第7章

Theoppositetothinkingofthestateassomethingtobeknownandapprehendedasexplicitlyrationalistakingexternalappearances-i。e。contingenciessuchasdistress，needforprotection，force，riches，&c-notasmomentsinthestate"shistoricaldevelopment，butasitssubstance。Hereagainwhatconstitutestheguidingthreadofdiscoveryistheindividualinisolation-not，however，evensomuchasthethoughtofthisindividuality，butinsteadonlyempiricalindividuals，withattentionfocusedontheiraccidentalcharacteristics，theirstrengthandweakness，richesandpoverty，&c。ThisingeniousideaofignoringtheabsoluteinfinityandrationalityinthestateandexcludingthoughtfromapprehensionofitsinwardnaturehasassuredlyneverbeenputforwardinsuchanunadulteratedformasinHerrvonHaller"sRestaurationderStaatswissenschaft。Isay"unadulterated"，becauseinallotherattemptstograsptheessenceofthestate，nomatteronwhatone-sidedorsuperficialprinciples，thisveryintentionofcomprehendingthestaterationallyhasbroughtwithitthoughts，i。e。universaldeterminations。HerrvonHaller，however，withhiseyesopen，hasnotmerelyrenouncedtherationalmaterialofwhichthestateconsists，aswellastheformofthought，buthehasevengoneonwithpassionatefervourtoinveighagainsttheformandthematerialsosetaside。PartofwhatHerrvonHallerassuresusisthe"widespread"effectofhisprinciples。ThisRestaurationundoubtedlyowestothefactthat，inhisexposition，hehasdeliberatelydispensedwiththoughtaltogether，andhasdeliberatelykepthiswholebookallofapiecewithitslackofthought。Forinthiswayhehaseliminatedtheconfusionanddisorderwhichlessentheforceofanexpositionwheretheaccidentalistreatedalongwithhintsofthesubstantial，wherethepurelyempiricalandexternalaremixedwithareminiscenceoftheuniversalandrational，andwhereinthemidstofwretchedinanitiesthereaderisnowandagainremindedoftheloftiersphereoftheinfinite。Forthesamereasonagainhisexpositionisconsistent。Hetakesastheessenceofthestate，notwhatissubstantivebutthesphereofaccident，andconsistencyindealingwithasphereofthatkindamountstothecompleteinconsistencyofutterthoughtlessnesswhichjogsalongwithoutlookingbehind，andisjustasmuchathomenowwiththeexactoppositeofwhatitapprovedamomentago。

Addition:Thestateinandbyitselfistheethicalwhole，theactualisationoffreedom；anditisanabsoluteendofreasonthatfreedomshouldbeactual。Thestateismindonearthandconsciouslyrealisingitselfthere。Innature，ontheotherhand，mindactualisesitselfonlyasitsownother，asmindasleep。Onlywhenitispresentinconsciousness，whenitknowsitselfasareallyexistentobject，isitthestate。Inconsideringfreedom，thestarting-pointmustbenotindividuality，thesingleself-consciousness，butonlytheessenceofself-consciousness；forwhethermanknowsitornot，thisessenceisexternallyrealisedasaself-subsistentpowerinwhichsingleindividualsareonlymoments。ThemarchofGodintheworld，thatiswhatthestateis。Thebasisofthestateisthepowerofreasonactualisingitselfaswill。InconsideringtheIdeaofthestate，wemustnothaveoureyesonparticularstatesoronparticularinstitutions。InsteadwemustconsidertheIdea，thisactualGod，byitself。Onsomeprincipleorother，anystatemaybeshowntobebad，thisorthatdefectmaybefoundinit；andyet，atanyrateifoneofthematurestatesofourepochisinquestion，ithasinitthemomentsessentialtotheexistenceofthestate。Butsinceitiseasiertofinddefectsthantounderstandtheaffirmative，wemayreadilyfallintothemistakeoflookingatisolatedaspectsofthestateandsoforgettingitsinwardorganiclife。Thestateisnoidealworkofart；itstandsonearthandsointhesphereofcaprice，chance，anderror，andbadbehaviourmaydisfigureitinmanyrespects。Buttheugliestofmen，oracriminal，oraninvalid，oracripple，isstillalwaysalivingman。

Theaffirmative，life，subsistsdespitehisdefects，anditisthisaffirmativefactorwhichisourthemehere。

Footnote:Ihavedescribedthebooksufficientlytoshowthatitisofanoriginalkind。Theremightbesomethingnobleintheauthor"sindignationbyitself，sinceitwaskindledbythefalsetheories，mentionedabove，emanatingprincipallyfromRousseau，andespeciallybytheattempttorealisetheminpractice。Buttosavehimselffromthesetheories，HerrvonHallerhasgonetotheotherextremebydispensingwiththoughtaltogetherandconsequentlyitcannotbesaidthatthereisanythingofintrinsicvalueinhisvirulenthatredofalllawsandlegislation，ofallexpresslyandlegallydeterminaterights。Thehatredoflaw，ofrightmadedeterminateinlaw，istheshibbolethwherebyfanaticism，flabby-mindedness，andthehypocrisyofgoodintentionsareclearlyandinfalliblyrecognisedforwhattheyare，disguisethemselvesastheymay。

OriginalitylikeHerrvonHaller"sisalwaysacuriousphenomenon，andforthoseofmyreaderswhoarenotyetacquaintedwithhisbookIwillquoteafewspecimenpassages。Thisishowhelaysdownhismostimportantbasicproposition:"Justas，intheinorganicworld，thegreaterdislodgesthelessandthemightytheweak……sointheanimalkingdom，andthenamongsthumanbeings，thesamelawappearsinnobler"(often，too，surelyinignobler?)"forms"，and"this，therefore，istheeternal，unalterable，ordinanceofGod，thatthemightierrules，mustrule，andwillalwaysrule"。Itisclearenoughfromthis，letalonefromwhatfollows，inwhatsense"might"istakenhere。Itisnotthemightofjusticeandethics，butonlytheirrationalpowerofbruteforce。HerrvonHallerthengoesontosupportthisdoctrineonvariousgrounds，amongstthemthat"naturewithamazingwisdomhassoordereditthatthemeresenseofpersonalsuperiorityirresistiblyennoblesthecharacterandencouragesthedevelopmentofjustthosevirtueswhicharemostnecessaryfordealingwithsubordinates"。Heaskswithagreatelaborationofundergraduaterhetoric[ibid。]"whetheritisthestrongortheweakinthekingdomofsciencewhomoremisusetheirtrustandtheirauthorityinordertoachievetheirpettyselfishendsandtheruinofthecredulous；whethertobeapastmasterinlegallearningisnottobeapettifogger，aleguleius，onewhocheatsthehopesofunsuspectingclients，whomakeswhiteblackandblackwhite，whomisappliesthelawandmakesitavehicleforwrongdoing，whobringstobeggarythosewhoneedhisassistanceandtendsthemasthehungryvulturetendstheinnocentlamb"，&c。，&c。HerrvonHallerforgetsherethatthepointofthisrhetoricistosupporthispropositionthattheruleofthemightierisaneverlastingordnanceofGod；sopresumablyitisbythesameordinancethatthevulturerendstheinnocentlamb，andthathencethemightyarequiterighttotreattheirunsuspectingclientsastheweakandtomakeuseofknowledgeofthelawtoemptytheirpockets。Itwouldbetoomuch，however，toaskthattwothoughtsshouldbeputtogetherwherethereisreallynotasingleone。

ItgoeswithoutsayingthatHerrvonHallerisanenemyofcodesoflaw。Inhisview，thelawsoftheland，areontheonehand，inprinciple"unnecessary，becausetheyspringself-explanatoryfromthelawsofnature"。Ifmenhadremainedsatisfiedwith"self-explanatory"asthebasisoftheirthinking，thentheywouldhavebeensparedtheendlesslabourdevoted，sinceevertherewerestates，tolegislationandlegalcodes，andwhichisstilldevotedtheretoandtothestudyofpositivelaw。"Ontheotherhand，lawsarenotexactlypromulgatedforprivateindividuals，butasinstructionstopuisnejudges，acquaintingthemwiththewillofthehighcourt"。

