CATEGORIES

第2章

Itmaybequestionedwhetheritistruethatnosubstanceisrelative，asseemstobethecase，orwhetherexceptionistobemadeinthecaseofcertainsecondarysubstances。Withregardtoprimarysubstances，itisquitetruethatthereisnosuchpossibility，forneitherwholesnorpartsofprimarysubstancesarerelative。Theindividualmanoroxisnotdefinedwithreferencetosomethingexternal。Similarlywiththeparts：aparticularhandorheadisnotdefinedasaparticularhandorheadofaparticularperson，butasthehandorheadofaparticularperson。Itistruealso，forthemostpartatleast，inthecaseofsecondarysubstances；

thespecies"man"andthespecies"ox"arenotdefinedwithreferencetoanythingoutsidethemselves。Wood，again，isonlyrelativeinsofarasitissomeone"sproperty，notinsofarasitiswood。Itisplain，then，thatinthecasesmentionedsubstanceisnotrelative。Butwithregardtosomesecondarysubstancesthereisadifferenceofopinion；thus，suchtermsas"head"and"hand"aredefinedwithreferencetothatofwhichthethingsindicatedareapart，andsoitcomesaboutthattheseappeartohavearelativecharacter。Indeed，ifourdefinitionofthatwhichisrelativewascomplete，itisverydifficult，ifnotimpossible，toprovethatnosubstanceisrelative。If，however，ourdefinitionwasnotcomplete，ifthosethingsonlyareproperlycalledrelativeinthecaseofwhichrelationtoanexternalobjectisanecessaryconditionofexistence，perhapssomeexplanationofthedilemmamaybefound。

Theformerdefinitiondoesindeedapplytoallrelatives，butthefactthatathingisexplainedwithreferencetosomethingelsedoesnotmakeitessentiallyrelative。

Fromthisitisplainthat，ifamandefinitelyapprehendsarelativething，hewillalsodefinitelyapprehendthattowhichitisrelative。Indeedthisisself-evident：forifamanknowsthatsomeparticularthingisrelative，assumingthatwecallthatarelativeinthecaseofwhichrelationtosomethingisanecessaryconditionofexistence，heknowsthatalsotowhichitisrelated。Forifhedoesnotknowatallthattowhichitisrelated，hewillnotknowwhetherornotitisrelative。Thisisclear，moreover，inparticularinstances。Ifamanknowsdefinitelythatsuchandsuchathingis"double"，hewillalsoforthwithknowdefinitelythatofwhichitisthedouble。Forifthereisnothingdefiniteofwhichheknowsittobethedouble，hedoesnotknowatallthatitisdouble。Again，ifheknowsthatathingismorebeautiful，itfollowsnecessarilythathewillforthwithdefinitelyknowthatalsothanwhichitismorebeautiful。Hewillnotmerelyknowindefinitelythatitismorebeautifulthansomethingwhichislessbeautiful，forthiswouldbesupposition，notknowledge。Forifhedoesnotknowdefinitelythatthanwhichitismorebeautiful，hecannolongerclaimtoknowdefinitelythatitismorebeautifulthansomethingelsewhichislessbeautiful：foritmightbethatnothingwaslessbeautiful。Itis，therefore，evidentthatifamanapprehendssomerelativethingdefinitely，henecessarilyknowsthatalsodefinitelytowhichitisrelated。

Nowthehead，thehand，andsuchthingsaresubstances，anditispossibletoknowtheiressentialcharacterdefinitely，butitdoesnotnecessarilyfollowthatweshouldknowthattowhichtheyarerelated。

Itisnotpossibletoknowforthwithwhoseheadorhandismeant。Thusthesearenotrelatives，and，thisbeingthecase，itwouldbetruetosaythatnosubstanceisrelativeincharacter。Itisperhapsadifficultmatter，insuchcases，tomakeapositivestatementwithoutmoreexhaustiveexamination，buttohaveraisedquestionswithregardtodetailsisnotwithoutadvantage。

By"quality"Imeanthatinvirtueofwhichpeoplearesaidtobesuchandsuch。

Qualityisatermthatisusedinmanysenses。Onesortofqualityletuscall"habit"or"disposition"。Habitdiffersfromdispositioninbeingmorelastingandmorefirmlyestablished。Thevariouskindsofknowledgeandofvirtuearehabits，forknowledge，evenwhenacquiredonlyinamoderatedegree，is，itisagreed，abidinginitscharacteranddifficulttodisplace，unlesssomegreatmentalupheavaltakesplace，throughdiseaseoranysuchcause。Thevirtues，also，suchasjustice，self-restraint，andsoon，arenoteasilydislodgedordismissed，soastogiveplacetovice。

Byadisposition，ontheotherhand，wemeanaconditionthatiseasilychangedandquicklygivesplacetoitsopposite。Thus，heat，cold，disease，health，andsoonaredispositions。Foramanisdisposedinonewayoranotherwithreferencetothese，butquicklychanges，becomingcoldinsteadofwarm，illinsteadofwell。Soitiswithallotherdispositionsalso，unlessthroughlapseoftimeadispositionhasitselfbecomeinveterateandalmostimpossibletodislodge：inwhichcaseweshouldperhapsgosofarastocallitahabit。

Itisevidentthatmeninclinetocallthoseconditionshabitswhichareofamoreorlesspermanenttypeanddifficulttodisplace；forthosewhoarenotretentiveofknowledge，butvolatile，arenotsaidtohavesuchandsucha"habit"asregardsknowledge，yettheyaredisposed，wemaysay，eitherbetterorworse，towardsknowledge。

