第6章

Asitrespectsofficesofwhichtheemolumentsarefixed，thequestionofeconomyissimple：theamountoftheemolumentsdoesnotdifferfromaperpetualrent。Butwhenanofficeissold，theprofitsofwhich，whetherreceivedfromthepublicorlevieduponindividuals，areuncertaininamount，thisuncertaintycausesapresumptionagainsttheeconomyofthebargain：itisdisadvantageoustothepublictobesubjecttouncertainexpenses，anditisnotprobablethattheseuncertainprofitswillsellforsolargeapriceaswouldwillinglybepaidforasalaryequaltotheiraverageamount。

Again，astoemolumentsderivedsolelyfromindividuals。

Theseareaspeciesoftaxoftencreatedandalienatedatthesametimeinfavouroftheoffice。Thegeneralpresumptioncannotbutbeunfavourabletotaxesimposedundersuchcircumstances。Informertimes，whenthescienceofpoliticaleconomywasinitscradle———whentaxesandthemethodsofcollectingthemwerelittleunderstood———governmentshavefrequentlythusalienatedlargebranchesofthepublicrevenue：temptbyanimmediatesupply，theyeitherdidorwouldnotregardtheextentofthesacrificestheymade。

ThehistoryofFrenchfinanceisrepletewithinstancesofthiskind。ThecustomsofOrleans，whichwereoriginallypurchasedbyaDukeofOrleansfor60，000francs，afterwardsyieldedtohisposterityayearlyrevenueofmorethan1，000，000francs。

Thevenalityofofficesinthatkingdomhadanexceedinglycomplex，andconsequentlyexceedinglyvicious，system。Theofficesconferringhereditarynobilityespeciallymischievous，sincethisnobilityamultitudeofexemptions。Theypaidnotaxes。Henceeverycreationofnobilitywasatax，equalinvaluetotheexemptiongranted，thrownuponthosewhocontinuedliabletopaythem。

Shouldthepriceforwhichanofficeissoldformapartoftheemolumentsoftheheadoftheoffice，andnotbereceivedbythepublic，thiswouldmakenodifferenceinthequestionofeconomyasrespectsgivingandselling。Thattheproduceofthesaleisafterwardswasted，isanaccidentunconnectedwiththesale。Theemolumentsreceivedbytheheadofthedepartmentmaybetoolargeornot：ifnottoolarge，thepublicgainsbytheoperation；since，insuppressingthesale，itwouldbenecessarytoincreasehisemolumentsbyothermeans：iftoolarge，theexcessmightbemadeapplicabletothepublicservice。TheSaleofOfficesconsideredwithrespecttoparticulardepartments。Publicopinionisatpresentadversetothesaleofpublicoffices。Itmoreparticularlycondemnstheirsaleinthethreegreatdepartmentsofwar，law，andreligion。Thisprejudicehasprobablyarisenfromtheimproperusetowhichithassometimesbeenapplied；butwhetherthisbethecaseornot，theuseofthewordvenal，seldomifeverbutinanodiousanddysolgysticsense，hastendedtopreserveit。

``Hewhohasboughttherightofjudgingwillselljudgment’’，isthesortofreasoninginuseuponthissubject。Insteadofanargument，itisonlyanepigram。ThemembersoftheFrenchparliamentswerejudges，andtheypurchasedtheirplaces；itdidnotbyanymeansfollowthattheyweredisposedtoselltheirjudgments，orthattheycouldhavedonesowithimpunity。Thegreaternumberoftheseparliamentswereneverevensuspectedofhavingsoldthem。Countriesmayhoweverbecited，inwhichthejudgessellbothjusticeandinjustice，thoughtheyhavenotboughttheirplaces。Theuprightnessofajudgedoesnotdependuponthese，butuponothercircumstances。Ifthelawsbeintelligibleandknown———iftheproceedingsofthejudgesarepublic———ifthepunishmentforinjusticesurpasstheprofittobereapedfromit，judgeswillbeupright，eventhoughtheypurchasetheiroffices。

InEngland，therearecertainjudicialofficeswhichthejudgessell——sometimesopenly，sometimesclandestinely。Thepurchasersoftheseofficesextractfromthesuitorsasmuchastheycan：iftheyhadnotpurchasedtheirplaces，theywouldnothaveendeavouredtoextractless。Themischiefis，notthatthisrightofplunderingissold，butthattherightexists。

IntheEnglisharmy，thesystemofvenalityhasbeenadopted。Militarycommissions，fromtherankofensigntothatoflieutenantcolonel，aresold，withpermissiontothepurchaserstore—sellthem。Theepigramuponthejudgesisnotappliedhere。Thecomplaintis，thatthepatrimonyofmeritisinvadedbywealth。Butitoughttoberecollected，thatinthiscareertheopportunitiesforthedisplayofmeritdonotoccureveryday。Itisonlyuponextraordinaryoccasionsthatextraordinarytalentscartbedisplayed；andwhentheseoccur，therecanbenodifficulty，evenunderthissystem，ofbestowingproportionateandappropriaterewards。

Besides，thoughthepatrimonyofmeritshouldbythismeansbeinvadedbywealth，itwouldatthesametimebedefendedfromfavouritism———adivinityinlessesteemeventhanwealth。Thecircumstancewhichoughttorecommendthesystemofvenalitytosuspiciouspoliticiansis，thatitdiminishestheinfluenceofthecrown。Thewholecircleoverwhichitextendsissomuchreclaimedfromtheinfluenceofthecrown。Itmaybecalledacorruption，butitservesasanantidotetoacorruptionmoretobedreaded。

Itisthesaleofecclesiasticalofficeswhichhasoccasionedthegreatestoutcry。Ithasbeenmadeaparticularsin，towhichhasbeengiventhenameofsimony。IntheActsoftheApostles，weareinformedthatatSamariatherewasamagiciannamedSimon，towhosegainfulpracticesanimmediatestopwasputbythepreachingandmiraclesofPhilip，oneofthedeaconsofthechurchofJerusalem，whohadbeendriventoSamariabypersecution。Simon，therefore，regardingPhilipasamorefortunaterival，enrolledhimselfamongthenumberofhisproselytes，andwhentheapostlesPeterandJohncamedownfromJerusalem，andbythelayingonoftheirhandscommunicatedtothedisciplesthegiftoftheHolyGhost，Simon，desirousofpossessingsomethingmorethantherest，offeredtothemmoney，saying，``Givemealsothispower，thatonwhomsoeverIlayhands，hemayreceivetheHolyGhost。’’UponwhichPeterseverelyreprimandedhim；andthemagician，suppleashewasintriguing，askedforgiveness———andthushishistorycloses。Itisnowheresaidthathewaspunished。