Apartfromthat，theprovisionoflaw-courtsisandallovertheplace)notastateduty，butafavour，helprenderedbytheauthorities，and"quitesupererogatory"；itisnotthemostperfectmethodofguaranteeingmen"srights；onthecontrary，itisaninsecureanduncertainmethod，"theonlyonelefttousbyourmodernlawyers。

Theyhavereftusoftheotherthreemethods，ofjustthosewhichleadmostswiftlyandsurelytothegoal，thosewhich，unlikelaw-courts，，friendlynaturehasgiventomanforthesafeguardingofhisrightfulfreedom"。

Andthesethreemethodsare-whatdoyousuppose?-(1)Personalacceptanceandinculcationofthelawofnature；(2)Resistancetowrong；(3)Flight，whenthereisnootherremedy"。Lawyersareunfriendlyindeed，itappears，incomparisonwiththefriendlinessofnature！"Butthenatural，divine，law，giventoeveryonebynaturetheall-bountiful，is:Honoureveryoneasthineequal"(ontheauthor"sprinciplesthisshouldread"Honournotthemanwhoisthineequal，buttheonewhoismightier")；"hurtnomanwhohurtstheenot；

demandfromhimnothingbutwhatheowes"(butwhatdoesheowe?)；"naymore，lovethyneighbourandservehimwhenthoucanst"。The"implantingofthislaw"istomakealegislatorandaconstitutionsuperfluous。ItwouldbecurioustoseehowHerrvonHallermakesitintelligiblewhylegislatorsandconstitutionshaveappearedintheworlddespitethis"implanting"。

Invol。iii，theauthorcomestothe"so-callednationalliberties"，bywhichhemeansthelawsandconstitutionsofnationstates。Everylegallyconstitutedrightisinthiswidesenseoftheworda"liberty"。Oftheselawshesays，interalia，that"theircontentisusuallyveryinsignificant，althoughinbooksahighvaluemaybeplacedondocumentarylibertiesofthatkind"。WhenwethenrealisethattheauthorisspeakinghereofthenationallibertiesoftheGermanEstates，oftheEnglishpeople(e。g。MagnaCartawhichislittleread，andonaccountofitsarchaicphraseologystilllessunderstood"，theBillofRights，andsoforth)，ofthepeopleofHungary，&c。，wearesurprisedtofindthatthesePossessions，formerlysohighlyprized，areonlyinsignificant；andnolessSurprisedtolearnthatitisonlyinbooksthatthesenationsplaceavalueonlawswhoseco-operationhasenteredintoeverycoatthatiswornIndeverycrustthatiseaten，andstillentersintoeverydayandhourofthelivesofeveryone。

Tocarryquotationfurther，HerrvonHallerspeaksparticularly，illofthePrussianGeneralLegalCode，becauseofthe"incredible"influenceonitoftheerrorsoffalsephilosophy(thoughinthisinstanceatanyratethefaultcannotbeascribedtoKant"sphilosophy，atopiconwhichHerrvonHallerisathisangriest)，especiallywhereitspeaksofthestate，theresourcesofthestate，theendofthestate，theheadofthestate，hisduties，andthoseofcivilservants，andsoforth。HerrvonHallerfindsparticularlymischievous"therightofdefrayingtheexpensesofthestatebylevyingtaxesontheprivatewealthofindividuals，ontheirbusinesses，ongoodsproducedorconsumed。Underthosecircumstances，neitherthekinghimself(sincetheresourcesofthestatebelongtothestateandarenottheprivatepropertyoftheking)，northePrussiancitizenscancallanythingtheirown，neithertheirpersonnortheirproperty；andallsubjectsarebondslavestothelaw，sincetheymaynotwithdrawthemselvesfromtheserviceofthestate。"

Inthiswelterofincrediblecrudity，whatisperhapsmostcomicalofallistheemotionwithwhichHerrvonHallerdescribeshisunspeakablepleasureinhisdiscoveries-"ajoysuchasonlythefriendoftruthcanfeelwhenafterhonestsearchhehasbecomeconfidentthathehasfoundasitwere"(yesindeed?"isitwere"isright！)"thevoiceofnature，theverywordofGod"。(ThetruthisthatthewordofGodveryclearlydistinguishesitsrevelationsfromthevoicesofnatureandunregenerateman。)"Theauthorcouldhavesunktothegroundinopenamazement，astreamofjoyfultearsburstfromhiseyes，andlivingreligiousfeelingsprangupinhimthereandthen。，HerrvonHallermighthavediscoveredbyhis"religiousfeeling"thatheshouldratherbewailhisconditionasthehardestchastisementofGod。Forthehardestthingwhichmancanexperienceistobesofarexcludedfromthoughtandreason，fromrespectforthelaws，andfromknowinghowinfinitelyimportantanddivineitisthatthedutiesofthestateandtherightsofthecitizens，aswellastherightsofthestateandthedutiesofthecitizens，shouldbedefinedbylaw-tobesofarexcludedfromallthisthatabsurditycanfoistitselfuponhimasthewordofGod。

§259。

TheIdeaofthestate:

(A)hasimmediateactualityandistheindividualstateasaself-dependentorganism-theConstitutionorConstitutionalLaw；

(B)passesoverintotherelationofonestatetootherstates-InternationalLaw；

(C)istheuniversalIdeaasagenusandasanabsolutepoweroverindividualstates-themindwhichgivesitselfitsactualityintheprocessofWorld-History。

Remark:Thestateinitsactualityisessentiallyanindividualstate，andbeyondthataparticularstate。Individualityistobedistinguishedfromparticularity。TheformerisamomentintheveryIdeaofthestate，whilethelatterbelongstohistory。Statesassuchareindependentofoneanother，andthereforetheirrelationtooneanothercanonlybeanexternalone，sothattheremustbeathirdthingstandingabovethemtobindthemtogether。Nowthisthirdthingisthemindwhichgivesitselfactualityinworld-historyandistheabsolutejudgeofstates。Severalstatesmayformanalliancetobeasortofcourtwithjurisdictionoverothers，theremaybeconfederationsofstates，liketheHolyAllianceforexample，butthesearealwaysrelativeonlyandrestricted，likeperpetualpeace"。Theoneandonlyabsolutejudge，whichmakesitselfauthoritativeagainsttheparticularandatalltimes，istheabsolutemindwhichmanifestsitselfinthehistoryoftheworldastheuniversalandasthegenusthereoperative。

A。ConstitutionalLaw§260。

Thestateistheactualityofconcretefreedom。Butconcretefreedomconsistsinthis，thatpersonalindividualityanditsparticularinterestsnotonlyachievetheircompletedevelopmentandgainexplicitrecognitionfortheirright(astheydointhesphereofthefamilyandcivilsociety)but，foronething，theyalsopassoveroftheirownaccordintotheinterestoftheuniversal，and，foranotherthing，theyknowandwilltheuniversal；theyevenrecogniseitastheirownsubstantivemind；

theytakeitastheirendandaimandareactiveinitspursuit。Theresultisthattheuniversaldoesnotprevailorachievecompletionexceptalongwithparticularinterestsandthroughtheco-operationofparticularknowingandwilling；andindividualslikewisedonotliveasprivatepersonsfortheirownendsalone，butintheveryactofwillingthesetheywilltheuniversalinthelightoftheuniversal，andtheiractivityisconsciouslyaimedatnonebuttheuniversalend。Theprincipleofmodernstateshasprodigiousstrengthanddepthbecauseitallowstheprincipleofsubjectivitytoprogresstoitsculminationintheextremeofself-subsistentpersonalparticularity，andyetatthesametimebringsitbacktothesubstantiveunityandsomaintainsthisunityintheprincipleofsubjectivityitself。