Thushabitdiffersfromdispositioninthis，thatwhilethelatterinephemeral，theformerispermanentanddifficulttoalter。

Habitsareatthesametimedispositions，butdispositionsarenotnecessarilyhabits。Forthosewhohavesomespecifichabitmaybesaidalso，invirtueofthathabit，tobethusorthusdisposed；butthosewhoaredisposedinsomespecificwayhavenotinallcasesthecorrespondinghabit。

Anothersortofqualityisthatinvirtueofwhich，forexample，wecallmengoodboxersorrunners，orhealthyorsickly：infactitincludesallthosetermswhichrefertoinborncapacityorincapacity。

Suchthingsarenotpredicatedofapersoninvirtueofhisdisposition，butinvirtueofhisinborncapacityorincapacitytodosomethingwitheaseortoavoiddefeatofanykind。Personsarecalledgoodboxersorgoodrunners，notinvirtueofsuchandsuchadisposition，butinvirtueofaninborncapacitytoaccomplishsomethingwithease。Menarecalledhealthyinvirtueoftheinborncapacityofeasyresistancetothoseunhealthyinfluencesthatmayordinarilyarise；unhealthy，invirtueofthelackofthiscapacity。

Similarlywithregardtosoftnessandhardness。Hardnessispredicatedofathingbecauseithasthatcapacityofresistancewhichenablesittowithstanddisintegration；softness，again，ispredicatedofathingbyreasonofthelackofthatcapacity。

Athirdclasswithinthiscategoryisthatofaffectivequalitiesandaffections。Sweetness，bitterness，sourness，areexamplesofthissortofquality，togetherwithallthatisakintothese；heat，moreover，andcold，whiteness，andblacknessareaffectivequalities。Itisevidentthatthesearequalities，forthosethingsthatpossessthemarethemselvessaidtobesuchandsuchbyreasonoftheirpresence。Honeyiscalledsweetbecauseitcontainssweetness；

thebodyiscalledwhitebecauseitcontainswhiteness；andsoinallothercases。

Theterm"affectivequality"isnotusedasindicatingthatthosethingswhichadmitthesequalitiesareaffectedinanyway。Honeyisnotcalledsweetbecauseitisaffectedinaspecificway，noristhiswhatismeantinanyotherinstance。Similarlyheatandcoldarecalledaffectivequalities，notbecausethosethingswhichadmitthemareaffected。Whatismeantisthatthesesaidqualitiesarecapableofproducingan"affection"inthewayofperception。Forsweetnesshasthepowerofaffectingthesenseoftaste；heat，thatoftouch；andsoitiswiththerestofthesequalities。

Whitenessandblackness，however，andtheothercolours，arenotsaidtobeaffectivequalitiesinthissense，but-becausetheythemselvesaretheresultsofanaffection。Itisplainthatmanychangesofcolourtakeplacebecauseofaffections。Whenamanisashamed，heblushes；whenheisafraid，hebecomespale，andsoon。Sotrueisthis，thatwhenamanisbynatureliabletosuchaffections，arisingfromsomeconcomitanceofelementsinhisconstitution，itisaprobableinferencethathehasthecorrespondingcomplexionofskin。Forthesamedispositionofbodilyelements，whichintheformerinstancewasmomentarilypresentinthecaseofanaccessofshame，mightbearesultofaman"snaturaltemperament，soastoproducethecorrespondingcolouringalsoasanaturalcharacteristic。Allconditions，therefore，ofthiskind，ifcausedbycertainpermanentandlastingaffections，arecalledaffectivequalities。Forpallorandduskinessofcomplexionarecalledqualities，inasmuchaswearesaidtobesuchandsuchinvirtueofthem，notonlyiftheyoriginateinnaturalconstitution，butalsoiftheycomeaboutthroughlongdiseaseorsunburn，andaredifficulttoremove，orindeedremainthroughoutlife。Forinthesamewaywearesaidtobesuchandsuchbecauseofthese。

Thoseconditions，however，whicharisefromcauseswhichmayeasilyberenderedineffectiveorspeedilyremoved，arecalled，notqualities，butaffections：forwearenotsaidtobesuchvirtueofthem。Themanwhoblushesthroughshameisnotsaidtobeaconstitutionalblusher，noristhemanwhobecomespalethroughfearsaidtobeconstitutionallypale。Heissaidrathertohavebeenaffected。

Thussuchconditionsarecalledaffections，notqualities。

Inlikemannerthereareaffectivequalitiesandaffectionsofthesoul。Thattemperwithwhichamanisbornandwhichhasitsoriginincertaindeep-seatedaffectionsiscalledaquality。Imeansuchconditionsasinsanity，irascibility，andsoon：forpeoplearesaidtobemadorirascibleinvirtueofthese。Similarlythoseabnormalpsychicstateswhicharenotinborn，butarisefromtheconcomitanceofcertainotherelements，andaredifficulttoremove，oraltogetherpermanent，arecalledqualities，forinvirtueofthemmenaresaidtobesuchandsuch。

Those，however，whicharisefromcauseseasilyrenderedineffectivearecalledaffections，notqualities。Supposethatamanisirritablewhenvexed：heisnotevenspokenofasabad-temperedman，wheninsuchcircumstancesheloseshistempersomewhat，butratherissaidtobeaffected。Suchconditionsarethereforetermed，notqualities，butaffections。