Uponthestrengthofthisstory，theRomanCatholicchurchhasconvertedtheactofbuyingorsellingecclesiasticalbeneficesintoasin；andtheEnglishlaw，copyingfromtheCatholicchurch，hasconstitutedsuchanactacrime。AstheRomanCatholicchurch，amongCatholics，isinfallible，astothemitmusthavedecidedrightlywhenitdeclaredsuchactstobesinful。Oursubject，however，leadsusonlytotheconsiderationofthelegalcrime：andbetweenthiscrimeandtheoffenceofSimonMagus，thereisnothingincommon。Presentationtoaliving，andthereceptionoftheHolyGhost，arenotthesamethings。Ifitbetheobjectofthislawtoexcludeimproperpersons，moredirect，simple，andefficaciousmeansmightbeemployed：theirqualificationsmightbeascertainedbypublicexaminations；theirgoodconductbythepreviouspublicationoftheirnames，withlibertytoalltheworldtoobjectagainstthem。Theirmoralandintellectualcapacitybeingthusproved，whyshouldtheynotbeallowedtopurchasetheemployment，ortodischargeitgratuitously？Anidiotonceadmittedtopriest’sorders，mayholdanecclesiasticalbenefice；butwereamangiftedlikeanapostletogivefiveguineastobepermittedtodischargethedutiesofthatbenefice，hewouldbebornedownbytheoutcryagainstthesimonybehadcommitted。

What，then，istheeffectoftheseanti—simoniacallaws？Apriestmaynotpurchaseabeneficeforhimself；buthisfriend，whetherpriestorlayman，maypurchaseitforhim：Hemaynotpurchasethepresentationtoavacantbenefice；buthemaypurchasetherightofpresentationtoabeneficefilledbyadyingman，orbyapersoningoodhealthwhowillhavethecomplaisancetoresign。andreceiveitagainwithanobligationagaintoresignwheneverhispatronrequiresit。Inreadingtheseself—styledanti—simoniacallaws，itisdifficulttodiscoverwhethertheyareintendedtoprohibitortoallowthepracticeofsimony。Theironlyrealeffectsaretoencouragedeceptionandfraud。Blackstonecomplainsoftheirinexecution：bedidnotperceivethatalawwhichisnotexecutedisridiculous。

RRBook2Chapter10TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterXOFQUALIFICATIONS。Wehavealreadyseenthatasalarymaybeemployedasameansofinsuringtheresponsibilityofanindividual，andasamoralantiseptictopreservehimfromtheinfluenceofcorruption。Bythesaleofoffices，ithasbeenseenthattheactualexpenseofasalarymaybediminished，andevenreducedtonothing。Itisthereforeevidentthattheimportantcircumstanceis，thattheindividualshouldpossesstherequisiteportionofthepreciousmatterofreward，andnotthatitshouldhavebeengiventohim。Ifhepossessitofhisown，somuchthebetter；andthemorehealreadypossesses，thelessisitnecessarytogivehim。InEngland，sucharetheattractionsofpoweranddignity，thatthenumberofcandidatesfortheirpossessionhasbeenfoundsolarge，thatithasbeenthoughtdesirabletolimittheselectiontothenumberofthosewhopossesstherequiredquantityofthismoralantiseptic；andthiscircumstancehasgivenbirthtowhathavebeencalledqualifications。

Themostremarkableandimportantofficestowhichthesepecuniaryqualificationshavebeenattached，arethoseofjusticesofthepeaceandmembersofparliament。Ajusticeofthepeaceoughttopossessatleast£；100perannumoflandedproperty。Thereisnoreasonableobjectionagainstthislaw。Theofficeisoneofthoseforwhichanordinarilyliberaleducationissufficient。Itisatthesametimesuchanoffice，thattheindividualinvestedwithitmightdomuchmischiefwerehenotrestrainedbypowerfulmotives。

Asaqualificationforthemoreimportantofficeofmemberofparliament，thelawrequiresofthememberforaboroughorcityasimilarqualificationof£；300perannum，andofthememberforacountyof£；600perannum。Thiscasedifferswidelyfromtheother。Sufficienttalentforcarryingthelawsintoexecutionispossessedbyamultitudeofindividuals；butfewareabletodeterminewhatlawsoughttobeframed。Thescienceoflegislationisstillinitscradle———ithasscarcelybeenbeguntobeformedinthecabinetsofphilosophers：amonglegislatorsinname，scarcelyanyotherpracticecanbefoundthanthatofchildren，whointheirprattlecopywhattheyhavelearnedoftheirnurses。Thatasciencemaybelearned，amotiveisnecessary；thatthescienceoflegislationmaybelearned，orrathermaybecreated，motivessomuchthemorepowerfularenecessary，asthisscienceismostrepulsiveandthorny。Forthepursuitofthisstudy，anardentandperseveringmindisrequired，whichcanscarcelybeexpectedtobeformedinthelapofease，ofluxury，andofwealth。Amongthosewhosewantshavebeenforestalledfromtheircradle———amongthosewhobecomelegislatorstogratifytheirvanityorrelievetheirennui———therecanscarcelybefoundonewhocouldbecalledalegislatorwithoutmockeryHowshallhewhopossesseseverythingwithoutthetroubleofthinking，beledtosubjecthimselftothelabourofthought？Ifbedesirablethatlegislatorsshouldbemenofenlargedandwell—instructedminds，theymustbesoughtamongthosewhopossessbutlittlewealth———amongthosewho，oppressedwiththeirinsignificance，arestimulatedbyambition，andevenbyhunger，todistinguishthemselves；

theymustbesoughtamongthosewhopossessthehabitsofCyrusandnotofSardanapalus。Amongthechildrenofluxury，ofwhomthegreatmassofsenatorschosenbyarichpeoplewillalwaysbecomposed，therearebutfewwhowillundergothefatigueofstudyingthelessonswhich，attheexpenseofsomuchlabour，havebeenfurnishedthembyBeccariaandAdamSmith！Ifitbeexpected，then，thatfromamongitnumbertherivalsofthesegreatmastersshouldbefound？Qualificationsinthiscasetendtoexcludetheindividualsendowedwiththegreatestmoralandintellectualcapacity。

Thereasons，however，infavourofqualificationsareplausible。Itisalleged，thatthepossessionofacertainpropertytendstoguaranteetheindependenceofitspossessor，andthatinnoothersituationisindependencemoredesirablethaninthatofadeputyappointedtowatchoveranddefendtheinterestsofthepeopleagainsttheencroachmentsoftheexecutivepower，suppliedasthatpoweralmostnecessarilyiswithsomanymeansofseduction。Tothisitmaybereplied，thatitisnotthepooralonewhoareliabletobeseduced：multitudespossessingpropertyexceedinginvaluethequalificationsrequired，arebiassedbytheseductiveinfluenceofplacesandpensions，whilstthepoorremainunmoved。

Alawofthisnature，whoseeffect，wereitstrictlyexecuted，wouldbetoexcludethemostcapable，ismadetobeevaded，andinfacthasconstantlybeenevaded：amongthosewhohaveactedthemostconspicuouspartsintheBritishHouseofCommons，manyhavebeenabletoenterthereonlybyanevasionofthislaw。Meansmightbeprovidedwhichwouldaffordaperfectguaranteeagainstsuchevasions；buthappily，uponthis，asuponmanyotheroccasions，theveilthathidesfromhumanweaknessthedistantinconveniencesofbadlaws，hidesalsothemeansnecessaryforrenderingsuchlawsefficacious。