Addition:TheIdeaofthestateinmoderntimeshasaspecialcharacterinthatthestateistheactualisationoffreedomnotinaccordancewithsubjectivewhimbutinaccordancewiththeconceptofthewill，i。e。inaccordancewithitsuniversalityanddivinity。ImmaturestatesarethoseinwhichtheIdeaofthestateisstillveiledandwhereitsparticulardeterminationshavenotyetattainedfreeself-subsistence。Inthestatesofclassicalantiquity，universalitywaspresent，butparticularityhadnotthenbeenreleased，givenfreescope，andbroughtbacktouniversality，i。e。totheUniversalendofthewhole。Theessenceofthemodernstateisthattheuniversalbeboundupwiththecompletefreedomofitsparticularmembersandwithprivatewell-being，thatthustheinterestsoffamilyandcivilsocietymustconcentratethemselvesonthestate，althoughthe-universalendcannotbeadvancedwithoutthepersonalknowledgeandwillofitsparticularmembers，whoseownrightsmustbemaintained。Thustheuniversalmustbefurthered，butsubjectivityontheotherhandmustattainitsfullandlivingdevelopment。Itisonlywhenboththesemomentssubsistintheirstrengththatthestatecanberegardedasarticulatedandgenuinelyorganised。

§261。

Incontrastwiththespheresofprivaterightsandprivatewelfare(thefamilyandcivilsociety)，thestateisfromonepointofviewanexternalnecessityandtheirhigherauthority；itsnatureissuchthattheirlawsandinterestsaresubordinatetoitanddependentonit。Ontheotherhand，however，itistheendimmanentwithinthem，anditsstrengthliesintheunityofitsownuniversalendandaimwiththeparticularinterestofindividuals，inthefactthatindividualshavedutiestothestateinproportionastheyhaverightsagainstit(see§155)。

Remark:IntheRemarkto§3above，referencewasmadetothefactthatitwasMontesquieuaboveallwho，inhisfamousworkL”EspritdesLois，keptinsightandtriedtoworkoutindetailboththethoughtofthedependenceoflaws-inparticular，lawsconcerningtherightsofpersons-

onthespecificcharacterofthestate，andalsothephilosophicnotionofalwaystreatingthepartinitsrelationtothewhole。

Dutyisprimarilyarelationtosomethingwhichfrommypointofviewissubstantive，absolutelyuniversal。Aright，ontheotherhand，issimplytheembodimentofthissubstanceandthusistheparticularaspectofitandenshrinesmyparticularfreedom。Henceatabstractlevels，rightanddutyappearparcelledoutondifferentsidesorindifferentpersons。Inthestate，assomethingethical，astheinter-penetrationofthesubstantiveandtheparticular，myobligationtowhatissubstantiveisatthesametimetheembodimentofmyparticularfreedom。Thismeansthatinthestatedutyandrightareunitedinoneandthesamerelation。Butfurther，sincenonethelessthedistinctmomentsacquireinthestatetheshapeandrealitypeculiartoeach，andsincethereforethedistinctionbetweenrightanddutyentershereonceagain，itfollowsthatwhileimplicitly，i。e。inform，identical，theyatthesametimedifferincontent。Inthespheresofpersonalrightsandmorality，thenecessarybearingofrightanddutyononeanotherfallsshortofactualisation；andhencethereisatthatpointonlyanabstractsimilarityofcontentbetweenthem，i。e。inthoseabstractspheres，whatisoneman"srightoughtalsotobeanother"s，andwhatisoneman"sdutyoughtalsotobeanother"s。Theabsoluteidentityofrightanddutyinthestateispresentinthesespheresnotasagenuineidentitybutonlyasasimilarityofcontent，becauseinthemthiscontentisdeterminedasquitegeneralandissimplythefundamentalprincipleofbothrightandduty，i。e。theprinciplethatmen，aspersons，arefree。Slaves，therefore，havenodutiesbecausetheyhavenorights，andviceversa。(Religiousdutiesarenothereinpoint。)

InthecourseoftheinwarddevelopmentoftheconcreteIdea，however，itsmomentsbecomedistinguishedandtheirspecificdeterminacybecomesatthesametimeadifferenceofcontent。Inthefamily，thecontentofason"sdutiestohisfatherdiffersfromthecontentofhisrightsagainsthim；thecontentoftherightsofamemberofcivilsocietyisnotthesameasthecontentofhisdutiestohisprinceandgovernment。

Thisconceptoftheunionofdutyandrightisapointofvitalimportanceandinittheinnerstrengthofstatesiscontained。

Dutyonitsabstractsidegoesnofartherthanthepersistentneglectandproscriptionofaman"sparticularinterest，onthegroundthatitistheinessential，eventhediscreditable，momentinhislife。

Duty，takenconcretelyasIdea，revealsthemomentofparticularityasitselfessentialandsoregardsitssatisfactionasindisputablynecessary。Inwhateverwayanindividualmayfulfilhisduty，hemustatthesametimefindhisaccountthereinandattainhispersonalinterestandsatisfaction。

Outofhispositioninthestate，arightmustaccruetohimwherebypublicaffairsshallbehisownparticularaffair。Particularinterestsshouldinfactnotbesetasideorcompletelysuppressed；

instead，theyshouldbeputincorrespondencewiththeuniversal，andtherebyboththeyandtheuniversalareupheld。Theisolatedindividual，sofarashisdutiesareconcerned，isinsubjection；

butasamemberofcivilsocietyhefindsinfulfillinghisdutiestoitprotectionofhispersonandproperty，regardforhisprivatewelfare，thesatisfactionofthedepthsofhisbeing，theconsciousnessandfeelingofhimselfasamemberofthewhole；and，insofarashecompletelyfulfilshisdutiesbyperformingtasksandservicesforthestate，heisupheldandpreserved。Takedutyabstractly，andtheuniversal"sinterestwouldconsistsimplyinthecompletionasdutiesofthetasksandserviceswhichitexacts。

Addition:Inthestateeverythingdependsontheunityofuniversalandparticular。Inthestatesofantiquity，thesubjectiveendsimplycoincidedwiththestate"swill。Inmoderntimes，however，wemakeclaimsforprivatejudgement，privatewilling，andprivateconscience。Theancientshadnoneoftheseinthemodernsense；theultimatethingwiththemwasthewillofthestate。WhereasunderthedespotsofAsiatheindividualhadnoinnerlifeandnojustificationinhimself，inthemodernworldManinsistsonrespectbeingpaidtohisinnerlife。Theconjunctionofdutyandrighthasatwofoldaspect:whatthestatedemandsfromusasadutyiseoipsoourrightasindividuals，sincethestateisnothingbutthearticulationoftheconceptoffreedom。Thedeterminationsoftheindividualwillaregivenanobjectiveembodimentthroughthestateandtherebytheyattaintheirtruthandtheiractualisationforthefirsttime。TheStateistheoneandonlyprerequisiteoftheattainmentofparticularendsandwelfare。

§262。

TheactualIdeaismind，which，sunderingitselfintothetwoidealspheresofitsconcept，familyandcivilsociety，entersuponitsfinitephase，butitdoessoonlyinordertoriseaboveitsidealityandbecomeexplicitasinfiniteactualmind。ItisthereforetotheseidealspheresthattheactualIdeaassignsthematerialofthisitsfiniteactuality，viz。humanbeingsasamass，insuchawaythatthefunctionassignedtoanygivenindividualisvisiblymediatedbycircumstances，hiscapriceandhispersonalchoiceofhisstationinlife(see§185andtheRemarkthereto)。

Addition:InPlato"sstate，subjectivefreedomdoesnotcount，becausepeoplehavetheiroccupationsassignedtothembytheGuardians。Inmanyorientalstates，thisassignmentisdeterminedbybirth。Butsubjectivefreedom，whichmustberespected，demandsthatindividualsshouldhavefreechoiceinthismatter。

§263。

Inthesespheresinwhichitsmoments，particularityandindividuality，havetheirimmediateandreflectedreality，mindispresentastheirobjectiveuniversalityglimmeringinthemasthepowerofreasoninnecessity(see§184)，i。e。astheinstitutionsconsideredabove。