Thefourthsortofqualityisfigureandtheshapethatbelongstoathing；andbesidesthis，straightnessandcurvednessandanyotherqualitiesofthistype；eachofthesedefinesathingasbeingsuchandsuch。Becauseitistriangularorquadrangularathingissaidtohaveaspecificcharacter，oragainbecauseitisstraightorcurved；infactathing"sshapeineverycasegivesrisetoaqualificationofit。

Rarityanddensity，roughnessandsmoothness，seemtobetermsindicatingquality：yetthese，itwouldappear，reallybelongtoaclassdifferentfromthatofquality。Foritisratheracertainrelativepositionofthepartscomposingthethingthusqualifiedwhich，itappears，isindicatedbyeachoftheseterms。Athingisdense，owingtothefactthatitspartsarecloselycombinedwithoneanother；rare，becausethereareintersticesbetweentheparts；

smooth，becauseitspartslie，sotospeak，evenly；rough，becausesomepartsprojectbeyondothers。

Theremaybeothersortsofquality，butthosethataremostproperlysocalledhave，wemaysafelysay，beenenumerated。

These，then，arequalities，andthethingsthattaketheirnamefromthemasderivatives，orareinsomeotherwaydependentonthem，aresaidtobequalifiedinsomespecificway。Inmost，indeedinalmostallcases，thenameofthatwhichisqualifiedisderivedfromthatofthequality。Thustheterms"whiteness"，"grammar"，"justice"，giveustheadjectives"white"，"grammatical"，"just"，andsoon。

Therearesomecases，however，inwhich，asthequalityunderconsiderationhasnoname，itisimpossiblethatthosepossessedofitshouldhaveanamethatisderivative。Forinstance，thenamegiventotherunnerorboxer，whoissocalledinvirtueofaninborncapacity，isnotderivedfromthatofanyquality；forlobthosecapacitieshavenonameassignedtothem。Inthis，theinborncapacityisdistinctfromthescience，withreferencetowhichmenarecalled，e。g。

boxersorwrestlers。Suchascienceisclassedasadisposition；ithasaname，andiscalled"boxing"or"wrestling"asthecasemaybe，andthenamegiventothosedisposedinthiswayisderivedfromthatofthescience。Sometimes，eventhoughanameexistsforthequality，thatwhichtakesitscharacterfromthequalityhasanamethatisnotaderivative。Forinstance，theuprightmantakeshischaracterfromthepossessionofthequalityofintegrity，butthenamegivenhimisnotderivedfromtheword"integrity"。Yetthisdoesnotoccuroften。

Wemaythereforestatethatthosethingsaresaidtobepossessedofsomespecificqualitywhichhaveanamederivedfromthatoftheaforesaidquality，orwhichareinsomeotherwaydependentonit。

Onequalitymaybethecontraryofanother；thusjusticeisthecontraryofinjustice，whitenessofblackness，andsoon。Thethings，also，whicharesaidtobesuchandsuchinvirtueofthesequalities，maybecontrarytheonetotheother；forthatwhichisunjustiscontrarytothatwhichisjust，thatwhichiswhitetothatwhichisblack。This，however，isnotalwaysthecase。Red，yellow，andsuchcolours，thoughqualities，havenocontraries。

Ifoneoftwocontrariesisaquality，theotherwillalsobeaquality。Thiswillbeevidentfromparticularinstances，ifweapplythenamesusedtodenotetheothercategories；forinstance，grantedthatjusticeisthecontraryofinjusticeandjusticeisaquality，injusticewillalsobeaquality：neitherquantity，norrelation，norplace，norindeedanyothercategorybutthatofquality，willbeapplicableproperlytoinjustice。Soitiswithallothercontrariesfallingunderthecategoryofquality。

Qualitiesadmitofvariationofdegree。Whitenessispredicatedofonethinginagreaterorlessdegreethanofanother。Thisisalsothecasewithreferencetojustice。Moreover，oneandthesamethingmayexhibitaqualityinagreaterdegreethanitdidbefore：ifathingiswhite，itmaybecomewhiter。

Thoughthisisgenerallythecase，thereareexceptions。Forifweshouldsaythatjusticeadmittedofvariationofdegree，difficultiesmightensue，andthisistruewithregardtoallthosequalitieswhicharedispositions。Therearesome，indeed，whodisputethepossibilityofvariationhere。Theymaintainthatjusticeandhealthcannotverywelladmitofvariationofdegreethemselves，butthatpeoplevaryinthedegreeinwhichtheypossessthesequalities，andthatthisisthecasewithgrammaticallearningandallthosequalitieswhichareclassedasdispositions。Howeverthatmaybe，itisanincontrovertiblefactthatthethingswhichinvirtueofthesequalitiesaresaidtobewhattheyarevaryinthedegreeinwhichtheypossessthem；foronemanissaidtobebetterversedingrammar，ormorehealthyorjust，thananother，andsoon。

Thequalitiesexpressedbytheterms"triangular"and"quadrangular"

donotappeartoadmitofvariationofdegree，norindeeddoanythathavetodowithfigure。Forthosethingstowhichthedefinitionofthetriangleorcircleisapplicableareallequallytriangularorcircular。Those，ontheotherhand，towhichthesamedefinitionisnotapplicable，cannotbesaidtodifferfromoneanotherindegree；thesquareisnomoreacirclethantherectangle，fortoneitheristhedefinitionofthecircleappropriate。