Someyearsago，amember，thehonestyofwhoseintentionscouldnotbedoubted，proposedtoaugmentthequalificationsforcitiesandboroughsfrom£；300to£；600perannum。Theproposition，afterhavingmadeconsiderableprogress，felltotheground。Iknownotwhetherthishappenedfromaconvictionofitstriflingutility，orfromoneofthoseaccidentswhichinthatslipperypathequallybefallthemostusefulandmostmischievousprojects。

Whenthegreatestpossiblefreedomisgiventopopularsuffrage，andevenwhennocorruptinfluenceisused，thepopularemploymentofwealth，beingofallspeciesofmeritthatofwhichpeopleingeneralarebestqualifiedtojudge，andmostdisposedtoesteem，therenaturallyexistsanaristocracyofwealth。Isitdesirablethatthisaristocracyshouldberenderednecessaryandcomplete。？

RRBook2Chapter11TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterXIOFTRUSTANDCONTRACTMANAGEMENT。Thecapacityoftheindividualstodischargethedutiesrequiredofthemhavingbeenascertained，andthemostintimateconnexionbetweentheirinterestandthedischargeofthesedutieshavingbeenestablished，theonlydesirablecircumstanceremainingistoreducetheamountoftheemolumentstobepaidforthedischargeofthesedutiestothelowestterm。

Supposetheamountexpendedinthepurchaseofagivenservicetobeacertainsum，andthatanindividualequallycapableofrenderingthisservice，shouldoffertorenderitatlessexpense：isthereanygoodreasonforrefusingsuchanoffer？Icandiscovernone。Theacceptanceofsuchapropositionistheacceptanceofacontract：theservicethusagreedtobeperformed，issaidtobecontractedfor，orlettofarm。Tothismethod，themodeofobtainingservicesbyemployingcommissionersandmanagers，isopposed。

Generalreasoningsuponthissubjectareinsufficienttodeterminewhichofthesetwooppositesystemswillbemostadvantageousinanyparticulardepartment：thenatureoftheservicemustbeascertained，beforethequestioncanbedecided。

Ifweconfineourselvestogeneralprinciples，contractsmustbepreferredtocommissions。Underthesystemofcontracts，theinterestsaboutwhichtheindividualisemployedarehisown；whilst，underthesystemofcommissions，theinterestsaboutwhichheisemployedremaintheinterestsofthestate；thatis，theinterestsofanother。Inthefirstcase，thesub—functionariesemployedaretheservantsofanindividual；

intheother，theyaretheservantsofthepublic———fellow—servantsofthosewhoaretowatchoverthem。``Buttheservantsofthemostnegligentmaster’’，saysAdamSmith，``arebettersuperintendedthantheservantsofthemostvigilantsovereign。’’Ifthiscannotbeadmittedasaninfalliblerule，itisatleastmorefrequentlytruethanotherwise。

Publicopinionis，however，butlittlefavourabletothesystemofcontracts。Thesavingswhichresulttothestateareforgotten，whilsttheprofitsreapedbythefarmersarerecollectedandexaggerated。

Uponthissubject，theignorantandthephilosopher———thosewhojudgewithoutthought，andthosewhopretendtohaveexaminedthesubject———arenearlyagreed。Theobjectionswhichtheybringforwardagainstcontractors（fortheyrelatetoindividualsratherthantothesystem）aresufficientlyspecious。

I。Thecontractorsarerich。Iftheyareso，thisisnotthefaultofthesystem，butoftheconditionsofthebargainmadewiththem。

II。Thecontractorsareostentatiousandvain。

Andiftheyburstwithvanity，whatthen？Suchinappreciable，orratherimaginaryevils，cannotbebroughtintopoliticalcalculations。Theirvanitywillfindasufficientcounterpoiseandpunishmentinthevanityofthosewhomtheyincommode，whilsttheirostentationwilldistributetheirwealthamongthosewhomitemploys。

III。Thecontractorsexciteenvy。Thisisthefaultofthosewhoareenvious，andnotofthecontractors：itisanotherimaginaryevil，inoppositiontowhichmaybeplacedthepleasureofdetraction。

Besides，ifthecontractsareopentoall，unlessimprovidentbargainsaremadethroughfavour，corruption，orignorance，rapidfortuneswillnotoftenbeaccumulatedbycontractors：shouldtheystillbecomerich，itwillbebecausetheyhavedeservedit。

IV。Contractorsneverfindthelawstooseveretoinsurethecollectionofthetaxesforwhichtheyhavecontracted。Theywillprocuresevereandsanguinarylawstobeenacted。Ifthelawsaresevereandsanguinary，thelegislatureisinfault，andnotthecontractors。

Whetherthetaxesaremanagedbycontractorsorcommissioners，itisequallyproperthatthemostefficacioussystemoflawsfortheircollectionshouldbeestablished；andcertainlysevereandsanguinarylawsarenotthemostefficacious。Contractors，therefore，arenotlikelytoseektheenactmentofthemostseverelaws：therearemanyreasonsforsupposingthecontrarywillbethecase。Thebetterthelawisexecuted，thatistosay，themorecertainlypunishmentfollowsthetransgressionofthelaw，thelesssevereneeditbe。Butundertheinspectionofthecontractor，whohassostronganinterestinitsexecution，thelawhasabetterchanceofbeingputinexecution，thanwhenundertheinspectionofacommissionerwhohassolittle，ifany，interestinthematter。Uponthispointitisimpossibletoimaginebywhatmeanstwointerestscanbemoreintimatelyconnected，thanthoseofthecontractorandthestate。Itistheinterestofthecontractorthatallwhoillegallyevadethepaymentofthetaxesshouldbepunished：

thisalsoistheinterestofthestate。Butitcanneverbetheinterestofthecontractortopunishtheinnocent：thiswouldtendtoexcitethewholepeopleagainsthim。Ofeveryspeciesofinjustice，thisisonewhichisleastlikelytomeetwithtranquilandacquiescentspectators。

AdamSmith，whohasadoptedalltheseobjections，littlecalculatedastheyseemtometoappearinsuchaworkashis，alsocontendsthat``thebestandmostfrugalwayoflevyingatax，canneverbebyfarm。’’[1]Ifthisweretrue，itwouldbeaconclusivereasonagainsteverlettingtaxestofarm，anditwouldbeuselesstoseekforothers。Whenafactisproved，itisuselesstotroubleone’s—selfwithprejudicesandprobabilities。

Itistrue，thatwithoutthehopeofgain，nocontractorwouldundertaketocollecttheproduceofatax，andtomaketheadvancesrequired。Butwhenceoughttheprofitofthefarmertorise？ThisiswhatAdamSmithhasnotexamined。Hesupposesthatthestatewouldmakethesameprofit，byestablishinganadministrationunderitsowninspection。