Addition:Thestate，asmind，sundersitselfintotheparticulardeterminationsofitsconcept，ofitsmodeofbeing。Wemightusehereanillustrationdrawnfromnature。Thenervoussystemisthesensitivesystemproper；itistheabstractmoment，themomentofbeingbyoneselfandsoofhavingidentitywithoneself。Butanalysisofsensationreveals，thatithastwoaspectsandthesearedistinctinsuchawaythateachofthemseemstobeawholesystembyitselfThefirstisfeelingintheabstract，keepingoneselfself-enclosed，thedullmovementwhichgoesoninternally，reproduction，internalself-nutrition，growth，anddigestion。Thesecondmomentisthatthisself-relatedexistencehasoveragainstitthemomentofdifference，amovementoutwards。Thisisirritability，sensationmovingoutwards。Thisconstitutesasystemofitsown，andtherearesomeofthelowertypesofanimalswhichhavedevelopedthissystemalone，whiletheylackthesoul-chargedunityofinnersensation。Ifwecomparethesenaturalfeatureswiththoseofmind，thenthefamilymustbeparalleledwithsensibilityandcivilsocietywithirritability。Nowthethirdisthestate，thenervoussystemasIawhole，somethinginwardlyorganised；butthislivesonlyinsofarasbothmoments(inthiscasefamilyandcivilsociety)aredevelopedwithinit。Thelawsregulatingfamilyandcivilsocietyaretheinstitutionsoftherationalorderwhichglimmersinthem。

Butthegroundandfinaltruthoftheseinstitutionsismind，theiruniversalendandknownobjective。

Thefamilytooisethical，onlyitsendisnotknownassuch，whileitistheseparationbetweenonemanandanotherwhichmakescivilsocietywhatitis。

§264。

Mindisthenatureofhumanbeingsenmasseandtheirnatureisthereforetwofold:(i)atoneextreme，explicitindividualityofconsciousnessandwill，and(ii)attheotherextreme，universalitywhichknowsandwillswhatissubstantive。

Hencetheyattaintheirrightinboththeserespectsonlyinsofarasboththeirprivatepersonalityanditssubstantivebasisareactualised。Nowinthefamilyandcivilsocietytheyacquiretheirrightinthefirstoftheserespectsdirectlyandinthesecondindirectly，inthat(i)theyfindtheirsubstantiveself-consciousnessinsocialinstitutionswhicharetheuniversalimplicitintheirparticularinterests，and(ii)theCorporationsuppliesthemwithanoccupationandanactivitydirectedonauniversalend。

§265。

Theseinstitutionsarethecomponentsoftheconstitution(i。e。ofrationalitydevelopedandactualised)inthesphereofparticularity。Theyare，therefore，thefirmfoundationnotonlyofthestatebutalsoofthecitizen"strustinitandsentimenttowardsit。Theyarethepillarsofpublicfreedomsinceinthemparticularfreedomisrealisedandrational，andthereforethereisimplicitlypresenteveninthemtheunionoffreedomandnecessity。

Addition:Aswasremarkedearlieron，thesanctityofmarriageandtheinstitutionsinwhichcivilsocietyisanappearanceofethicallifeconstitutethestabilityofthewhole，i。e。stabilityissecuredwhenuniversalaffairsaretheaffairsofeachmemberinhisparticularcapacity。Whatisoftheutmostimportanceisthatthelawofreasonshouldbeshotthroughandthroughbythelawofparticularfreedom，andthatmyparticularendshouldbecomeidentifiedwiththeuniversalend，orotherwisethestateisleftintheair。Thestateisactualonlywhenitsmembershaveafeelingoftheirownself-hoodanditisstableonlywhenpublicandprivateendsareidentical。Ithasoftenbeensaidthattheendofthestateisthehappinessofthecitizens。Thatimperfectlytrue。Ifallisnotwellwiththem，iftheirsubjectiveaimsarenotsatisfied，iftheydonotfindthatthestateassuchisthemeanstotheirsatisfaction，thenthefootingofthestateitselfisinsecure。

§266。

Butmindisobjectiveandactualtoitselfnotmerelyasthisnecessityandasarealmofappearance，butalsoastheidealityandtheheartofthisnecessity。Onlyinthiswayisthissubstantiveuniversalityawareofitselfasitsownobjectandend，withtheresultthatthenecessityappearstoitselfintheshapeoffreedomaswell。

§267。

Thisnecessityinidealityistheinnerself-developmentoftheIdea。Asthesubstanceoftheindividualsubject，itishispoliticalsentiment[patriotism]；indistinctiontherefrom，asthesubstanceoftheobjectiveworld，itistheorganismofthestate，i。e。itisthestrictlypoliticalstateanditsconstitution。

Addition:Theunityofthefreedomwhichknowsandwillsitselfispresentfirstofallasnecessity。Heresubstanceispresentasthesubjectiveexistenceofindividuals。Necessity"sothermodeofbeing，however，istheorganism，i。e。mindisaprocessinternaltoitself，itarticulatesitselfwithin，positsdifferencesinitself，andtherebycompletesthecycleofitslife。

§268。

Thepoliticalsentiment，patriotismpureandsimple，isassuredconvictionwithtruthasitsbasis—meresubjectiveassuranceisnottheoutcomeoftruthbutisonlyopinion—andavolitionwhichhasbecomehabitual。Inthissenseitissimplyaproductoftheinstitutionssubsistinginthestate，sincerationalityisactuallypresentinthestate，whileactioninconformitywiththeseinstitutionsgivesrationalityitspracticalproof。Thissentimentis，ingeneral，trust(whichmaypassoverintoagreaterorlesserdegreeofeducatedinsight)，ortheconsciousnessthatmyinterest，bothsubstantiveandparticular，iscontainedandpreservedinanother"s(i。e。inthestate"s)interestandend，i。e。intheother"srelationtomeasanindividual。Inthisway，thisveryotherisimmediatelynotanotherinmyeyes，andinbeingconsciousofthisfact，Iamfree。

Remark:Patriotismisoftenunderstoodtomeanonlyareadinessforexceptionalsacrificesandactions。Essentially，however，itisthesentimentwhich，intherelationshipsofourdailylifeandunderordinaryconditions，habituallyrecognisesthatthecommunityisone"ssubstantivegroundworkandend。Itisoutofthisconsciousness，whichduringlife"sdailyroundstandsthetestinallcircumstances，thattheresubsequentlyalsoarisesthereadinessforextraordinaryexertions。

Butsincemenwouldoftenratherbemagnanimousthanlaw-abiding，theyreadilypersuadethemselvesthattheypossessthisexceptionalpatriotisminordertobesparingintheexpressionofagenuinepatrioticsentimentortoexcusetheirlackofit。Ifagainthisgenuinepatriotismislookeduponasthatwhichmaybeginofitselfandarisefromsubjectiveideasandthoughts，itisbeingconfusedwithopinion，becausesoregardedpatriotismisdeprivedofitstrueground，objectivereality。

Addition:Immaturemindsdelightinargumentationandfault-finding，becauseitiseasyenoughtofindfault，thoughhardtoseethegoodanditsinnernecessity。Thelearneralwaysbeginsbyfindingfault，butthescholarseesthepositivemeritineverything。Inreligion，thisorthatisquicklydismissedassuperstitious，butitisinfinitelyhardertoapprehendthetruthunderlyingthesuperstition。Hencemen"sapparentsentimenttowardsthestateistobedistinguishedfromwhattheyreallywill；inwardlytheyreallywillthething，buttheyclingtodetailsandtakedelightinthevanityofpretendingtoknowbetter。Weareconfidentthatthestatemustsubsistandthatinitalonecanparticularinterestsbesecured。Buthabitblindsustothatonwhichourwholeexistencedepends。Whenwewalkthestreetsatnightinsafety，itdoesnotstrikeusthatthismightbeotherwise。Thishabitoffeelingsafehasbecomesecondnature，andwedonotreflectonjusthowthisisduesolelytotheworkingofspecialinstitutions。Commonplacethinkingoftenhastheimpressionthatforceholdsthestatetogether，butinfactitsonlybondisthefundamentalsenseoforderwhicheverybodypossesses。

