第18章

possible，butthethoughtisnotrelativeto’thatofwhichitis

thethought’；forweshouldthenhavesaidthesamethingtwice。

Similarlysightisthesightofsomething，not’ofthatofwhichitis

thesight’(thoughofcourseitistruetosaythis)；infactitis

relativetocolourortosomethingelseofthesort。Butaccording

totheotherwayofspeakingthesamethingwouldbesaid

twice，-’thesightisofthatofwhichitis。’

Thingsthatarebytheirownnaturecalledrelativearecalled

sosometimesinthesesenses，sometimesiftheclassesthatinclude

themareofthissort；e。g。medicineisarelativetermbecauseits

genus，science，isthoughttobearelativeterm。Further，thereare

thepropertiesinvirtueofwhichthethingsthathavethemarecalled

relative，e。g。equalityisrelativebecausetheequalis，andlikeness

becausethelikeis。Otherthingsarerelativebyaccident；e。g。aman

isrelativebecausehehappenstobedoubleofsomethinganddoubleis

arelativeterm；orthewhiteisrelative，ifthesamethinghappens

tobedoubleandwhite。

Whatiscalled’complete’is(1)thatoutsidewhichitisnot

possibletofindany，evenone，ofitsparts；e。g。thecompletetime

ofeachthingisthatoutsidewhichitisnotpossibletofindany

timewhichisapartpropertoit-(2)Thatwhichinrespectof

excellenceandgoodnesscannotbeexcelledinitskind；e。g。wehavea

completedoctororacompleteflute-player，whentheylacknothing

inrespectoftheformoftheirproperexcellence。Andthus，

transferringthewordtobadthings，wespeakofacomplete

scandal-mongerandacompletethief；indeedweevencallthemgood，

i。e。agoodthiefandagoodscandal-monger。Andexcellenceisa

completion；foreachthingiscompleteandeverysubstanceis

complete，wheninrespectoftheformofitsproperexcellenceit

lacksnopartofitsnaturalmagnitude-(3)Thethingswhichhave

attainedtheirend，thisbeinggood，arecalledcomplete；forthings

arecompleteinvirtueofhavingattainedtheirend。Therefore，

sincetheendissomethingultimate，wetransferthewordtobad

thingsandsayathinghasbeencompletelyspoilt，andcompletely

destroyed，whenitinnowisefallsshortofdestructionand

badness，butisatitslastpoint。Thisiswhydeath，too，isbya

figureofspeechcalledtheend，becausebotharelastthings。Butthe

ultimatepurposeisalsoanend-Things，then，thatarecalled

completeinvirtueoftheirownnaturearesocalledinallthese

senses，somebecauseinrespectofgoodnesstheylacknothingand

cannotbeexcelledandnopartpropertothemcanbefoundoutside

them，othersingeneralbecausetheycannotbeexceededintheir

severalclassesandnopartpropertothemisoutsidethem；theothers

presupposethesefirsttwokinds，andarecalledcompletebecausethey

eithermakeorhavesomethingofthesortorareadaptedtoitorin

somewayorotherinvolveareferencetothethingsthatarecalled

completeintheprimarysense。

’Limit’means(1)thelastpointofeachthing，i。e。thefirst

pointbeyondwhichitisnotpossibletofindanypart，andthe

firstpointwithinwhicheverypartis；(2)theform，whateverit

maybe，ofaspatialmagnitudeorofathingthathasmagnitude；(3)

theendofeachthing(andofthisnatureisthattowardswhichthe

movementandtheactionare，notthatfromwhichtheyare-though

sometimesitisboth，thatfromwhichandthattowhichthemovement

is，i。e。thefinalcause)；(4)thesubstanceofeachthing，andthe

essenceofeach；forthisisthelimitofknowledge；andifof

knowledge，oftheobjectalso。Evidently，therefore，’limit’hasas

manysensesas’beginning’，andyetmore；forthebeginningisa

limit，butnoteverylimitisabeginning。

’Thatinvirtueofwhich’hasseveralmeanings:-(1)theformor

substanceofeachthing，e。g。thatinvirtueofwhichamanisgoodis

thegooditself，(2)theproximatesubjectinwhichitisthenature

ofanattributetobefound，e。g。colourinasurface。’Thatinvirtue

ofwhich’，then，intheprimarysenseistheform，andina

secondarysensethematterofeachthingandtheproximate

substratumofeach-Ingeneral’thatinvirtueofwhich’willfoundin

thesamenumberofsensesas’cause’；forwesayindifferently(3)