Thetruthofthissuppositionisaltogetherdoubtful。Thepersonalinterestofaministeristohaveasmanyindividuals，thatistosay，asmanydependants，employedunderhimaspossible———thattheirsalariesshouldbeaslargeaspossible；andhewilllosenothingbytheirnegligence。Theinterestofthefarmer，orcontractor，istohaveasfewindividualsemployedunderhimaspossible，andtopayeachonenomorethanhedeserves；andbewilllosebyeveryinstanceoftheirnegligence。Inthesecircumstances，thoughnogreateramountshouldbereceivedfromthepeoplethanwouldhavebeencollectedbythestate，acontractormightreasonablyhopetofindasourceofprofit。

AdamSmithhasattacked，withasmuchforceasreason，thepopularprejudicesagainstthedealersincorn，soodiousandsomuchsuspectedunderthenameofforestallers。Hehasshownthattheinterestofthepublicismostintimatelyconnectedwiththenatural，almostnecessary，interestsofthissuspectedclassofmerchants。Hemightwithequaljusticehaveextendedhisprotectiontofarmersofthepublicrevenue，aclassofmennearlyaslittlebeloved。

Ineverybranchofpolitics，andespeciallyinsowideafieldashissubjectembraced，itwasnearlyimpossiblethatbeshouldexamineeverythingwithhisowneyes：itwasalmostofnecessitythathewassometimesguidedbygeneralopinion。Thisseemstometohavehappeneduponthisoccasion。Heforgotinthisinstancetoapplytheprinciplealreadycited，andofwhichhehadelsewheremadesuchbeautifulapplications。Ihadmyselfoncewrittenanessayagainstfarmersoftherevenue；Ihavethrownitintothefire，forwhichaloneitwasfit。IknownothowlongIshouldhaveretainedtheopinionsitadvocated，hadInotbeenbetterinstructedbyAdamSmith。{Note}

RRBook2Chapter12TheRationaleofRewardBookIIRewardsAppliedtoOfficesChapterXIIOFREFORMS。Theemolumentsannexedtoanyofficebeingshowntobeinexcess，andthemischiefsresultingfromsuchanexcessbeingascertained，thenextquestionwhichoccursis，Whatremedyoughttobeapplied？Themostobviousanswerisashortone：strikethemoffatonce。Butthusunqualified，thisanswerisfarfrombeingtheproperone。

Reformisthepracticalconclusionexpectedastherewardforallthelabourbestowedontheexaminationofthesetheoreticpropositions。Uponthissubject，nothingfurtherremainsbuttopointoutonelimitation，withoutwhicheveryreformcanonlybeagreaterabusethanthewholeofthosewhichitpretendstocorrect。Thislimitationis，thatnoreformoughttobecarriedintoeffectwithoutgrantingcompleteindemnitytothosewhoseemolumentsarediminished，orwhoseofficesaresuppressed；———inaword，thattheonlylegitimatebenefittobederivedbythepublicfromeconomicalreform，consistsintheconversionofperpetualintolifeannuities。

Willitbesaid，thattheimmediatesuppressionoftheseofficeswouldbeagaintothepublic？Thiswouldbeameresophism。

Thesuminquestionwould，withoutdoubt，begainedbythepublic，ifitcamefromabroad，ifitwereobtainedbycommerce&；c。；butitisnotgainedwhenitistakenfromindividualswhoformapartofthatsamepublic。

Wouldafamilybericher，becausethefatherdisinheritedoneofhischildren，thathemightthemorerichlyendowtheothers？Inthisinstance，asthedisinheritingofonechildwouldincreasetheinheritanceoftheothers，themischiefwouldnotbewithoutsomecountervailingadvantage；itwouldbeproductiveofgoodtosomepartofthefamily。Butwhenitrelatestothepublic，theemolumentsofasuppressedplacebeingdividedamongstthewholecommunity，———thegain，beingdistributedamongamultitude，isdividedintoimpalpablequantities；whilsttheloss，beingconfinedtoone，isfeltinitsentiretybyhimwhosupportsitalone。Theresultoftheoperationisinnorespecttoenrichthepartywhogains，whilstitreducesthepartywholosestopoverty。Insteadofoneplacesuppressed，supposeathousand，ortenthousand，orahundredthousand，———thetotaldisadvantagewillremainthesame：theplundertakenfromthousandswillhavetobedistributedamongmillions；yourpublicplaceswillbefilledwithunfortunatecitizenswhomyouwillhaveplungedintoindigence，whilstyouwillscarcelyseeoneindividualwhoissensiblyenrichedinconsequenceofallthesecrueloperations。Thegroansofsorrowandthecriesofdespairwillresoundoneveryside；theshoutsofjoy，ifanysuchareheard，willnotbetheexpressionsofhappiness，butofthatmalevolencewhichrejoicesintheagonyofitsvictims。

Bywhatmeansdoindividualsdeceivethemselvesandothersintothesanctionofsuchmischievousacts？Itisbyhavingrecoursetocertainvaguemaxims，consistingofamixtureoftruthandfalsehood，andwhichgivetoaquestion，initselfsimple，anappearanceofdeepandmysteriouspolicy。Theinterestofindividuals，itissaid，mustgivewaytothepublicinterest。Butwhatdoesthismean？Isnotoneindividualasmuchapartofthepublicasanyother？Thispublicinterest，whichisthuspersonified，isonlyanabstractterm；itonlyrepresentstheaggregateofindividualinterests：theymustallbetakenintotheaccount，insteadofconsideringapartasthewhole，andtherestasnothing。

Ifitwerepropertosacrificethefortuneofoneindividualtoaugmentthatoftheothers，itwouldbestillmoredesirabletosacrificeasecondandathird，andsoontoanygreaternumber，withoutthepossibilityofassigninglimitstotheoperation；since，whatevernumbermayhavebeensacrificed，therestillremainsthesamereasonforaddingonemore。Inaword，theinterestofthefirstissacred，ortheinterestofnoonecanbeso。

Theinterestsofindividualsaretheonlyrealinterests。Takecareofindividuals；nevermolestthem———neversufferthemtobemolested，andyouhavedoneenoughforthepublic。

Amongthemultiplicityofhumanaffairs，individualshaveoftenbeeninjuredbytheoperationofparticularlaws，withoutdaringtocomplain，orwithoutbeingabletoobtainahearingfortheircomplaints，onaccountofthisvagueandfalsenotion，thattheinterestofindividualsoughttogivewaytothepublicinterest。Consideredasaquestionofgenerosity，bywhomoughtthisvirtuetobedisplayed？Byalltowardsone———orbyonetowardsall？Which，then，isthemostselfish———hewhowouldpreservewhathealreadypossesses———orhewhowouldseize，evenbyforce，whatbelongstoanother？

Anevilfelt，andagoodunfelt，———suchistheresultofthosemagnificentreforms，inwhichtheinterestsofindividualsaresacrificedtothoseofthepublic。

Theprinciplesherelaiddown，itmaybesaid，areapplicabletoofficesandpensionsheldforlifebutnottoofficesandpensionsheldduringpleasure，andwhichconsequentlymayberevokedatanytime。Maynotthesebereformedatanytime？No：

thedifferencebetweenthetwoisonlyverbal。Inallthosecasesinwhichithasbeencustomaryforthoseplaceswhicharegrantedduringpleasuretobeheldforlife，thoughthepossessormayhavebeenledtoexpectothercausesofremoval，behasneverexpectedthis。``Mysuperior’’，behassaidtohimself，``maydismissme，Iknow；butIflattermyselfIshallneverdeservetobedismissed；Ishallthereforeretainmyofficeforlife。’’