Inshort，ifthedefinitionofthetermproposedisnotapplicabletobothobjects，theycannotbecompared。Thusitisnotallqualitieswhichadmitofvariationofdegree。

WhereasnoneofthecharacteristicsIhavementionedarepeculiartoquality，thefactthatlikenessandunlikenesscanbepredicatedwithreferencetoqualityonly，givestothatcategoryitsdistinctivefeature。Onethingislikeanotheronlywithreferencetothatinvirtueofwhichitissuchandsuch；thusthisformsthepeculiarmarkofquality。

Wemustnotbedisturbedbecauseitmaybearguedthat，thoughproposingtodiscussthecategoryofquality，wehaveincludedinitmanyrelativeterms。Wedidsaythathabitsanddispositionswererelative。Inpracticallyallsuchcasesthegenusisrelative，theindividualnot。Thusknowledge，asagenus，isexplainedbyreferencetosomethingelse，forwemeanaknowledgeofsomething。Butparticularbranchesofknowledgearenotthusexplained。Theknowledgeofgrammarisnotrelativetoanythingexternal，noristheknowledgeofmusic，butthese，ifrelativeatall，arerelativeonlyinvirtueoftheirgenera；thusgrammarissaidbetheknowledgeofsomething，notthegrammarofsomething；similarlymusicistheknowledgeofsomething，notthemusicofsomething。

Thusindividualbranchesofknowledgearenotrelative。Anditisbecausewepossesstheseindividualbranchesofknowledgethatwearesaidtobesuchandsuch。Itisthesethatweactuallypossess：wearecalledexpertsbecausewepossessknowledgeinsomeparticularbranch。Thoseparticularbranches，therefore，ofknowledge，invirtueofwhichwearesometimessaidtobesuchandsuch，arethemselvesqualities，andarenotrelative。Further，ifanythingshouldhappentofallwithinboththecategoryofqualityandthatofrelation，therewouldbenothingextraordinaryinclassingitunderboththeseheads。

Actionandaffectionbothadmitofcontrariesandalsoofvariationofdegree。Heatingisthecontraryofcooling，beingheatedofbeingcooled，beinggladofbeingvexed。Thustheyadmitofcontraries。Theyalsoadmitofvariationofdegree：foritispossibletoheatinagreaterorlessdegree；alsotobeheatedinagreaterorlessdegree。Thusactionandaffectionalsoadmitofvariationofdegree。Somuch，then，isstatedwithregardtothesecategories。

Wespoke，moreover，ofthecategoryofpositionwhenweweredealingwiththatofrelation，andstatedthatsuchtermsderivedtheirnamesfromthoseofthecorrespondingattitudes。

Asfortherest，time，place，state，sincetheyareeasilyintelligible，Isaynomoreaboutthemthanwassaidatthebeginning，thatinthecategoryofstateareincludedsuchstatesas"shod"，"armed"，inthatofplace"intheLyceum"andsoon，aswasexplainedbefore。

Theproposedcategorieshave，then，beenadequatelydealtwith。

Wemustnextexplainthevarioussensesinwhichtheterm"opposite"

isused。Thingsaresaidtobeopposedinfoursenses：（i）ascorrelativestooneanother，（ii）ascontrariestooneanother，（iii）asprivativestopositives，（iv）asaffirmativestonegatives。

Letmesketchmymeaninginoutline。Aninstanceoftheuseoftheword"opposite"withreferencetocorrelativesisaffordedbytheexpressions"double"and"half"；withreferencetocontrariesby"bad"

and"good"。Oppositesinthesenseof"privatives"and"positives"

are"blindness"and"sight"；inthesenseofaffirmativesandnegatives，thepropositions"hesits"，"hedoesnotsit"。

（i）Pairsofoppositeswhichfallunderthecategoryofrelationareexplainedbyareferenceoftheonetotheother，thereferencebeingindicatedbythepreposition"of"orbysomeotherpreposition。Thus，doubleisarelativeterm，forthatwhichisdoubleisexplainedasthedoubleofsomething。Knowledge，again，istheoppositeofthethingknown，inthesamesense；andthethingknownalsoisexplainedbyitsrelationtoitsopposite，knowledge。Forthethingknownisexplainedasthatwhichisknownbysomething，thatis，byknowledge。Suchthings，then，asareoppositetheonetotheotherinthesenseofbeingcorrelativesareexplainedbyareferenceoftheonetotheother。

（ii）Pairsofoppositeswhicharecontrariesarenotinanywayinterdependent，butarecontrarytheonetotheother。Thegoodisnotspokenofasthegoodofthehad，butasthecontraryofthebad，noriswhitespokenofasthewhiteoftheblack，butasthecontraryoftheblack。Thesetwotypesofoppositionarethereforedistinct。Thosecontrarieswhicharesuchthatthesubjectsinwhichtheyarenaturallypresent，orofwhichtheyarepredicated，mustnecessarilycontaineithertheoneortheotherofthem，havenointermediate，butthoseinthecaseofwhichnosuchnecessityobtains，alwayshaveanintermediate。Thusdiseaseandhealtharenaturallypresentinthebodyofananimal，anditisnecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldbepresentinthebodyofananimal。Oddandeven，again，arepredicatedofnumber，anditisnecessarythattheoneortheothershouldbepresentinnumbers。