invirtueofwhathashecome？’or’forwhatendhashecome？’；and

(4)invirtueofwhathasheinferredwrongly，orinferred？’or

’whatisthecauseoftheinference，orofthewrong

inference？’-Further(5)Kath’disusedinreferencetoposition，e。g。

’atwhichhestands’or’alongwhichhewalks；forallsuchphrases

indicateplaceandposition。

Therefore’invirtueofitself’mustlikewisehaveseveral

meanings。Thefollowingbelongtoathinginvirtueofitself:-(1)the

essenceofeachthing，e。g。CalliasisinvirtueofhimselfCallias

andwhatitwastobeCallias；-(2)whateverispresentinthe

’what’，e。g。Calliasisinvirtueofhimselfananimal。For’animal’

ispresentinhisdefinition；Calliasisaparticularanimal-(3)

Whateverattributeathingreceivesinitselfdirectlyorinoneof

itsparts；e。g。asurfaceiswhiteinvirtueofitself，andamanis

aliveinvirtueofhimself；forthesoul，inwhichlifedirectly

resides，isapartoftheman-(4)Thatwhichhasnocauseother

thanitself；manhasmorethanonecause——animal，two-footed——but

yetmanismaninvirtueofhimself-(5)Whateverattributesbelongto

athingalone，andinsofarastheybelongtoitmerelybyvirtue

ofitselfconsideredapartbyitself。

’Disposition’meansthearrangementofthatwhichhasparts，in

respecteitherofplaceorofpotencyorofkind；fortheremustbe

acertainposition，aseventheword’disposition’shows。

’Having’means(1)akindofactivityofthehaverandofwhat

hehas-somethinglikeanactionormovement。Forwhenonething

makesandoneismade，betweenthemthereisamaking；sotoo

betweenhimwhohasagarmentandthegarmentwhichhehasthereis

ahaving。Thissortofhaving，then，evidentlywecannothave；forthe

processwillgoontoinfinity，ifitistobepossibletohavethe

havingofwhatwehave-(2)’Having’or’habit’meansadisposition

accordingtowhichthatwhichisdisposediseitherwellorill

disposed，andeitherinitselforwithreferencetosomethingelse；

e。g。healthisa’habit’；foritissuchadisposition-(3)Wespeak

ofa’habit’ifthereisaportionofsuchadisposition；andso

eventheexcellenceofthepartsisa’habit’ofthewholething。

’Affection’means(1)aqualityinrespectofwhichathingcanbe

altered，e。g。whiteandblack，sweetandbitter，heavinessand

lightness，andallothersofthekind-(2)Theactualizationof

these-thealreadyaccomplishedalterations-(3)Especially，

injuriousalterationsandmovements，and，aboveallpainful

injuries-(4)Misfortunesandpainfulexperienceswhenonalarge

scalearecalledaffections。

Wespeakof’privation’(1)ifsomethinghasnotoneofthe

attributeswhichathingmightnaturallyhave，evenifthisthing

itselfwouldnotnaturallyhaveit；e。g。aplantissaidtobe

’deprived’ofeyes-(2)If，thougheitherthethingitselforits

genuswouldnaturallyhaveanattribute，ithasitnot；e。g。ablind

manandamoleareindifferentsenses’deprived’ofsight；thelatter

incontrastwithitsgenus，theformerincontrastwithhisownnormal

nature-(3)If，thoughitwouldnaturallyhavetheattribute，andwhen

itwouldnaturallyhaveit，ithasitnot；forblindnessisa

privation，butoneisnot’blind’atanyandeveryage，butonlyif

onehasnotsightattheageatwhichonewouldnaturallyhaveit。

Similarlyathingiscalledblindifithasnotsightinthemediumin

which，andinrespectoftheorganinrespectofwhich，andwith

referencetotheobjectwithreferencetowhich，andinthe

circumstancesinwhich，itwouldnaturallyhaveit-(4)Theviolent

takingawayofanythingiscalledprivation。

Indeedtherearejustasmanykindsofprivationsasthereare