Hencethedismissionofsuchanindividualwithoutindemnity，isasgreatanevil，asmuchunforeseen，andequallyunjust，asintheformercase。

Tothesereasons，arisingfromjusticeandhumanity，maybeaddedaprudentialconsideration。Bysuchindemnification，theinterestsofindividualsandthepublicarereconciled，andabetterchanceofsecuringthelatterisobtained。Assurethosewhoareinterestedthattheyshallnotbeinjured，———theywillbeamongtheforemostinfacilitatingreforms。

Bythusremovingthegrandobstacleofcontraryinterests，thepoliticianpreventsthoseclandestineintrigues，andprivatesolicitations，whichsooftenarresttheprogressofthenoblestplans。

ItwasthusthatLeopold，theGrandDukeofTuscany，proceeded。``NotwithstandingthemultitudeofreformsintroducedbyhisRoyalHighnesssincehisaccessiontothethrone，therehasnotbeenasingleofficereformedinTuscany，theholderofwhichhasnoteitherbeenplacedinsomeotheroffice，[equaltothatsuppressed，mustbeunderstood]orwhohasnotreceivedasapensionasalaryequalinvaluetotheemolumentsofhisoffice。’’[1]Uponsuchconditions，thepleasureofreformispure：nothingishazarded；goodonlyisaccomplished；

atleasttheprincipalobjectissecured，andthehappinessofnooneisinterrupted。

RR，Book3，Chapter1TheRationaleofRewardBookIIIRewardAppliedtoArtandScienceChapterIArtandScience桪ivisionsAcloudofperplexity，raisedbyindistinctanderroneousconceptions，seemsatalltimestohavebeenhangingovertheimportofthetermsartandscience。Thecommonsuppositionseemstohavebeen，thatinthewholefieldofthoughtandaction，adeterminatenumberofexistingcompartmentsareassignable，markedoutallround，anddistinguishedfromoneanotherbysomanysetsofnaturalanddeterminateboundarylines：thatofthesecompartmentssomearefilled，eachbyanart，withoutanymixtureofscience；othersbyascience，withoutanymixtureofart；andothers，again，aresoconstituted，that，asithasneverhappenedtothemhitherto，soneithercaniteverhappentotheminfuture，tocontaininthemanythingeitherofartorscience。

Thissuppositionwill，itisbelieved，befoundineveryparterroneous：asbetweenartandscience，inthewholefieldofthoughtandaction，noonespotwillbefoundbelongingtoeithertotheexclusionoftheother。Inwhatsoeverspotaportionofeitherisfound，aportionoftheothermaybealsoseen；whatsoeverspotisoccupiedbyeither，isoccupiedbyboth梚soccupiedbytheminjointtenancy。Whatsoeverspotisthusoccupied，issomuchtakenoutofthewaste；andthereisnotanydeterminatepartofthewholewastewhichisnotliabletobethusoccupied。

Practice，inproportionasattentionandexertionareregardedasnecessarytodueperformance，istermedart。Knowledge，inproportionasattentionandexertionareregardedasnecessarytoattainment，istermedscience。

Intheverynatureofthecase，theywillbefoundsocombinedastobeinseparable。Mancannotdoanythingwell，butinproportionasheknowshowtodoit：hecannot，inconsequenceofattentionandexertion，knowanythingbutinproportionashehaspractisedtheartoflearningit。Correspondenttherefore，toeveryart，thereisatleastonebranchofscience；correspondenttoeverybranchofscience，thereisatleastonebranchofart。

Thereisnodeterminatelineofdistinctionbetweenartontheonehand，andscienceontheother；nodeterminatelineofdistinctionbetweenartandscienceontheonehand，andunartificialpracticeandunscientificknowledgeontheother。Inproportionasthatwhichisseentobedone，ismoreconspicuousthanthatwhichisseenorsupposedtobeknown，梩hatwhichhasplaceisapttobeconsideredastheworkofart：inproportionasthatwhichisseenorsupposedtobeknown，ismoreconspicuousthananythingelsethatisseentobedone，梩hatwhichhasplaceisapttobesetdowntotheaccountofscience。Daybyday，actinginconjunction，artandsciencearegainingupontheabove—mentionedwaste梩hefieldofunartificialpracticeandunscientificknowledge。Takencollectively，andconsideredintheirconnexionwiththehappinessofsociety，theartsandsciencesmaybearrangedintwodivisionsviz。？。Thoseofamusementandcuriosity；2。Thoseofutility，immediateandremote。Thesetwobranchesofhumanknowledgerequiredifferentmethodsoftreatmentonthepartofgovernments。

Byartsandsciencesofamusement，Imeanthosewhichareordinarilycalledthefinearts；suchasmusic，poetry，painting，sculpture，architecture，ornamentalgardening，&；c。&；c。

Theircompleteenumerationmustbeexcused：itwouldleadustoofarfromourpresentsubject，werewetoplungeintothemetaphysicaldiscussionsnecessaryforitsaccomplishment。Amusementsofallsortswouldbecomprisedunderthishead。

Customhasinamannercompelledustomakethedistinctionbetweentheartsandsciencesofamusement，andthoseofcuriosity。

Itisnot，however，propertoregardtheformerasdestituteofutility：

onthecontrary，thereisnothing，theutilityofwhichismoreincontestable。

Towhatshallthecharacterofutilitybeascribed，ifnottothatwhichisasourceofpleasure？Allthatcanbeallegedindiminutionoftheirutilityis，thatitislimitedtotheexcitementofpleasure：theycannotdispersethecloudsofgrieforofmisfortune。Theyareuselesstothosewhoarenotpleasedwiththem：theyareusefulonlytothosewhotakepleasureinthem，andonlyinproportionastheyarepleased。

Byartsandsciencesofcuriosity，Imeanthosewhichintrutharepleasing，butnotinthesamedegreeasthefinearts，andtowhichatthefirstglancewemightbetemptedtorefusethisquality。

Itisnotthattheseartsandsciencesofcuriositydonotyieldasmuchpleasuretothosewhocultivatethemasthefinearts；butthenumberofthosewhostudythemismorelimited。Ofthisnaturearethesciencesofheraldry，ofmedals，ofpurechronology梩heknowledgeofancientandbarbarouslanguages，whichpresentonlycollectionsofstrangewords，梐ndthestudyofantiquities，inasmuchastheyfurnishnoinstructionapplicabletomorality，oranyotherbranchofusefuloragreeableknowledge。