Nowthereisnointermediatebetweenthetermsofeitherofthesetwopairs。Ontheotherhand，inthosecontrarieswithregardtowhichnosuchnecessityobtains，wefindanintermediate。Blacknessandwhitenessarenaturallypresentinthebody，butitisnotnecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldbepresentinthebody，inasmuchasitisnottruetosaythateverybodymustbewhiteorblack。Badnessandgoodness，again，arepredicatedofman，andofmanyotherthings，butitisnotnecessarythateithertheonequalityortheothershouldbepresentinthatofwhichtheyarepredicated：itisnottruetosaythateverythingthatmaybegoodorbadmustbeeithergoodorbad。Thesepairsofcontrarieshaveintermediates：

theintermediatesbetweenwhiteandblackaregrey，sallow，andalltheothercoloursthatcomebetween；theintermediatebetweengoodandbadisthatwhichisneithertheonenortheother。

Someintermediatequalitieshavenames，suchasgreyandsallowandalltheothercoloursthatcomebetweenwhiteandblack；inothercases，however，itisnoteasytonametheintermediate，butwemustdefineitasthatwhichisnoteitherextreme，asinthecaseofthatwhichisneithergoodnorbad，neitherjustnorunjust。

（iii）"privatives"and"Positives"havereferencetothesamesubject。Thus，sightandblindnesshavereferencetotheeye。Itisauniversalrulethateachofapairofoppositesofthistypehasreferencetothattowhichtheparticular"positive"isnatural。Wesaythatthatiscapableofsomeparticularfacultyorpossessionhassufferedprivationwhenthefacultyorpossessioninquestionisinnowaypresentinthatinwhich，andatthetimeatwhich，itshouldnaturallybepresent。Wedonotcallthattoothlesswhichhasnotteeth，orthatblindwhichhasnotsight，butratherthatwhichhasnotteethorsightatthetimewhenbynatureitshould。Fortherearesomecreatureswhichfrombirtharewithoutsight，orwithoutteeth，butthesearenotcalledtoothlessorblind。

Tobewithoutsomefacultyortopossessitisnotthesameasthecorresponding"privative"or"positive"。"Sight"isa"positive"，"blindness"a"privative"，but"topossesssight"isnotequivalentto"sight"，"tobeblind"isnotequivalentto"blindness"。Blindnessisa"privative"，tobeblindistobeinastateofprivation，butisnota"privative"。Moreover，if"blindness"wereequivalentto"beingblind"，bothwouldbepredicatedofthesamesubject；butthoughamanissaidtobeblind，heisbynomeanssaidtobeblindness。

Tobeinastateof"possession"is，itappears，theoppositeofbeinginastateof"privation"，justas"positives"and"privatives"themselvesareopposite。Thereisthesametypeofantithesisinbothcases；forjustasblindnessisopposedtosight，soisbeingblindopposedtohavingsight。

Thatwhichisaffirmedordeniedisnotitselfaffirmationordenial。By"affirmation"wemeananaffirmativeproposition，by"denial"anegative。Now，thosefactswhichformthematteroftheaffirmationordenialarenotpropositions；yetthesetwoaresaidtobeopposedinthesamesenseastheaffirmationanddenial，forinthiscasealsothetypeofantithesisisthesame。Forastheaffirmationisopposedtothedenial，asinthetwopropositions"hesits"，"hedoesnotsit"，soalsothefactwhichconstitutesthematterofthepropositioninonecaseisopposedtothatintheother，hissitting，thatistosay，tohisnotsitting。

Itisevidentthat"positives"and"privatives"arenotopposedeachtoeachinthesamesenseasrelatives。Theoneisnotexplainedbyreferencetotheother；sightisnotsightofblindness，norisanyotherprepositionusedtoindicatetherelation。Similarlyblindnessisnotsaidtobeblindnessofsight，butrather，privationofsight。Relatives，moreover，reciprocate；ifblindness，therefore，werearelative，therewouldbeareciprocityofrelationbetweenitandthatwithwhichitwascorrelative。Butthisisnotthecase。Sightisnotcalledthesightofblindness。

Thatthosetermswhichfallundertheheadsof"positives"and"privatives"arenotopposedeachtoeachascontraries，either，isplainfromthefollowingfacts：Ofapairofcontrariessuchthattheyhavenointermediate，oneortheothermustneedsbepresentinthesubjectinwhichtheynaturallysubsist，orofwhichtheyarepredicated；foritisthose，asweproved，"inthecaseofwhichthisnecessityobtains，thathavenointermediate。Moreover，wecitedhealthanddisease，oddandeven，asinstances。Butthosecontrarieswhichhaveanintermediatearenotsubjecttoanysuchnecessity。Itisnotnecessarythateverysubstance，receptiveofsuchqualities，shouldbeeitherblackorwhite，coldorhot，forsomethingintermediatebetweenthesecontrariesmayverywellbepresentinthesubject。Weproved，moreover，thatthosecontrarieshaveanintermediateinthecaseofwhichthesaidnecessitydoesnotobtain。Yetwhenoneofthetwocontrariesisaconstitutivepropertyofthesubject，asitisaconstitutivepropertyoffiretobehot，ofsnowtobewhite，itisnecessarydeterminatelythatoneofthetwocontraries，notoneortheother，shouldbepresentinthesubject；forfirecannotbecold，orsnowblack。Thus，itisnotthecaseherethatoneofthetwomustneedsbepresentineverysubjectreceptiveofthesequalities，butonlyinthatsubjectofwhichtheoneformsaconstitutiveproperty。Moreover，insuchcasesitisonememberofthepairdeterminately，andnoteithertheoneortheother，whichmustbepresent。