§269。

Thepatrioticsentimentacquiresitsspecificallydeterminedcontentfromthevariousmembersoftheorganismofthestate。ThisorganismisthedevelopmentoftheIdeatoitsdifferencesandtheirobjectiveactuality。Hencethesedifferentmembersarethevariouspowersofthestatewiththeirfunctionsandspheresofaction，bymeansofwhichtheuniversalcontinuallyengendersitself，andengendersitselfinanecessarywaybecausetheirspecificcharacterisfixedbythenatureoftheconcept。Throughoutthisprocesstheuniversalmaintainsitsidentity，sinceitisitselfthepresuppositionofitsownproduction。Thisorganismistheconstitutionofthestate。

Addition:Thestateisanorganism，i。e。thedevelopmentoftheIdeatothearticulationofitsdifferences。Thusthesedifferentsidesofthestateareitsvariouspowerswiththeirfunctionsandspheresofaction，bymeansofwhichtheuniversalcontinuallyengendersitselfinanecessaryway；

inthisprocessitmaintainsitsidentitysinceitispresupposedeveninitsownproduction。Thisorganismistheconstitutionofthestate；itisproducedperpetuallybythestate，whileitisthroughitthatthestatemaintainsitself。Ifthestateanditsconstitutionfallapart，ifthevariousmembersoftheorganismfreethemselves，thentheunityproducedbytheconstitutionisnolongeranaccomplishedfact。Thistallieswiththefableaboutthebellyandtheothermembers。Thenatureofanorganismissuchthatunlesseachofitspartsisbroughtintoidentitywiththeothers，unlesseachofthemispreventedfromachievingautonomy，thewholemustperish。Bylistingattributes，axioms，&c。，noprogresscanbemadeinassessingthenatureofthestate；itmustbeapprehendedasanorganism。

OnemightaswelltrytounderstandthenatureofGodbylistinghisattributes，whilethetruthisthatwemustintuitGod"slifeinthatlifeitself。

§270。

(1)Theabstractactualityorthesubstantialityofthestateconsistsinthefactthatitsendistheuniversalinterestassuchandtheconservationthereinofparticularinterestssincetheuniversalinterestisthesubstanceofthese。

(2)Butthissubstantialityofthestateisalsoitsnecessity，sinceitssubstantialityisdividedintothedistinctspheresofitsactivitywhichcorrespondtothemomentsofitsconcept，andthesespheres，owingtothissubstantiality，arethusactuallyfixeddeterminatecharacteristicsofthestate，i。e。itsPowers。

(3)Butthisverysubstantialityofthestateismindknowingandwillingitselfafterpassingthroughtheformingprocessofeducation。Thestate，therefore，knowswhatitwillsandknowsitinitsuniversality，i。e。assomethingthought。

Henceitworksandactsbyreferencetoconsciouslyadoptedends，knownprinciples，andlawswhicharenotmerelyimplicitbutareactuallypresenttoconsciousness；andfurther，itactswithpreciseknowledgeofexistingconditionsandcircumstances，inasmuchasitsactionshaveabearingonthese。

Remark:Thisistheplacetoalludetotherelationofthestatetoreligion，becauseitisoftenreiteratednowadays“thatreligionisthebasisofthestate，andbecausethosewhomakethisassertionevenhavetheimpertinencetosuggestthat，onceitismade，politicalsciencehassaiditslastword。Nodoctrineismorefittedtoproducesomuchconfusion，morefitted-indeedtoexaltconfusionitselftobetheconstitutionofthestateandtheproperformofknowledge。

Inthefirstplace，itmayseemsuspiciousthatreligionisprincipallysoughtandrecommendedfortimesofpubliccalamity，disorder，andoppression，andthatpeoplearereferredtoitasasolaceinfaceofwrongorasahopeincompensationforloss。Thenfurther，whilethestateismindonearth(derGeistderinderWeltsteht)，religionmaysometimesbelookeduponascommandingdownrightindifferencetoearthlyinterests，themarchofevents，andcurrentaffairs，andsototurnmen"sattentiontoreligiondoesnotseemtobethewaytoexalttheinterestandbusinessofthestateintothefundamentalandseriousaimoflife。Onthecontrary，thissuggestionseemstoassertthatpoliticsiswhollyamatterofcapriceandindifference，eitherbecausethiswayoftalkingmerelyamountstosayingthatitisonlytheaimsofpassionandlawlessforce，&c。，whichbearswayinthestate，orbecausethisrecommendationofreligionissupposedtobeofself-sufficientvalidity，andreligionistoclaimtodecidethelawandadministerit。Whileitmightseemabitterjesttostifleallanimusagainsttyrannybyassertingthattheoppressedfindtheirconsolationinreligion，itstillmustnotbeforgottenthatreligionmaytakeaformleadingtotheharshestbondageinthefettersofsuperstitionandman"sdegradedsubserviencetoanimals。(TheEgyptiansandtheHindus，forinstance，revereanimalsasbeingshigherthanthemselves。)Thisphenomenonmayatleastmakeitevidentthatweoughtnottospeakofreligionatallingeneraltermsandthatwereallyneedapowertoprotectusfromitinsomeofitsformsandtoespouseagainstthemtherightsofreasonandself-consciousness。

Theessenceoftherelationbetweenreligionandthestatecanbedetermined，however，onlyifwerecalltheconceptofreligion。Thecontentofreligionisabsolutetruth，andconsequentlythereligiousisthemostsublimeofalldispositions。Asintuition，feeling，representativeknowledge，itstaskisconcentrateduponGodastheunrestrictedprincipleandcauseonwhicheverythinghangs。

Itthusinvolvesthedemandthateverythingelseshallbeseeninthislightanddependonitforcorroboration，justification，andverification。Itisinbeingthusrelatedtoreligionthatstate，laws，anddutiesallalikeacquireforconsciousnesstheirsupremeconfirmationandtheirsupremeobligatoriness，becauseeventhestate，laws，anddutiesareintheiractualitysomethingdeterminatewhichpassesoverintoahighersphereandsointothatonwhichitisgrounded。Itisforthisreasonthatinreligionthereliestheplacewheremanisalwaysassuredoffindingaconsciousnessoftheunchangeable，ofthehighestfreedomandsatisfaction，evenwithinallthemutabilityoftheworldanddespitethefrustrationofhisaimsandthelossofhisinterestsandpossessions。

Footnote:Religion，knowledgeandsciencehaveastheirprincipleaformpeculiartoeachanddifferentfromthatofthestate。Theythereforeenterthestatepartlyasmean-meanstoeducationand(ahigher)

mentality-partlyinsofarastheyareinessenceendsinthemselves，forthereasonthattheyareembodiedinexistentinstitutions。Inboththeserespectstheprinciplesoftilestatehave，intheirapplication，abearingonthem。Acomprehensive，concretetreatiseonthestatewouldalsohavetodealwiththosespheresoflifeiswellaswithartandsuchthingsasmeregeographicalmatters，andtoconsidertheirplaceinthestateandtheirbearingonit。Inthisbook，however，itistheprincipleofthestateinitsownspecialspherewhichisbeingfullyexpoundedinaccordancewiththeIdeal，anditisonlyinpassingthatreferencecanbemadetotheprinciplesofreligion，&c。，andtotheapplicationoftherightofthestatetothem。