Theutilityofalltheseartsandsciences，桰speakbothofthoseofamusementandcuriosity，梩hevaluewhichtheypossess，isexactlyinproportiontothepleasuretheyyield。Everyotherspeciesofpreeminencewhichmaybeattemptedtobeestablishedamongthemisaltogetherfanciful。Prejudiceapart，thegameofpush—pinisofequalvaluewiththeartsandsciencesofmusicandpoetry。Ifthegameofpush—pinfurnishmorepleasure，itismorevaluablethaneither。Everybodycanplayatpush—pin：

poetryandmusicarerelishedonlybyafew。Thegameofpush—pinisalwaysinnocent：itwerewellcouldthesamebealwaysassertedofpoetry。Indeed，betweenpoetryandtruththereisnaturalopposition：falsemoralsandfictitiousnature。Thepoetalwaysstandsinneedofsomethingfalse。Whenhepretendstolayhasfoundationsintruth，theornamentsofhissuperstructurearefictions；hisbusinessconsistinstimulatingourpassions，andexcitingourprejudices。Truth，exactitudeofeverykindisfataltopoetry。Thepoetmustseeeverythingthroughcolouredmedia，andstrivetomakeeveryoneelsedothesame。Itistrue，therehavebeennoblespirits，towhompoetryandphilosophyhavebeenequallyindebted；buttheseexceptionsdonotcounteractthemischiefswhichhaveresultedfromthismagicart。

Ifpoetryandmusicdeservetohepreferredbeforeagameofpush—pin，itmustbebecausetheyarecalculatedtogratifythoseindividualswhoaremostdifficulttobepleased。

Alltheartsandsciences，withoutexception，inasmuchastheyconstituteinnocentemployments，atleastoftime，possessaspeciesofmoralutility，neitherthelessrealorimportantbecauseitisfrequentlyunobserved。Theycompetewith，andoccupytheplaceofthosemischievousanddangerouspassionsandemployments，towhichwantofoccupationandennuigivebirth。Theyareexcellentsubstitutesfordrunkenness，slander，andtheloveofgaming。

TheeffectsofidlenessupontheancientGermansmaybeseeninTacitus。Hisobservationsareapplicabletoalluncivilizednations：forwantofotheroccupationsthewagewaruponeachother梚twasamoreanimatedamusementthanthatofthechase。Thechieftainwhoproposedamartialexpedition，atthefirstsoundofhistrumpetrangedunderhisbannersacrowdofidlers，towhompeacewasaconditionofrestraint，oflanguor，andofennui。Glorycouldbereapedonlyinonefield梠pulenceknewbutoneluxury。Thisfieldwasthatofbattle梩hisluxurythatofconqueringorrecountingpastconquests。Theirwomenthemselves，ignorantofthoseagreeableartswhichmultiplythemeansofpleasing，andprolongtheempireofbeauty，becametherivalsofthemenincourage，and，minglingwiththeminthebarbaroustumultofamilitarylife，becameunfeelingasthey。

Itistothecultivationoftheartsandsciences，thatwemustingreatmeasureascribetheexistenceofthatpartywhichisnowopposedtowar：ithasreceiveditsbirthamidtheoccupationandpleasuresfurnishedbythefinearts。Thesearts，sotospeak，haveenrolledundertheirpeacefulbannersthatarmyofidlerswhichwouldhaveotherwisepossessednoamusementbutinthehazardousandbloodygameofwar。

Suchisthespeciesofutilitywhichbelongsindiscriminatelytoalltheartsandsciences。Wereittheonlyreason，itwouldbeasufficientreasonfordesiringtoseethemflourishandreceivethemostextendeddiffusion。

Iftheseprinciplesarecorrect，weshallknowhowtoestimatethosecritics，moreingeniousthanuseful，who，underpretenceofpurifyingthepublictaste，endeavoursuccessivelytodeprivemankindofalargerorsmallerpartofthesourcesoftheiramusement。Thesemodestjudgesofeleganceandtasteconsiderthemselvesasbenefactorstothehumanrace，whiletheyarereallyonlytheinterruptersoftheirpleasure梐

sortofimportunatehosts，whoplacethemselvesatthetabletodiminish，bytheirpretendeddelicacy，theappetiteoftheirguests。Itisonlyfromcustomandprejudicethat，inmattersoftaste，wespeakoffalseandtrue。

Thereisnotastewhichdeservestheepithetgood，unlessitbethetasteforsuchemploymentswhich，tothepleasureactuallyproducedbythem，conjoinsomecontingentorfutureutility：thereisnotastewhichdeservestobecharacterizedasbad，unlessitbeatasteforsomeoccupationwhichhasamischievoustendency。

ThecelebratedandingeniousAddisonhasdistinguishedhimselfbyhisskillintheartofridiculingenjoyments，byattachingtothemthefantasticideaofbadtaste。IntheSpectatorhewagesrelentlesswaragainstthewholegenerationoffalsewits。

Acrostics，conundrums，pantomimes，puppet—shows，bouts—rimé；s，stanzasintheshapeofeggs，ofwings，burlesquepoetryofeverydescription梚naword，athousandotherlightandequallyinnocentamusements，fallcrushedunderthestrokesofhisclub。And，proudofhavingestablishedhisempireabovetheruinsoftheseliterarytriflesheregardshimselfasthelegislatorofParnassus！What，however，wastheeffectofhisnewlaws？Theydeprivedthosewhosubmittedtothem，ofmanysourcesofpleasure梩heyexposedthosewhoweremoreinflexible，tothecontemptoftheircompanions。

EvenHumehimself，inspiteofhisproudandindependentphilosophy，hasyieldedtothisliteraryprejudice。``Byasing1epiece，’’

sayshe，``theDukeofBuckinghamrenderedagreatservicetohisage，andwasthereformerofitstaste！’’Inwhatconsistedthisimportantservice？

Hehadwrittenacomedy，TheRehearsal，theobjectofwhichwastorenderthosetheatricalpieceswhichhadbeenmostpopular，theobjectsofgeneraldistaste。Hissatirewascompletelysuccessful；butwhatwasitsfruit？Theloversofthatspeciesofamusementweredeprivedofsomuchpleasure；amultitudeofauthorscoveredwithridiculeandcontempt，deplored，atthesametime，thelossoftheirreputationandtheirbread。

Astheamusementofaministerofstate，itmustbeconfessedthatamoresuitableonemightbefoundthanagameatsolitaire。

StillamongthenumberofitsamateurswasoncefoundPotemkin，oneofthemostactiveandrespectedRussianministersofstate。Iseeasmileofcontemptuponthelipsofmanyofmyreaders，whowouldnotthinkitstrangethatanyoneshouldplayatcardsfrom揺vetillmorn？provideditwereincompany。Buthowincomparablysuperioristhissolitarygametomanysocialgames梥ooftenantisocialintheirconsequences！Thefirst，apureandsimpleamusement，strippedofeverythinginjurious，freefrompassion，avarice，loss，andregret。Itisgamingenjoyedbysomehappyindividuals，inthatstateinwhichlegislatorsmaydesire，butcannothopethatitwilleverbeenjoyedbyallthroughoutthewholeworld。Howmuchbetterwasthisministeroccupiedthanif，withtheIliadinhishand，hehadstirredupwithinhishearttheseedsofthoseferociouspassionswhichcanonlybegratifiedwithtearsandblood。