Inthecaseof"positives"and"privatives"，ontheotherhand，neitheroftheaforesaidstatementsholdsgood。Foritisnotnecessarythatasubjectreceptiveofthequalitiesshouldalwayshaveeithertheoneortheother；thatwhichhasnotyetadvancedtothestatewhensightisnaturalisnotsaideithertobeblindortosee。Thus"positives"and"privatives"donotbelongtothatclassofcontrarieswhichconsistsofthosewhichhavenointermediate。Ontheotherhand，theydonotbelongeithertothatclasswhichconsistsofcontrarieswhichhaveanintermediate。Forundercertainconditionsitisnecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldformpartoftheconstitutionofeveryappropriatesubject。Forwhenathinghasreachedthestagewhenitisbynaturecapableofsight，itwillbesaideithertoseeortobeblind，andthatinanindeterminatesense，signifyingthatthecapacitymaybeeitherpresentorabsent；foritisnotnecessaryeitherthatitshouldseeorthatitshouldbeblind，butthatitshouldbeeitherintheonestateorintheother。Yetinthecaseofthosecontrarieswhichhaveanintermediatewefoundthatitwasnevernecessarythateithertheoneortheothershouldbepresentineveryappropriatesubject，butonlythatincertainsubjectsoneofthepairshouldbepresent，andthatinadeterminatesense。Itis，therefore，plainthat"positives"and"privatives"arenotopposedeachtoeachineitherofthesensesinwhichcontrariesareopposed。

Again，inthecaseofcontraries，itispossiblethatthereshouldbechangesfromeitherintotheother，whilethesubjectretainsitsidentity，unlessindeedoneofthecontrariesisaconstitutivepropertyofthatsubject，asheatisoffire。Foritispossiblethatthatthatwhichishealthyshouldbecomediseased，thatwhichiswhite，black，thatwhichiscold，hot，thatwhichisgood，bad，thatwhichisbad，good。Thebadman，ifheisbeingbroughtintoabetterwayoflifeandthought，maymakesomeadvance，howeverslight，andifheshouldonceimprove，eveneversolittle，itisplainthathemightchangecompletely，oratanyratemakeverygreatprogress；

foramanbecomesmoreandmoreeasilymovedtovirtue，howeversmalltheimprovementwasatfirst。Itis，therefore，naturaltosupposethathewillmakeyetgreaterprogressthanhehasmadeinthepast；andasthisprocessgoeson，itwillchangehimcompletelyandestablishhiminthecontrarystate，providedheisnothinderedbylackoftime。Inthecaseof"positives"and"privatives"，however，changeinbothdirectionsisimpossible。Theremaybeachangefrompossessiontoprivation，butnotfromprivationtopossession。Themanwhohasbecomeblinddoesnotregainhissight；themanwhohasbecomebalddoesnotregainhishair；themanwhohaslosthisteethdoesnotgrowhisgrowanewset。（iv）Statementsopposedasaffirmationandnegationbelongmanifestlytoaclasswhichisdistinct，forinthiscase，andinthiscaseonly，itisnecessaryfortheoneoppositetobetrueandtheotherfalse。

Neitherinthecaseofcontraries，norinthecaseofcorrelatives，norinthecaseof"positives"and"privatives"，isitnecessaryforonetobetrueandtheotherfalse。Healthanddiseasearecontraries：neitherofthemistrueorfalse。"Double"and"half"areopposedtoeachotherascorrelatives：neitherofthemistrueorfalse。Thecaseisthesame，ofcourse，withregardto"positives"and"privatives"suchas"sight"and"blindness"。Inshort，wherethereisnosortofcombinationofwords，truthandfalsityhavenoplace，andalltheoppositeswehavementionedsofarconsistofsimplewords。

Atthesametime，whenthewordswhichenterintoopposedstatementsarecontraries，these，morethananyothersetofopposites，wouldseemtoclaimthischaracteristic。"Socratesisill"isthecontraryof"Socratesiswell"，butnotevenofsuchcompositeexpressionsisittruetosaythatoneofthepairmustalwaysbetrueandtheotherfalse。ForifSocratesexists，onewillbetrueandtheotherfalse，butifhedoesnotexist，bothwillbefalse；forneither"Socratesisill"nor"Socratesiswell"istrue，ifSocratesdoesnotexistatall。

Inthecaseof"positives"and"privatives"，ifthesubjectdoesnotexistatall，neitherpropositionistrue，butevenifthesubjectexists，itisnotalwaysthefactthatoneistrueandtheotherfalse。For"Socrateshassight"istheoppositeof"Socratesisblind"

inthesenseoftheword"opposite"whichappliestopossessionandprivation。NowifSocratesexists，itisnotnecessarythatoneshouldbetrueandtheotherfalse，forwhenheisnotyetabletoacquirethepowerofvision，botharefalse，asalsoifSocratesisaltogethernon-existent。