Remark:Nowifreligionisinthiswaythegroundworkwhichincludestheethicalrealmingeneral，andthestate"sfundamentalnature-thedivinewill-inparticular，itisatthesametimeonlyagroundwork；anditisatthispointthatstateandreligionbegintodiverge。Thestateisthedivinewill，inthesensethatitismindpresentonearth，unfoldingitselftobetheactualshapeandorganisationofaworld。Thosewhoinsistonstoppingattheformofreligion，asopposedtothestate，areactinglikethoselogicianswhothinktheyarerightiftheycontinuallystopattheessenceandrefusetoadvancebeyondthatabstractiontoexistence，orlikethosemoralists(seeRemarkto§140)whowillonlygoodintheabstractandleaveittocapricetodecidewhatisgood。ReligionisarelationtotheAbsolute，arelationwhichtakestheformoffeeling，representativethinking，faith；and，broughtwithinitsall-embracingcircumference，everythingbecomesonlyaccidentalandtransient。Nowif，inrelationtothestate，weclingtothisformofexperienceandmakeittheauthorityforthestateanditsessentialdeterminant，thestatemustbecomeapreytoweakness，insecurity，anddisorder，becauseitisanorganisminwhichfirmlyfixeddistinctpowers，laws，andinstitutionshavebeendeveloped。Incontrastwiththeformofreligion，aformwhichdrawsaveilovereverythingdeterminate，andsocomestobepurelysubjective，theobjectiveanduniversalelementinthestate，i。e。thelaws，acquiresanegativeinsteadofastableandauthoritativecharacter，andtheresultistheproductionofmaximsofconductlikethefollowing:"Totherighteousmannolawisgiven；onlybepious，andfortherest，practisewhatthouwilt；yieldtothineowncapriceandpassion，andiftherebyotherssufferwrong，commendthemtotheconsolationsandhopesofreligion，orbetterstill，callthemirreligiousandcondemnthemtoperdition。"Thisnegativeattitude，however，maynotconfineitselftoaninnerdispositionandattitudeofmind；itmayturninsteadtotheoutsideworldandassertitsauthoritythere，andthenthereisanoutbreakofthereligiousfanaticismwhich，likefanaticisminpolitics，discardsallgovernmentandlegalorderasbarrierscrampingtheinnerlifeoftheheartandincompatiblewithitsinfinity，andatthesametimeproscribesprivateproperty，marriage，thetiesandworkinvolvedincivilsociety，&c。，&c。，asdegradingtoloveandthefreedomoffeeling。Butsinceeventhendecisionsmustsomehowbemadeforeverydaylifeandpractice，thesamedoctrinewhichwehadbefore(seeRemarkto§

140，wherewedealtgenerallywiththesubjectivityofthewillwhichknowsitselftobeabsolute)

turnsupagainhere，namelythatsubjectiveideas，i。e。opinionandcapriciousinclination，aretodothedeciding。

Incontrastwiththetruththusveiledbehindsubjectiveideasandfeelings，thegenuinetruthistheprodigioustransferoftheinnerintotheouter，thebuildingofreasonintotherealworld，andthishasbeenthetaskoftheworldduringthewholecourseofitshistory。Itisbyworkingatthistaskthatcivilisedmanhasactuallygivenreasonanembodimentinlawandgovernmentandachievedconsciousnessofthefact。Thosewho"seekguidancefromtheLord"andareassuredthatthewholetruthisdirectlypresentintheirunschooledopinions，failtoapplythemselvestothetaskofexaltingtheirsubjectivitytoconsciousnessofthetruthandtoknowledgeofdutyandobjectiveright。Theonlypossiblefruitsoftheirattitudearefolly，abomination，andthedemolitionofthewholeethicalorder，andthesefruitsmustinevitablybereapedifthereligiousdispositionholdsfirmlyandexclusivelytoitsintuitiveformandsoturnsagainsttherealworldandthetruthpresentinitintheformoftheuniversal，i。e。ofthelaws。Still，thereisnonecessityforthisdispositiontoturnoutwardandactualiseitselfinthisway。Withitsnegativestandpoint，itisofcoursealsoopentoittoremainsomethinginward，toaccommodateitselftogovernmentandlaw，andtoacquiesceinthesewithsneersandidlelongings，orwithasighofresignation。Itisnotstrengthbutweaknesswhichhasturnedreligiousfeelingnowadaysintopietyofapolemicalkind，whetherthepolemicbeConnectedwithsomegenuineneedorsimplywithunsatisfiedvanity。Insteadofsubduingone"sopinionsbythelabourofstudy，andsubjectingone"swilltodisciplineandsoelevatingittofreeobedience，thelineofleastresistanceistorenounceknowledgeofobjectivetruth。Alongthislinewemaypreserveafeelingofabjecthumilityandsoalsoofself-conceit，andclaimtohavereadytohandingodlinesseverythingrequisiteforseeingintotheheartoflawandgovernment，forpassingsentenceonthem，andlayingdownwhattheircharactershouldandmustbe；andofcourseifwetakethisline，thesourceofourclaimsisapiousheart，andtheyarethereforeinfallibleandunimpeachable，andtheupshotisthatsincewemakereligionthebasisofourintentionsandassertions，theycannotbecriticisedonthescoreoftheirshallownessortheirimmorality。

Butifreligionbereligionofagenuinekind，itdoesnotruncountertothestateinanegativeorpolemicalwaylikethekindjustdescribed。Itratherrecognisesthestateandupholdsit，andfurthermoreithasapositionandanexternalorganisationofitsown。Thepracticeofitsworshipconsistsinritualanddoctrinalinstruction，andforthispurposepossessionsandpropertyarerequired，aswellasindividualsdedicatedtotheserviceoftheflock。Therethusarisesarelationbetweenthestateandthechurch。Todeterminethisrelationisasimplematter。Inthenatureofthecase，thestatedischargesadutybyaffordingeveryassistanceandprotectiontothechurchinthefurtheranceofitsreligiousends；and，inaddition，sincereligionisanintegratingfactorinthestate，implantingasenseofunityinthedepthsofmen"sminds，thestateshouldevenrequireallitscitizenstobelongtoachurch-achurchisallthatcanbesaid，becausesincethecontentofaman"sfaithdependsonhisprivateideas，thestatecannotinterferewithit。Astatewhichisstrongbecauseitsorganisationismaturemaybeallthemoreliberalinthismatter；itmayentirelyoverlookdetailsofreligiouspracticewhichaffectit，andmayeventolerateasect(though，ofcourse，alldependsonitsnumbers)whichonreligiousgroundsdeclinestorecogniseevenitsdirectdutiestothestate。

Thereasonforthestate"sliberalattitudehereisthatitmakesoverthemembersofsuchsectstocivilsocietyanditslaws，andiscontentiftheyfulfiltheirdirectdutiestothestatepassively，forinstancebysuchmeansascommutationortheperformanceofadifferentservice。

Footnote:Quakers，Anabaptists，&c。，maybesaidtobeactivemembersonlyofcivilsociety，andtheymayberegardedasprivatepersonsstandinginmerelyprivaterelationstoothers。Evenwhenthispositionhasbeenallowedthem，theyhavebeenexemptedfromtakingtheoath。Theyfulfiltheirdirectdutiestothestateinapassiveway；oneofthemostimportantoftheseduties，thedefenceofthestateagainstitsenemies，theyrefuseoutrighttofulfil，andtheirrefusalmayperhapsbeadmittedprovidedtheyperformsomeotherserviceinstead。Tosectsofthiskind，thestate"sattitudeistolerationinthestrictsenseoftheword，becausesincetheydeclinetorecognisetheirdutytothestate，theymaynotclaimtherightsofcitizenship。Ononeoccasionwhentheabolitionoftheslave-tradewasbeingpressedwithgreatvigourintheAmericanCongress，amemberfromoneoftheSouthernStatesmadethestrikingretort:"Giveusourslaves，andyoumaykeepyourQuakers。"