Asmengrowold，theylosetheirrelishforthesimpleamusementsofchildhood。Isthisareasonforpride？Itmaybeso梬hentobehardtoplease，andtohaveourhappinessdependentonwhatiscostlyandcomplicated，shallbefoundtobeadvantageous。ThechildwhoisbuildinghousesofcardsishappierthanwasLouisXIV。whenbuildingVersailles。

Architectandmasonatonce，masterofhissituationandhismaterials，healtersandoverturnsatwill。Diruit，edificat，mutatquadratarotundis：

andallthisattheexpenseneitherofgroansnormoney。Theproverbialexpressionofthegamesofprinces，mayfurnishuswithstrongreasonsforregrettingthatprincesshouldeverceasetolovethegamesofchildren。

ArewardwasofferedbyoneoftheRomanemperorstowhoeverwouldinventanewpleasure，andbecausethisemperorwascalledNero，orCaligula，ithasbeenimputedtohimasacrime：

asifeverysovereign，andeveneveryprivateindividual，whoencouragesthecultivationoftheartsandscienceswerenotanaccompliceinthiscrime。Theemploymentofthosecritics，towhomwehavebeforereferred，tendstodiminishtheexistingstockofourpleasures：thenaturaleffectofincreasingyears，istorenderusinsensibletothosewhichremain：

bythosewhoblametheofferoftheRomanemperor，thesecriticsshouldbeesteemedthebenefactorsofmankind，andoldagetheperfectionofhumanlife。

Inleaguewiththesecriticsarethetribeofsatirists梩hosegenerousmen，whowithoutotherrewardthanthepleasureofhumblinganddisfiguringeverythingwhichdoesnotpleasethem，haveconstitutedthemselvesreformersofmankind！TheonlysatireIcouldreadwithoutdisgustandaversion，wouldbeasatireontheselibellersthemselves。Theiroccupationconsistsinfomentingscandal，andindisseminatingitspoisonsthroughouttheworld，thattheymaybefurnishedwithpretextsforpouringcontemptuponeverythingthatemploysorinterestsothermen。Byblackeningeverythingandexaggeratingeverything（foritisbyexaggerationtheyexist）theydeceivethejudgmentsoftheirreaders：梚nnocentamusements，ludicrouseccentricities，venialtransgressionsandcrimes，arealikeconfoundedandcoveredwiththeirvenom。Theirdesignistoeffaceallthelinesofdemarcation，alltheessentialdistinctionswhichphilosophyandlegislationhavewithsomuchlabourtraced。Foronetruth，wefindathousandodioushyperbolesintheirworks。Theyneverceasetoexcitemalevolenceandantipathy：

undertheirauspicesoratleastundertheinfluenceofthepassionswhichanimatethem，languageitselfbecomessatirical。Neutralexpressioncanscarcelybefoundtodesignatethemotiveswhichdeterminehumanactions：

tothewordsexpressiveofthemotive，suchasavarice，ambition，pride，idleness，andmanyothers，theideaofdisapprobationissoclosely，thoughunnecessarily，connected，thatthesimplementionofthemotiveimpliesacensure，evenwhentheactionswhichhaveresultedfromithavebeenmostinnocent。Thenomenclatureofmoralsissotincturedwiththeseprejudices，thatitisnotpossible，withoutgreatdifficultyandlongcircumlocutions，simplyandpurely，withoutreprobationorapprobation，toexpressthemotivesbywhichmankindaregoverned。Henceourlanguages，richintermsofhatredandreproach，arepoorandruggedforthepurposesofscienceandofreason。Suchistheevilcreatedaudaugmentedbysatiricwriters。

Amongrichandprosperousnations，itisnotnecessarythatthepublicshouldbeattheexpenseofcultivatingtheartsandsciencesofamusementandcuriosity。Individualswillalwaysbestowuponthesethatportionofrewardwhichisproportionedtothepleasuretheybestow。

Whilstastotheartsandsciencesofimmediateandthoseofmoreremoteutility，itwouldnotbenecessary，norperhapspossible，topreservebetweenthesetwoclassesanexactlineofdemarcation，thedistinctionsoftheoryandpracticeareequallyapplicabletoall。

Consideredasmatteroftheoryeveryartorscience，evenwhenitspracticalutilityismostimmediateandincontestable，appearstoretireintothedivisionofartsandsciencesofremoteutility。Itisthusthatmedicineandlegislation，artssotrulypractical，consideredunderaparticularaspect，appearequallyremoteinrespecttotheirutilitywiththespeculativesciencesoflogicandmathematics。

Ontheotherhand，thereisabranchofscienceforwhich，atfirst，aplacewouldscarcelyhavebeenfoundamongtheartsandsciencesofcuriosity，butwhich，cultivatedbyindustrioushands，hasatlengthpresentedthecharactersofincontestableutility。桬lectricity，which，whenfirstdiscovered，seemeddestinedonlytoamusecertainphilosopherbythesingularityofitsphenomena，hasatlengthbeenemployedwithmoststrikingsuccessintheserviceofmedicine，andintheprotectionofourdwellingsagainstthosecalamities，forwhichignorantandaffrightedantiquitycouldfindnosufficientcausebutthespecialangerofthegods。

Thatwhichgovernmentoughttodofortheartsandsciencesofimmediateandremoteutility，maybecomprisedinthreethings？。Toremovethediscouragementsunderwhichtheylabour；2。Tofavourtheiradvancement；3。Tocontributetotheirdiffusion。

RR，Book3，Chapter2TheRationaleofRewardBookIIIRewardAppliedtoArtandScienceChapterIIArtandScience———AdvancementThoughdiscoveriesinsciencemaybetheresultofgeniusoraccident，andthoughthemostimportantdiscoveriesmayhavebeenmadebyindividualswithoutpublicassistance，theprogressofsuchdiscoveriesmayatalltimesbemateriallyacceleratedbyaproperapplicationofpublicencouragement。Themostsimpleandefficaciousmethodofencouraginginvestigationsofpuretheory梩hefirststepinthecareerofinvention，consistsintheappropriationofspecificfundstotheresearchesrequisiteineachparticularscience。

Itmay，atfirstsight，appearsuperfluoustorecommendsuchameasureasthis，sincetherearefewstateswhichhavenotsometimesmadesuchappropriations，andsinceallgovernments，inproportionastheyhavebecomeenlightened，havebeenmoreandmoredisposedtoreckonsuchexpensesnecessary。Themostefficaciousmethodsofemployingthelargefundswhichoughtthustobeappropriated，remain，however，tobeexamined。

Itwouldbenecessarythatthefundsapplicabletoagivenscience梒hemistry，forexample梥houldbeconfidedtothestudentsofchemistrythemselves。Theyought，however，tobebestowedintheshapeofreward。Thusthechemist，whouponagivensubjectshouldhaveproducedthebesttheoreticdissertation，mightbeputintopossessionofthesefunds，uponconditionthatheshouldemploytheminmakingtheexperimentswhichhehadpointedout。Whatmorenaturalorusefulrewardcouldbeconferreduponaphilosopher，thanthustobeenabledwithhonourtohimself，tosatisfyatasteorapassionwhichtheinsufficiencyofhisownfortunewouldhaverenderedratheratormentthanapleasure？Histalentsarerewardedbygivinghimnewmeansofincreasingthem。Otherrewardsoftenhaveacontraryeffect：theytendtodistracthisattention，andtogivebirthtooppositetastes。