Butinthecaseofaffirmationandnegation，whetherthesubjectexistsornot，oneisalwaysfalseandtheothertrue。Formanifestly，ifSocratesexists，oneofthetwopropositions"Socratesisill"，"Socratesisnotill"，istrue，andtheotherfalse。Thisislikewisethecaseifhedoesnotexist；forifhedoesnotexist，tosaythatheisillisfalse，tosaythatheisnotillistrue。Thusitisinthecaseofthoseoppositesonly，whichareoppositeinthesenseinwhichthetermisusedwithreferencetoaffirmationandnegation，thattheruleholdsgood，thatoneofthepairmustbetrueandtheotherfalse。

Thatthecontraryofagoodisanevilisshownbyinduction：thecontraryofhealthisdisease，ofcourage，cowardice，andsoon。Butthecontraryofanevilissometimesagood，sometimesanevil。Fordefect，whichisanevil，hasexcessforitscontrary，thisalsobeinganevil，andthemean。whichisagood，isequallythecontraryoftheoneandoftheother。Itisonlyinafewcases，however，thatweseeinstancesofthis：inmost，thecontraryofanevilisagood。

Inthecaseofcontraries，itisnotalwaysnecessarythatifoneexiststheothershouldalsoexist：forifallbecomehealthytherewillbehealthandnodisease，andagain，ifeverythingturnswhite，therewillbewhite，butnoblack。Again，sincethefactthatSocratesisillisthecontraryofthefactthatSocratesiswell，andtwocontraryconditionscannotbothobtaininoneandthesameindividualatthesametime，boththesecontrariescouldnotexistatonce：forifthatSocrateswaswellwasafact，thenthatSocrateswasillcouldnotpossiblybeone。

Itisplainthatcontraryattributesmustneedsbepresentinsubjectswhichbelongtothesamespeciesorgenus。Diseaseandhealthrequireastheirsubjectthebodyofananimal；whiteandblackrequireabody，withoutfurtherqualification；justiceandinjusticerequireastheirsubjectthehumansoul。

Moreover，itisnecessarythatpairsofcontrariesshouldinallcaseseitherbelongtothesamegenusorbelongtocontrarygeneraorbethemselvesgenera。Whiteandblackbelongtothesamegenus，colour；justiceandinjustice，tocontrarygenera，virtueandvice；

whilegoodandevildonotbelongtogenera，butarethemselvesactualgenera，withtermsunderthem。

Therearefoursensesinwhichonethingcanbesaidtobe"prior"

toanother。Primarilyandmostproperlythetermhasreferencetotime：inthissensethewordisusedtoindicatethatonethingisolderormoreancientthananother，fortheexpressions"older"and"moreancient"implygreaterlengthoftime。

Secondly，onethingissaidtobe"prior"toanotherwhenthesequenceoftheirbeingcannotbereversed。Inthissense"one"is"prior"to"two"。Forif"two"exists，itfollowsdirectlythat"one"mustexist，butif"one"exists，itdoesnotfollownecessarilythat"two"exists：thusthesequencesubsistingcannotbereversed。Itisagreed，then，thatwhenthesequenceoftwothingscannotbereversed，thenthatoneonwhichtheotherdependsiscalled"prior"tothatother。

Inthethirdplace，theterm"prior"isusedwithreferencetoanyorder，asinthecaseofscienceandoforatory。Forinscienceswhichusedemonstrationthereisthatwhichispriorandthatwhichisposteriorinorder；ingeometry，theelementsarepriortothepropositions；inreadingandwriting，thelettersofthealphabetarepriortothesyllables。Similarly，inthecaseofspeeches，theexordiumispriorinordertothenarrative。

Besidesthesesensesoftheword，thereisafourth。Thatwhichisbetterandmorehonourableissaidtohaveanaturalpriority。Incommonparlancemenspeakofthosewhomtheyhonourandloveas"comingfirst"withthem。Thissenseofthewordisperhapsthemostfar-fetched。

Such，then，arethedifferentsensesinwhichtheterm"prior"isused。

Yetitwouldseemthatbesidesthosementionedthereisyetanother。

Forinthosethings，thebeingofeachofwhichimpliesthatoftheother，thatwhichisinanywaythecausemayreasonablybesaidtobebynature"prior"totheeffect。Itisplainthatthereareinstancesofthis。Thefactofthebeingofamancarrieswithitthetruthofthepropositionthatheis，andtheimplicationisreciprocal：forifamanis，thepropositionwhereinweallegethatheistrue，andconversely，ifthepropositionwhereinweallegethatheistrue，thenheis。Thetrueproposition，however，isinnowaythecauseofthebeingoftheman，butthefactoftheman"sbeingdoesseemsomehowtobethecauseofthetruthoftheproposition，forthetruthorfalsityofthepropositiondependsonthefactoftheman"sbeingornotbeing。

Thustheword"prior"maybeusedinfivesenses。

Theterm"simultaneous"isprimarilyandmostappropriatelyappliedtothosethingsthegenesisoftheoneofwhichissimultaneouswiththatoftheother；forinsuchcasesneitherispriororposteriortotheother。Suchthingsaresaidtobesimultaneousinpointoftime。Thosethings，again，are"simultaneous"

inpointofnature，thebeingofeachofwhichinvolvesthatoftheother，whileatthesametimeneitheristhecauseoftheother"sbeing。Thisisthecasewithregardtothedoubleandthehalf，forthesearereciprocallydependent，since，ifthereisadouble，thereisalsoahalf，andifthereisahalf，thereisalsoadouble，whileatthesametimeneitheristhecauseofthebeingoftheother。