Onlyifthestateisotherwisestrongcanitoverlookandsuffersuchanomalies，becauseitcanthenrelyprincipallyonthestrengthofcustomandtheinnerrationalityofitsinstitutionstodiminishandclosethegapbetweentheexistenceofanomaliesandthefullassertionofitsownstrictrights。ThustechnicallyitmayhavebeenrighttorefuseagrantofevencivilrightstotheJewsonthegroundthattheyshouldberegardedasbelongingnotmerelytoareligioussectbuttoaforeignrace。ButthefierceoutcryraisedagainsttheJews，fromthatpointofviewandothers，ignoresthefactthattheyare，aboveall，nien；andmanhood，sofarfrombeingameresuperficial，abstractquality(seeRemarkto§209)，isonthecontraryitselfthebasisofthefactthatwhatcivilrightsrouseintheirpossessorsisthefeelingofoneselfascountingincivilsocietyasapersonwithrights，andthisfeelingofself-hood，infiniteandfreefromallrestrictions，istherootfromwhichthedesiredsimilarityindispositionandwaysofthinkingcomesintobeing。ToexcludetheJewsfromrights，ontheotherhand，wouldratherbetoconfirmtheisolationwithwhichtheyhavebeenreproached-aresultforwhichthestaterefusingthemrightswouldbeblamableandreproachable，becausebysorefusing，itwouldmisunderstooditsownbasicprinciple，itsnatureasanobjectiveandpowerfulinstitution(comparetheendoftheRemarkto§268)。TheexclusionoftheJewsfromcivilrightsmaybesupposedtobearightofthehighestkindandmaybedemandedonthatground；butexperiencehasshownthatsotoexcludethemisthesilliestfolly，andthewayinwhichgovernmentsnowtreatthemhasproveditselftobebothprudentanddignified。

Remark:Butsincethechurchownspropertyandcarriesonbesidesthepracticeofworship，andsincethereforeitmusthavepeopleinitsservice，itforsakestheinnerfortheworldlylifeandthereforeentersthedomainofthestate，andeoipsocomesunderitslaws。Theoathandethicaltiesgenerally，likethemarriagebond，entailthatinnerpermeationandelevationofsentimentwhichacquiresitsdeepestconfirmationthroughreligion。Butsinceethicaltiesareinessencetieswithintheactualrationalorder，thefirstthingistoaffirmwithinthatordertherightswhichitinvolves。Confirmationoftheserightsbythechurchissecondaryandisonlytheinward，comparativelyabstract，sideofthematter。

Asfortheotherwaysinwhichanecclesiasticalcommuniongivesexpressiontoitself，sofarasdoctrineisconcernedtheinwardpreponderatesovertheoutwardtoagreaterextentthanisthecasewithactsofworshipandotherlinesofconductconnectedwiththese，inwhichthelegalsideatleastseemsatoncetobeamatterforthestate。(Itistrue，ofcourse，thatchurcheshavemanagedtoexempttheirministersandpropertyfromthepowerandjurisdictionofthestate，andtheyhaveevenarrogatedtothemselvesjurisdictionoverlaymenaswellinmattersinwhichreligionco-operates，suchasdivorceandthetakingoftheoath，&c。)Publiccontrolofactionsofthiskindisindeterminateinextent，butthisisduetothenatureofpubliccontrolitselfandobtainssimilarlyinpurelyciviltransactions(see§234)。Whenindividuals，holdingreligiousviewsincommon，formthemselvesintoachurch，aCorporation，theyfallunderthegeneralcontrolandoversightofthehigherstateofficials。Doctrineassuch，however，hasitsdomaininconscienceandfallswithintherightofthesubjectivefreedomofself-consciousness，thesphereoftheinnerlife，whichassuchisnotthedomainofthestate。Yetthestate，too，hasadoctrine，sinceitsorganisationandwhateverrightsandconstitutionareauthoritativewithinitexistessentiallyintheformofthoughtaslaw。Andsincethestateisnotamechanismbuttherationallifeofself-consciousfreedom，thesystemoftheethicalworld，itfollowsthatanessentialmomentintheactualstateisthementalattitudeofthecitizens，andsotheirconsciousnessoftheprincipleswhichthisattitudeimplies。Ontheotherhand，thedoctrineofthechurchisnotpurelyandsimplyaninwardconcernofconscience。Asdoctrineitisrathertheexpressionofsomething，infacttheexpressionofasubject-matterwhichismostcloselylinked，orevendirectlyconcerned，withethicalprinciplesandthelawoftheland。

Henceatthispointthepathsofchurchandstateeithercoincideordivergeatrightangles。Thedifferenceoftheirtwodomainsmaybepushedbythechurchintosheerantagonismsince，byregardingitselfasenshriningthecontentofreligionscontentwhichisabsolute-itmayclaimasitsportionmind，ingeneralandsothewholeethicalsphere，andconceivethestateasameremechanicalscaffoldingfortheattainmentofexternal，non-mental，ends。ItmaytakeitselftobetheKingdomofGod，oratleastastheroadtoitoritsvestibule，whileitregardsthestateasthekingdomofthisworld，i。e。ofthetransientandthefinite。Inaword，itmaythinkthatitisanendinitself，whilethestateisameremeans。Theseclaimsproducethedemand，inconnectionwithdoctrinalinstruction，thatthestateshouldnotonlyallowthechurchtodoasitlikeswithcompletefreedom，butthatitshouldpayunconditionalrespecttothechurch"sdoctrinesasdoctrines，whatevertheircharacter，becausetheirdeterminationissupposedtobethetaskofthechurchalone。Thechurchbasesthisclaimonthewidegroundthatthewholedomainofmind(Geist)isitsproperty。Butscienceandalltypesofknowledgealsohaveafootinginthatdomainand，likeachurch，theybuildthemselvesintoawholewithaguidingprincipleofitsown，and，withevenbetterjustification，mayregardthemselvesasoccupyingthepositionwhichthechurchclaims。Hencesciencealsomayinthesamewaydemandtobeindependentofthestate，whichisthensupposedtobeameremeanswiththetaskofprovidingforscienceasthoughsciencewereanendinitself。

Further，fordeterminingtherelationbetweenchurchandstate，itmakesnodifferencewhethertheleadersofcongregationsorindividualsordainedtotheserviceofthechurchfeelimpelledtowithdrawfromthestateandleadasortofsecludedlifeoftheirown，sothatonlytheotherchurchmembersaresubjecttothestate"scontrol，orwhethertheyremainwithinthestateexceptintheircapacityasecclesiastics，acapacitywhichtheytaketobebutonesideoftheirlife。themoststrikingthingaboutsucha-conceptionofthechurch"srelationtothestateisthatitimpliestheidea-thatthestate"sspecificfunctionconsistsinprotectingandsecuringeveryone"slife，property，andcaprice，insofarasthesedonotencroachuponthelife，property，andcapriceofothers。Thestatefromthispointofviewistreatedsimplyasanorganisationtosatisfymen"snecessities。Inthiswaytheelementofabsolutetruth，ofmindinitshigherdevelopment，isplaced，assubjectivereligiousfeelingortheoreticalscience，beyondthereachofthestate。Thestate，asthelaitypureandsimple，isconfinedtopayingitsrespectstothiselementandsoisentirelydeprivedofanystrictlyethicalcharacter。Nowitis，ofcourse，amatterofhistorythatintimesandunderconditionsofbarbarism，allhigherformsofintellectuallifehadtheirseatonlyinthechurch，whilethestatewasameremundaneruleofforce，caprice，andpassion。Atsuchtimesitwastheabstractoppositionofstateandchurchwhichwasthemainunderlyingprincipleofhistory(see§359)。ButitisfartooblindandshallowaproceedingtodeclarethatthissituationistheonewhichtrulycorrespondswiththeIdea。ThedevelopmentofthisIdeahasprovedthisrathertobethetruth，thatmind，asfreeandrational，isimplicitlyethical，whiletheIdeainitstruthisrationalityactualised；andthisitiswhichexistsasthestate。Further，thisIdeahasmadeitnolessclearlyevidentthattheethicaltruthinitispresenttoconsciousthoughtasacontentworkedupintotheformofuniversality，i。e。aslaw-inshort，thatthestateknowsitsaims，apprehendsandgivespracticalproofofthemwithaclear-

cutconsciousnessandinaccordancewithprinciples。Now，asIsaidearlier，religionhasthetruthasitsuniversalsubject-matter，butitpossessesitonlyasagivencontentwhichhasnotbeenapprehendedinitsfundamentalcharacteristicsasaresultofthinkingandtheuseofconcepts。

