第19章

’Part’means(1)(a)thatintowhichaquantumcaninanywaybe

divided；forthatwhichistakenfromaquantumquaquantumis

alwayscalledapartofit，e。g。twoiscalledinasenseapartof

three。Itmeans(b)，ofthepartsinthefirstsense，onlythosewhich

measurethewhole；thisiswhytwo，thoughinonesenseitis，in

anotherisnot，calledapartofthree-(2)Theelementsintowhich

akindmightbedividedapartfromthequantityarealsocalled

partsofit；forwhichreasonwesaythespeciesarepartsofthe

genus-(3)Theelementsintowhichawholeisdivided，orofwhich

itconsists-the’whole’meaningeithertheformorthatwhichhas

theform；e。g。ofthebronzesphereorofthebronzecubeboththe

bronze-i。e。thematterinwhichtheformis-andthecharacteristic

angleareparts-(4)Theelementsinthedefinitionwhichexplainsa

thingarealsopartsofthewhole；thisiswhythegenusiscalleda

partofthespecies，thoughinanothersensethespeciesispartof

thegenus。

’Awhole’means(1)thatfromwhichisabsentnoneofthepartsof

whichitissaidtobenaturallyawhole，and(2)thatwhichso

containsthethingsitcontainsthattheyformaunity；andthisin

twosenses-eitherasbeingeachseverallyonesinglething，oras

makinguptheunitybetweenthem。For(a)thatwhichistrueofa

wholeclassandissaidtoholdgoodasawhole(whichimpliesthatit

isakindwhole)istrueofawholeinthesensethatitcontainsmany

thingsbybeingpredicatedofeach，andbyallofthem，e。g。man，

horse，god，beingseverallyonesinglething，becauseallareliving

things。But(b)thecontinuousandlimitedisawhole，whenitisa

unityconsistingofseveralparts，especiallyiftheyarepresentonly

potentially，but，failingthis，eveniftheyarepresentactually。

Ofthesethingsthemselves，thosewhicharesobynaturearewholesin

ahigherdegreethanthosewhicharesobyart，aswesaidinthecase

ofunityalso，wholenessbeinginfactasortofoneness。

Again(3)ofquantathathaveabeginningandamiddleandanend，

thosetowhichthepositiondoesnotmakeadifferencearecalled

totals，andthosetowhichitdoes，wholes。Thosewhichadmitof

bothdescriptionsarebothwholesandtotals。Thesearethethings

whosenatureremainsthesameaftertransposition，butwhoseformdoes

not，e。g。waxoracoat；theyarecalledbothwholesandtotals；for

theyhavebothcharacteristics。Waterandallliquidsandnumberare

calledtotals，but’thewholenumber’or’thewholewater’onedoes

notspeakof，exceptbyanextensionofmeaning。Tothings，towhich

quaonetheterm’total’isapplied，theterm’all’isappliedwhen

theyaretreatedasseparate；’thistotalnumber，’’alltheseunits。’

