumentsinfavourofthepropositioninquestion：hedoesnotnecessarilyasserthisownbeliefofthetruthofit。``Sucharethereasons’’，hemaysay，``whichinduceotherpeople，andwhichifattendedto，mayperhapsinduceyoutobelieveit：whethertheyareconclusiveornot，itliesuponyoutojudge：astomyselfwhetherImyselfbelieveitorno，isanothermatter。

Idonottellyou———Iamnotboundtotellyou。’’Inthecaseofsubscriptionhedirectly，plainly，andsolemnlysays———Ibelieveit。

2。Inthenextplace，theprobabilityoffalsehoodismuchgreaterinthiscasethanintheother。Inthecaseofdemonstrativelectures，menarereasonedwith，lestotherwisetheyshouldnotbelieve：inthecaseofsubscriptions，menarerewardedforsubscribingbecauseitisknownmanydonotbelieve。Hadmenneverdisbelievedordoubted，theyneverwouldhavebeencalledupontosubscribe：itwouldhavebeenuselessandneedless；norwouldanyonehavethoughtofit。

Thosewhoareinclinedtoplaceinthemostfavourablepointofviewthepoliticalefficacyofsubscriptionstosucharticles，havecalledthemarticlesofpeace，asiftherewerenothingmoreinsaying，Ibelievethisproposition，thaninsaying，Iengagenottosayanythingthattendstoexpressadisbeliefofit。

Theywouldhavebeenmuchbetternamedhadtheybeentermedarticlesofwar。

Inregardtospeculativeopinions，therearebuttwocasesinwhichmencanbesaidtobeatpeace：whentheythinkaboutit，andareofthesameopinion，andwhentheythinknothingaboutthematter：unlesswereckonasathirdthatoftheirthinkingaboutit，anddifferingaboutit，andnotcaringaboutthedifference。Thattheexpedientinquestionhasnotendencytopromotepeaceofthefirstkind，hasbeenalreadybeenshown：itisequallyclear，thatithasnonetoproducepeaceofeitherofthetwootherkinds。Thetendencyofitisjustthecontrary。

Iflefttohimselfthereisnotonepersoninahundredwhowouldevertroublehimselfaboutthematter。Ofthiswemaybeprettycertain。Whatmotiveshouldhehave？———whatshouldleadhimtoit？———whatpleasureorwhatprofitistheretobegotbyit？Ifleft，then，tothemselves，thebulkofmankind，———or，tospeakmoreproperly，thebulkofthosewhomitisproposedthustodiscipline，———wouldthinknothingaboutthematter。

Theywouldthereforebeinastateoftheprofoundestandmostlastingpeace。Ifthisshouldnotbegranted，atleastitwillbegranted，thatitwouldbepossibleforthemtobeso。Subscriptionsrenderitimpossible。

Formakingpeacebetweenmen，subscriptionsarejustthesamesortofrecipethatitwouldbeformakingpeacebetweentwomastiffs，tosetabonebeforethem，andthentiethemtothesamestake。

Whenbothpartiesareatliberty，bothpartiesareattheirease，andthereispeacebetweenthem。Butwhenthestrongerpartysaystotheweaker，———``StandforthandlieinthesightofGod，orgiveupthechoicestadvantagesofsociety，thatwemayengrossthemtoourselves’’，whatsortofpeaceisitthatcansubsistbetweenthem？

Justthatsortofpeacewhichsubsistsbetweenthehousebreakerandthehouseholder，whentheonehasboundtheotherhandandfoot，andgaggedhim。Itisnottobedeniedbutthattheremaybesomesortofuneasinessbetweentheminthefirstmentionedstateofthings；towit，where，neitherofthembeingsacrificed，theyarebothatliberty，andbothofthemprotected。

Butwhatsortofuneasinessisthis？Justthatsortofuneasinesswhichmayperhapssubsistbetweentwoneighboursatthethoughtthatneitherofthemcanbreakintotheother’shouse。Againstthissortofuneasiness，peace，itmustbeconfessed，affordsnoremedy：but，fromthepossibilityoftheresubsistingthissortofuneasinessbetweentwoneighbours，ortwonations，whoeverthoughtofspeakingofthemasnotbeingatpeace？