Ifthismethodofencouragingtheoreticresearcheshasbeenneglected，ithasbeenbecausetheintimateconnexionbetweenthesciencesandarts梑etweentheoryandpractice梙asonlybeenwellunderstoodbyphilosophersthemselves；thegreaternumberofmenrecognisetheutilityofthesciencesonlyatamomentwhentheyareappliedtoimmediateuse。

Theignorantarealwaysdesirousofhumblingthewise；gratifyingtheirself—love，byaccusingthesciencesofbeingmorecuriousthanuseful。

揂llyourbooksofnaturalhistoryareverypretty？saidaladytoaphilosopher，揵utyouhaveneversavedasingleleafofourtreesfromtheteethoftheinsects。？Suchisthefrivolousjudgmentoftheignorant。

Therearemanydiscoverieswhich，thoughatfirsttheymightseemuselessinthemselves，havegivenbirthtothousandsofothersofthegreatestutility。Itisinconductingthesciencestothispoint，thatencouragementsmightthusbeadvantageouslyemployed，insteadofbeingbestowedinwhataregenerallycalledrewards。Whenthediscoveriesofsciencecanbepracticallyemployedintheincreaseofthemassofgeneralwealth，theyreceivearewardnaturallyproportionedtotheirutility：itisthereforeforsuchdiscoveriesasarenotthusimmediatelyapplicable，thatrewardismostnecessary。OfthisnaturearemostofthediscoveriesofchemistryIsanewearthdiscovered？梐newair梐newsalt？anewmetal？Theutilityofthediscoveryisatfirstconfinedtothepleasureexperiencedbythoseinterestedinsuchresearches。Thisordinarilyisallthebenefitreapedbythediscoverer：occupiedinmakingfurtherdiscoveries，heleavesittootherstoreaptheirfruits。Itisthosewhofollowhim，whoapplythemtothepurposesofart，andlevycontributionsupontheindividuals，whoaredesirousofenjoyingthefruitsofhislabour。Oughtthemasterworkmanwhoseesnoparticularindividualuponwhomhemaylevyacontribution，thereforetogowithoutreward？

RR，Book3，Chapter3TheRationaleofRewardBookIIIRewardAppliedtoArtandScienceChapterIIIArtandScience？Diffusion。Thesciences，likethearts，mayexpandintwodirections梚nsuperficiesandinheight。Thesuperficialexpansionofthosescienceswhicharemostimmediatelyuseful，ismosttobedesired。Thereisnomethodmorecalculatedtoacceleratetheiradvancement，thantheirgeneraldiffusion：

thegreaterthenumberofthosebywhomtheyarecultivated，thegreatertheprobabilitythattheywillbeenrichedbynewdiscoveries。Feweropportunitieswillbelost，andgreateremulationwillbeexcitedintheircultivation。

Supposeacountrydividedintodistricts，somewhatsimilartotheEnglishcounties，butmoreequalinsize，sayfromthirtytofortymilesindiameter，梩hefollowingisthesystemofestablishmentswhichoughttobekeptupinthecentraltownofeachdistrict：？Aprofessorofmedicine。Aprofessorofsurgeryandmidwifery。Anhospital。Aprofessoroftheveterinaryart。Aprofessorofchemistry。Aprofessorofmechanicalandexperimentalphilosophy。Aprofessorofbotanyandexperimentalhorticulture。Aprofessoroftheotherbranchesofnaturalhistory。Anexperimentalfarm。Thefirstadvantageresultingfromthisplanwouldbetheestablishment，ineachdistrict，ofapractitionerskilledinthevariousbranchesoftheartofhealing。Anhospital，necessaryinitself，wouldalsobefurtherusefulbyservingasaschoolforthestudentsofthisart。

Theveterinaryart，ortheartofhealingasappliedtoanimals，hasonlywithinthesefewyearsbeenseparatelystudiedinEngland。Thefarrierswhoformerlypractiseduponourcattle，weregenerallynobetterqualifiedfortheirdutythantheoldwomenwhomourancestorsallowedtopractiseuponthemselves。Theestablishmentofaprofessoroftheveterinaryartineverydistrictmightevenberecommendedasamatterofeconomy：thevalueofthecattlepreservedwouldmorethancounterbalancethenecessaryexpense。Thisprofessorshipmight，forwantofsufficientfunds，beunitedtooneoftheothers。

Theconnexionsofchemistrywithdomesticandmanu&；cturingeconomyarewellknovn。Theprofessorofthissciencewouldofcoursedirecthisprincipalattentiontothecarryingthispracticalparttoitsgreatestperfection。Hislectureswouldtreatofthebusinessofthedairy；thepreservationofcornandotheragriculturalproductions；thepreservationofprovisionsofallsorts；thepreventionofputrefaction，thatsubtleenemyofhealthaswellasofcorruptiblewealth；theproperprecautionsforguardingagainstpoisonsofallsorts，whichmaysoeasilybemingledwithourprovisions，orwhichmaybecollectedfromthevesselsinwhichtheyareprepared。Theywouldalsotreatofthevariousbranchesoftrade梠ftheartsofworkinginmetal，ofbreweries，ofthepreparationofleather，andthemanufacturesofsoapandcandles，&；c。&；c。

Botany，toacertaindegree，isnecessaryinthescienceofmedicine：itsuppliesaconsiderablepartofthematerialsemployed。

Ithasasimilarconnexionwithchemistry，andtheartswhichdependuponit。Thecombinedresearchesofthebotanistandchemistwouldincreaseourknowledgeoftheusestowhichvegetablesubstancesmightbeapplied。

Itistothemthatwemustlookforthediscoveryofcheaperandbettermethods，ifsuchmethodsaretobefound，ofgivingdurabilityandtenacitytohempandflaxforthemanufactureoflinens，ropes，andpaper；fordiscoveriesrespectingtheastringentmattersapplicabletothepreparationofleather；

andfortheinventionofnewdyes，&；c。；andsoon，toinfinity。Indeed，itisthebotanistwhomustenabletheagriculturisttodistinguishthemostusefulandexcellentherbsandgrasses，fromthosewhicharelessuseful，orpernicious。

Theprofessorofnaturalhistorycouldalsofurnishabundancenotonlyofcuriousbutusefulinformation。Hewouldteachthecultivatortodistinguish，throughoutallthedepartmentsoftheanimalkingdom，hisalliesfromhisenemies。Hewouldpointoutthehabitsandthedifferentshapesassumedbydifferentinsects，andthemostefficaciousmethodsofdestroyingthem，andpreventingtheirravages。Itmight，however，perhapsappear，werewefullyacquaintedwiththehistoryofalltheanimalswhichdwellwithusuponthesurfaceofthisplanet，thattherewouldbefoundnonewhoseexistencewastousamatterofindifference。