Again，thosespecieswhicharedistinguishedonefromanotherandopposedonetoanotherwithinthesamegenusaresaidtobe"simultaneous"innature。Imeanthosespecieswhicharedistinguishedeachfromeachbyoneandthesamemethodofdivision。

Thusthe"winged"speciesissimultaneouswiththe"terrestrial"andthe"water"species。Thesearedistinguishedwithinthesamegenus，andareopposedeachtoeach，forthegenus"animal"hasthe"winged"，the"terrestrial"，andthe"water"species，andnooneoftheseispriororposteriortoanother；onthecontrary，allsuchthingsappeartobe"simultaneous"innature。Eachofthesealso，theterrestrial，thewinged，andthewaterspecies，canbedividedagainintosubspecies。Thosespecies，then，alsowillbe"simultaneous"pointofnature，which，belongingtothesamegenus，aredistinguishedeachfromeachbyoneandthesamemethodofdifferentiation。

Butgeneraarepriortospecies，forthesequenceoftheirbeingcannotbereversed。Ifthereisthespecies"water-animal"，therewillbethegenus"animal"，butgrantedthebeingofthegenus"animal"，itdoesnotfollownecessarilythattherewillbethespecies"water-animal"。

Thosethings，therefore，aresaidtobe"simultaneous"innature，thebeingofeachofwhichinvolvesthatoftheother，whileatthesametimeneitherisinanywaythecauseoftheother"sbeing；

thosespecies，also，whicharedistinguishedeachfromeachandopposedwithinthesamegenus。Thosethings，moreover，are"simultaneous"intheunqualifiedsenseofthewordwhichcomeintobeingatthesametime。

Therearesixsortsofmovement：generation，destruction，increase，diminution，alteration，andchangeofplace。

Itisevidentinallbutonecasethatallthesesortsofmovementaredistincteachfromeach。Generationisdistinctfromdestruction，increaseandchangeofplacefromdiminution，andsoon。Butinthecaseofalterationitmaybearguedthattheprocessnecessarilyimpliesoneorotheroftheotherfivesortsofmotion。

Thisisnottrue，forwemaysaythatallaffections，ornearlyall，produceinusanalterationwhichisdistinctfromallothersortsofmotion，forthatwhichisaffectedneednotsuffereitherincreaseordiminutionoranyoftheothersortsofmotion。Thusalterationisadistinctsortofmotion；for，ifitwerenot，thethingalteredwouldnotonlybealtered，butwouldforthwithnecessarilysufferincreaseordiminutionorsomeoneoftheothersortsofmotioninaddition；whichasamatteroffactisnotthecase。Similarlythatwhichwasundergoingtheprocessofincreaseorwassubjecttosomeothersortofmotionwould，ifalterationwerenotadistinctformofmotion，necessarilybesubjecttoalterationalso。Buttherearesomethingswhichundergoincreasebutyetnotalteration。Thesquare，forinstance，ifagnomonisappliedtoit，undergoesincreasebutnotalteration，andsoitiswithallotherfiguresofthissort。Alterationandincrease，therefore，aredistinct。

Speakinggenerally，restisthecontraryofmotion。Butthedifferentformsofmotionhavetheirowncontrariesinotherforms；

thusdestructionisthecontraryofgeneration，diminutionofincrease，restinaplace，ofchangeofplace。Asforthislast，changeinthereversedirectionwouldseemtobemosttrulyitscontrary；thusmotionupwardsisthecontraryofmotiondownwardsandviceversa。

Inthecaseofthatsortofmotionwhichyetremains，ofthosethathavebeenenumerated，itisnoteasytostatewhatisitscontrary。Itappearstohavenocontrary，unlessoneshoulddefinethecontraryherealsoeitheras"restinitsquality"oras"changeinthedirectionofthecontraryquality"，justaswedefinedthecontraryofchangeofplaceeitherasrestinaplaceoraschangeinthereversedirection。Forathingisalteredwhenchangeofqualitytakesplace；thereforeeitherrestinitsqualityorchangeinthedirectionofthecontrarymaybecalledthecontraryofthisqualitativeformofmotion。Inthiswaybecomingwhiteisthecontraryofbecomingblack；thereisalterationinthecontrarydirection，sinceachangeofaqualitativenaturetakesplace。

Theterm"tohave"isusedinvarioussenses。Inthefirstplaceitisusedwithreferencetohabitordispositionoranyotherquality，forwearesaidto"have"apieceofknowledgeoravirtue。

Then，again，ithasreferencetoquantity，as，forinstance，inthecaseofaman"sheight；forheissaidto"have"aheightofthreeorfourcubits。Itisused，moreover，withregardtoapparel，amanbeingsaidto"have"acoatortunic；orinrespectofsomethingwhichwehaveonapartofourselves，asaringonthehand：orinrespectofsomethingwhichisapartofus，ashandorfoot。Thetermrefersalsotocontent，asinthecaseofavesselandwheat，orofajarandwine；ajarissaidto"have"wine，andacorn-measurewheat。Theexpressioninsuchcaseshasreferencetocontent。Oritreferstothatwhichhasbeenacquired；wearesaidto"have"ahouseorafield。Amanisalsosaidto"have"awife，andawifeahusband，andthisappearstobethemostremotemeaningoftheterm，forbytheuseofitwemeansimplythatthehusbandliveswiththewife。

Othersensesofthewordmightperhapsbefound，butthemostordinaryoneshaveallbeenenumerated。