Itisnotanychancequantitativethingthatcanbesaidtobe

’mutilated’；itmustbeawholeaswellasdivisible。Fornotonly

istwonot’mutilated’ifoneofthetwoonesistakenaway(forthe

partremovedbymutilationisneverequaltotheremainder)，butin

generalnonumberisthusmutilated；foritisalsonecessarythatthe

essenceremain；ifacupismutilated，itmuststillbeacup；butthe

numberisnolongerthesame。Further，evenifthingsconsistof

unlikeparts，noteventhesethingscanallbesaidtobemutilated，

forinasenseanumberhasunlikeparts(e。g。twoandthree)as

wellaslike；butingeneralofthethingstowhichtheirposition

makesnodifference，e。g。waterorfire，nonecanbemutilated；to

bemutilated，thingsmustbesuchasinvirtueoftheiressencehavea

certainposition。Again，theymustbecontinuous；foramusical

scaleconsistsofunlikepartsandhasposition，butcannotbecome

mutilated。Besides，noteventhethingsthatarewholesare

mutilatedbytheprivationofanypart。Forthepartsremovedmust

beneitherthosewhichdeterminetheessencenoranychanceparts，

irrespectiveoftheirposition；e。g。acupisnotmutilatedifitis

boredthrough，butonlyifthehandleoraprojectingpartisremoved，

andamanismutilatednotifthefleshorthespleenisremoved，

butifanextremityis，andthatnoteveryextremitybutonewhich

whencompletelyremovedcannotgrowagain。Thereforebaldnessisnota

mutilation。

Theterm’race’or’genus’isused(1)ifgenerationofthings

whichhavethesameformiscontinuous，e。g。’whiletheraceofmen

lasts’means’whilethegenerationofthemgoeson

continuously’-(2)Itisusedwithreferencetothatwhichfirst

broughtthingsintoexistence；foritisthusthatsomearecalled

HellenesbyraceandothersIonians，becausetheformerproceedfrom

HellenandthelatterfromIonastheirfirstbegetter。Andtheword

isusedinreferencetothebegettermorethantothematter，though

peoplealsogetarace-namefromthefemale，e。g。’thedescendants

ofPyrrha’-(3)Thereisgenusinthesenseinwhich’plane’isthe

genusofplanefiguresandsolid’ofsolids；foreachofthefigures

isintheonecaseaplaneofsuchandsuchakind，andintheothera

solidofsuchandsuchakind；andthisiswhatunderliesthe

differentiae。Again(4)indefinitionsthefirstconstituent

element，whichisincludedinthe’what’，isthegenus，whose

differentiaethequalitiesaresaidtobe’Genus’thenisusedin

alltheseways，(1)inreferencetocontinuousgenerationofthe

samekind，(2)inreferencetothefirstmoverwhichisofthesame

kindasthethingsitmoves，(3)asmatter；forthattowhichthe

differentiaorqualitybelongsisthesubstratum，whichwecall

matter。

Thosethingsaresaidtobe’otheringenus’whoseproximate

substratumisdifferent，andwhicharenotanalysedtheoneintothe

othernorbothintothesamething(e。g。formandmatteraredifferent

ingenus)；andthingswhichbelongtodifferentcategoriesofbeing

(forsomeofthethingsthataresaidto’be’signifyessence，

othersaquality，otherstheothercategorieswehavebefore

distinguished)；thesealsoarenotanalysedeitherintooneanotheror

intosomeonething。

’Thefalse’means(1)thatwhichisfalseasathing，andthat(a)

becauseitisnotputtogetherorcannotbeputtogether，e。g。’that

thediagonalofasquareiscommensuratewiththeside’or’thatyou

aresitting’；foroneoftheseisfalsealways，andtheother

sometimes；itisinthesetwosensesthattheyarenon-existent。(b)

Therearethingswhichexist，butwhosenatureitistoappear

eithernottobesuchastheyareortobethingsthatdonotexist，

e。g。asketchoradream；forthesearesomething，butarenotthe

thingstheappearanceofwhichtheyproduceinus。Wecallthings

falseinthisway，then，-eitherbecausetheythemselvesdonot

exist，orbecausetheappearancewhichresultsfromthemisthatof

somethingthatdoesnotexist。

(2)Afalseaccountistheaccountofnon-existentobjects，in

sofarasitisfalse。Henceeveryaccountisfalsewhenappliedto

somethingotherthanthatofwhichitistrue；e。g。theaccountofa

circleisfalsewhenappliedtoatriangle。Inasensethereisone

accountofeachthing，i。e。theaccountofitsessence，butinasense

therearemany，sincethethingitselfandthethingitselfwithan

attributeareinasensethesame，e。g。Socratesandmusical

Socrates(afalseaccountisnottheaccountofanything，exceptin

aqualifiedsense)。HenceAntistheneswastoosimple-mindedwhenhe

claimedthatnothingcouldbedescribedexceptbytheaccountproper

toit，-onepredicatetoonesubject；fromwhichtheconclusionusedto

bedrawnthattherecouldbenocontradiction，andalmostthatthere

couldbenoerror。Butitispossibletodescribeeachthingnot

onlybytheaccountofitself，butalsobythatofsomethingelse。

Thismaybedonealtogetherfalselyindeed，butthereisalsoawayin

whichitmaybedonetruly；e。g。eightmaybedescribedasadouble

numberbytheuseofthedefinitionoftwo。

Thesethings，then，arecalledfalseinthesesenses，but(3)a

falsemanisonewhoisreadyatandfondofsuchaccounts，notfor

anyotherreasonbutfortheirownsake，andonewhoisgoodat

impressingsuchaccountsonotherpeople，justaswesaythingsare

whichproduceafalseappearance。ThisiswhytheproofintheHippias

thatthesamemanisfalseandtrueismisleading。Foritassumesthat

heisfalsewhocandeceive(i。e。themanwhoknowsandiswise)；

andfurtherthathewhoiswillinglybadisbetter。Thisisafalse

resultofinduction-foramanwholimpswillinglyisbetterthanone

whodoessounwillingly-by’limping’Platomeans’mimickingalimp’，

forifthemanwerelamewillingly，hewouldpresumablybeworsein

thiscaseasinthecorrespondingcaseofmoralcharacter。

’Accident’means(1)thatwhichattachestosomethingandcanbe

trulyasserted，butneitherofnecessitynorusually，e。g。ifsomeone

indiggingaholeforaplanthasfoundtreasure。This-thefinding

oftreasure-isforthemanwhodugtheholeanaccident；forneither

doestheonecomeofnecessityfromtheotheroraftertheother，nor，

ifamanplants，doesheusuallyfindtreasure。Andamusicalman

mightbepale；butsincethisdoesnothappenofnecessitynor

usually，wecallitanaccident。Thereforesincethereare

attributesandtheyattachtosubjects，andsomeofthemattachto

theseonlyinaparticularplaceandataparticulartime，whatever

attachestoasubject，butnotbecauseitwasthissubject，orthe

timethistime，ortheplacethisplace，willbeanaccident。

Therefore，too，thereisnodefinitecauseforanaccident，buta

chancecause，i。e。anindefiniteone。GoingtoAeginawasan

accidentforaman，ifhewentnotinordertogetthere，but

becausehewascarriedoutofhiswaybyastormorcapturedby

pirates。Theaccidenthashappenedorexists，-notinvirtueofthe

subject’snature，however，butofsomethingelse；forthestormwas

thecauseofhiscomingtoaplaceforwhichhewasnotsailing，and

thiswasAegina。

’Accident’hasalso(2)anothermeaning，i。e。allthatattachesto

eachthinginvirtueofitselfbutisnotinitsessence，ashaving

itsanglesequaltotworightanglesattachestothetriangle。And

accidentsofthissortmaybeeternal，butnoaccidentoftheother

sortis。Thisisexplainedelsewhere。