ofwordswithnegativeprefixes；forathingiscalledunequalbecause

ithasnotequalitythoughitwouldnaturallyhaveit，andinvisible

eitherbecauseithasnocolouratallorbecauseithasapoor

colour，andapodouseitherbecauseithasnofeetatallorbecauseit

hasimperfectfeet。Again，aprivativetermmaybeusedbecausethe

thinghaslittleoftheattribute(andthismeanshavingitinasense

imperfectly)，e。g。’kernel-less’；orbecauseithasitnoteasilyor

notwell(e。g。wecallathinguncuttablenotonlyifitcannotbecut

butalsoifitcannotbecuteasilyorwell)；orbecauseithasnot

theattributeatall；foritisnottheone-eyedmanbuthewhois

sightlessinbotheyesthatiscalledblind。Thisiswhynoteveryman

is’good’or’bad’，’just’or’unjust’，butthereisalsoan

intermediatestate。

To’have’or’hold’meansmanythings:-(1)totreatathing

accordingtoone’sownnatureoraccordingtoone’sownimpulse；so

thatfeverissaidtohaveaman，andtyrantstohavetheircities，

andpeopletohavetheclothestheywear-(2)Thatinwhichathingis

presentasinsomethingreceptiveofitissaidtohavethething；

e。g。thebronzehastheformofthestatue，andthebodyhasthe

disease-(3)Asthatwhichcontainsholdsthethingscontained；for

athingissaidtobeheldbythatinwhichitisasinacontainer；

e。g。wesaythatthevesselholdstheliquidandthecityholdsmen

andtheshipsailors；andsotoothatthewholeholdstheparts-(4)

Thatwhichhindersathingfrommovingoractingaccordingtoits

ownimpulseissaidtoholdit，aspillarsholdtheincumbentweights，

andasthepoetsmakeAtlasholdtheheavens，implyingthat

otherwisetheywouldcollapseontheearth，assomeofthenatural

philosophersalsosay。Inthiswayalsothatwhichholdsthings

togetherissaidtoholdthethingsitholdstogether，sincethey

wouldotherwiseseparate，eachaccordingtoitsownimpulse。

’Beinginsomething’hassimilarandcorrespondingmeaningsto

’holding’or’having’。

’Tocomefromsomething’means(1)tocomefromsomethingas

frommatter，andthisintwosenses，eitherinrespectofthe

highestgenusorinrespectofthelowestspecies；e。g。inasenseall

thingsthatcanbemeltedcomefromwater，butinasensethestatue

comesfrombronze-(2)Asfromthefirstmovingprinciple；e。g。

’whatdidthefightcomefrom？’Fromabusivelanguage，becausethis

wastheoriginofthefight-(3)Fromthecompoundofmatterand

shape，asthepartscomefromthewhole，andtheversefromtheIliad，

andthestonesfromthehouse；(ineverysuchcasethewholeisa

compoundofmatterandshape，)fortheshapeistheend，andonlythat

whichattainsanendiscomplete-(4)Astheformfromitspart，

e。g。manfrom’two-footed’andsyllablefrom’letter’；forthisisa

differentsensefromthatinwhichthestatuecomesfrombronze；for

thecompositesubstancecomesfromthesensiblematter，buttheform

alsocomesfromthematteroftheform-Somethings，then，aresaidto

comefromsomethingelseinthesesenses；but(5)othersareso

describedifoneofthesesensesisapplicabletoapartofthatother

thing；e。g。thechildcomesfromitsfatherandmother，andplants

comefromtheearth，becausetheycomefromapartofthose

things-(6)Itmeanscomingafterathingintime，e。g。nightcomes

fromdayandstormfromfineweather，becausetheonecomesafter

theother。Ofthesethingssomearesodescribedbecausetheyadmitof

changeintooneanother，asinthecasesnowmentioned；somemerely

becausetheyaresuccessiveintime，e。g。thevoyagetookplace’from’

theequinox，becauseittookplaceaftertheequinox，andthefestival

oftheThargeliacomes’from’theDionysia，becauseafterthe

Dionysia。