Ifthismethodofinsuringpeaceweregoodinonecase，howshoulditbeotherwiseinanyother？Religion，orratherthenonsensewhichhasbeengraftedonit———（forthepartthatiscapableofbeingmadeusefulisnotthusexposedtocontroversy）———religion，Isay，isnottheonlytopicwhichhasgivenrisetocontroversy。Solongasthereisanymanwhoseknowledgefallsshortofomniscience，andwhosefacultiesareliabletoerror，menillbaretheirdifferences：theywilldifferaboutmattersofjudgment，andaboutmattersoftaste———aboutthesciences，aboutthearts，abouttheordinaryoccurrencesoflife；inshort，abouteverythingwhichhasaname。ItwouldthenbemakingpeaceamongtheloversofmusictomakethemswearbeforeGod，thattheythinktheItalianstyle，orthattheythinktheFrenchstyle，ofmusicisthemorepleasing；amongtheloversofheroicpoetry，thattheythinkitbestinblankverse，orthattheythinkitbestinrhyme；amongtheloversofdramaticpoetry，thattheunitiesoftimeandplacemaybedispensedwith，orthattheymustbeobserved。

Itwouldbemakingpeacebetweenanaffectionatepair，toquestionthemabouteverypossiblepointofdomesticmanagement，tillsomeslightdiversitywerefoundintheiropinions，andthenforceoneofthemtoswear，beforeGod，thathewasconvincedhisownopinionwasthewrongone。Itwouldbemakingpeace———Butsurelybythistime，thepacifictendencyofthispolicymustbesufficientlyunderstood。

Anothermischievouseffectofthispolicyisthetendencyithastovitiatetheunderstanding。Overaman’sgenuineopinion，suchforms，ithasbeenshown，canhavenoinfluence：eitherhisveracitymustgiveway，orhisunderstanding，orboth：hemustdeceiveeitherhimselforothers。Adeceitofsomekindorotherhemustputonsomebody；eitheronhimselforothers。Thereisonethingwhichamancannotdo；thatis，destroytheforceofargumentswhichareactuallypresenttohismind。Thereisanotherthingwhichheisenabledtodoinagreatmeasure，thatis，keepthemfromgettingthere。This，accordingly，iswhat，iftheconsciousnessoffalsehoodsituneasyonhim，hewilllabourtodowithallhismight。Tobelieve，isnotinhispower：for，whenalltheargumentsthathaveeverbeenurged，orcanbedevised，infavouroftheproposition，arecollectedandappliedtohismind，andmakenoimpression，whathelpisthere？Whatmayperhapsbeinhispoweris，nottodisbelieve：

andthat，ifpossible，hewilldo。Butthustoshuttherighteye，ifonemaysosay，oftheunderstanding，andkeepopenonlytheleft，isnottheworkofaminutenorofanhour。Hemustmakemanyineffectualattacks，andreturnasoftentothecharge：hemustwagewaragainstthestubbornnessoftheunderstanding———hemustbringitunderthedominionoftheaffections———hemustdebilitateitspowers———hemustrenderitincapableofplacing，inaclearlight，thedifferencebetweenrightandwrong：inaword，hemustinstillintohismindasettledhabitofpartialityandbadreasoning———ahabitofembracingfalsehoodwithfacility，andregardingtruth，notwithindifferencemerely，butwithsuspicion，intheapprehensionofbeingbroughtbyitintotrouble。

Onemightimagine，thatitcouldnothaveboththesebadeffectsatonce；thatifithavetheone，itcannothavetheother：ifamandisbelieve，hisunderstanding———ifhebelieve，hismorals，———areyetsafe。Butwhoeverthinksthus，isledawaybywords：hedoesnotunderstandarighttheworkingsofthehumanmind。Hesupposesthemindfixedasbetweentworocks；whereasitisperpetuallyshakenandtossedabout，asbyathousandwaves。Hesupposesamanatalltimesperfectlyconsciousofthestateofhisownmind，awareofthemomentaanddirectionsoftheincessantlyfluctuatingforcesthatareoperatingonhim。Butthisisnotthecasewithonemaninamillion，inanytheleastdegree；norperhapswithanymaninperfection。Thusitisalsowithhypocrisyandfanaticism：itmightnaturallybeimagined，thattheoneexcludestheother；butrepeatedexperience，andlongcontinuedobservation，haveatlengthopenedtheeyesofmostmenuponthathead：anditseemsnowtobeprettygenerallyunderstoodthatthesetwoseeminglyincompatiblebadqualitiesarefoundfrequentlyinthesamereceptacle。