Similarly，therelationoftheindividualtothissubject-matterisanobligationgroundedonauthority，whilethe"witnessofhisownspiritandheart"，i。e。thatwhereinthemomentoffreedomresides，isfaithandfeeling。Itisphilosophicinsightwhichseesthatwhilechurchandstatedifferinform，theydonotstandopposedincontent，fortruthandrationalityarethecontentofboth。Thuswhenthechurchbeginstoteachdoctrines(thoughthereareandhavebeensomechurcheswitharitualonly，andothersinwhichritualisthechiefthing，whiledoctrineandamoreeducatedconsciousnessareonlysecondary)，andwhenthesedoctrinestouchonobjectiveprinciples，onthoughtsoftheethicalandtherational，"thentheirexpressioneoipsobringsthechurchintothedomainofthestate。Incontrastwiththechurch"sfaithandauthorityinmattersaffectingethicalprinciples，rightness，laws，institutions，incontrastwiththechurch"ssubjectiveconviction，thestateisthatwhichknows。Itsprincipleissuchthatitscontentisinessencenolongerclothedwiththeformoffeelingandfaithbutisdeterminatethought。

Ifthecontentofabsolutetruthappearsintheformofreligionasaparticularcontent，i。e。asthedoctrinespeculiartothechurchasareligiouscommunity，thenthesedoctrinesremainoutofthereachofthestate(inProtestantismtheyareoutofthereachofprieststoobecause，asthereisnolaitythere，sothereisnopriesthoodtobeanexclusivedepositoryofchurchdoctrine)。Sinceethicalprinciplesandtheorganisationofthestateingeneralaredrawnintothedomainofreligionandnotonlymay，butalsoshould，beestablishedbyreferencethereto，thisreferencegivesreligiouscredentialstothestateitself。Ontheotherhand，however，thestateretainstherightandtheformofself-conscious，objective，rationality，therighttomakethisformcountandtomaintainitagainstpretensionsspringingfromtruthinasubjectivedress，nomatterhowsuchtruthmaygirdleitselfwithcertitudeandauthority。

Thestateisuniversalinform，aformwhoseessentialprincipleisthought。Thisexplainswhyitwasinthestatethatfreedomofthoughtandsciencehadtheirorigin。Itwasachurch，ontheotherhand，whichburntGiordanoBruno，forcedGalileotorecantonhiskneeshisexpositionoftheCopernicanviewofthesolarsystem，andsoforth。

Footnote:WhenGalileopublishedthediscoveries"aboutthephasesofVenus，&c。，whichhehadmadewiththeaidofthetelescope，"heshowedthattheyincontestablyprovedthemotionoftheearth。ButthisideaofthemotionoftheearthwasdeclaredhereticalbyanassemblyofCardinals，andGalileo，itsmostfamousadvocate，washaledbeforetheInquisitionandcompelledtorecantit，underpainofsevereimprisonment。Oneofthestrongestofpassionsistheloveoftruthinamanofgenius……Convincedofthemotionoftheearthasaresultofhisownobservations，Galileomeditatedalongwhileonanewworkinwhichhehadresolvedtodevelopalltheproofsinitsfavour。Butinorderatthesametimetoescapefromthepersecutionofwhichotherwisehewouldinevitablyhavebeenthevictim，hehituponthedeviceofexpoundingthemintheformofdialoguesbetweenthreespeakers……ItisobviousenoughinthemthattheadvantagelieswiththeadvocateoftheCopernicansystem；butsinceGalileodidnotdecidebetweenthespeakers，andgaveasmuchweightaspossibletotheobjectionsraisedbythepartisansofPtolemy，hemightwellhaveexpectedtobelefttoenjoyundisturbedthepeacetowhichhisadvancedageandhislabourshadentitledhim……InhisseventiethyearhewashaledoncemorebeforethetribunaloftheInquisition……Hewasimprisonedandrequiredtorecanthisopinionsasecondtimeunderthreatofthepenaltyfixedforarelapseintoheresy……Hewasmadetosignanabjurationinthefollowingterms:“I，Galileo，appearinginpersonbeforethecourtinmyseventiethyear，kneeling，andwithmyeyesontheholyGospelswhichIholdinmyhands，abjure，damn，andexecratewithmywholeheartandtruebelieftheabsurd，false，andhereticaldoctrineofthemotionoftheearth……”Whataspectacle！Anaged，venerableman，famousthroughoutalonglifeexclusivelydevotedtothestudyofnature，abjuringonhisknees，againstthewitnessofhisownconscience，thetruthwhichhehaddemonstratedsoconvincingly！BythejudgementoftheInquisitionhewascondemnedtoperpetualimprisonment。AyearlaterhewassetatlibertythroughtheintercessionoftheGrandDukeofFlorence……Hediedin1642……Europemournedhisloss。Ithadbeenenlightenedbyhislaboursandwasexasperatedbythejudgementpassedbyadetestedtribunalonamanofhisgreatness。"(Laplace:Expositiondusystèmedumonde，BookV，chap。4。)

Remark:Sciencetoo，therefore，hasitsplaceonthesideofthestatesinceithasoneelement，itsform，incommonwiththestate，anditsaimisknowledge，knowledgeofobjectivetruthandrationalityintermsofthought。Suchknowledgemay，ofcourse，fallfromtheheightsofscienceintoopinionanddeductiveargumentation，and，turningitsattentiontoethicalmattersandtheorganisationofthestate，setitselfagainsttheirbasicprinciples。Anditmayperhapsdothiswhilemakingforthisopiningasifitwerereasonandtherightofsubjectiveself-consciousness-thesamepretentiousclaimasthechurchmakesforitsownsphere，theclaim，namely，tobefreefromrestraintinitsopinionsandconvictions。

Thisprincipleofthesubjectivityofknowinghasbeendealtwithabove(seeRemarkto§140)-Itishereonlynecessarytoaddanoteonthetwofoldattitudeofthestatetothisopining。Ontheonehand，insofarasopiningismereopining，apurelysubjectivematter，itiswithoutanygenuineinherentforceorpower，plumeitselfasitmay；andfromthispointofviewthestatemaybeastotallyindifferenttoitasthepainterwhostickstothethreeprimarycoloursonhispaletteisindifferenttotheacademicwisdomwhichtellshimthereareseven。Ontheotherhand，however，whenthisopiningofbadprinciplesembodiesitselfinageneralorganisationcorrosiveoftheactualorder，thestatehastosetitsfaceagainstitandprotectobjectivetruthandtheprinciplesofethicallife(anditmustdothesameinfaceoftheformulaeofunconditionedsubjectivityifthesehaveproposedtotakethestartingpointofscienceastheirbasis，andturnstateeducationalinstitutionsagainstthestatebyencouragingthemtomakeagainstitclaimsaspretentiousasthoseofachurch)；while，viceversa，infaceofachurchclaimingunrestrictedandunconditionalauthority，thestatehasingeneraltomakegoodtheformalrightofself-consciousnesstoitsowninsight，itsownconviction，and，inshort，itsownthoughtofwhatistoholdgoodasobjectivetruth。

Mentionmayalsobemadeofthe"unityofstateandchurch"-afavouritetopicofmoderndiscussionandheldupbysomeasthehighestofideals。Whilestateandchurchareessentiallyoneintruthofprincipleanddisposition，itisnolessessentialthat，despitethisunity，thedistinctionbetweentheirformsofconsciousnessshouldbeexternalisedasadistinctionbetweentheirspecialmodesofexistence。Thisoftendesiredunityofchurchandstateisfoundunderorientaldespotisms，butanorientaldespotismisnotastate，oratanyratenottheself-consciousformofstatewhichisaloneworthyofmind，theformwhichisorganicallydevelopedandwheretherearerightsandafreeethicallife。

Further，ifthestateistocomeintoexistenceastheself-knowingethicalactualityofmind，itisessentialthatitsformshouldbedistinctfromthatofauthorityandfaith。Butthisdistinctionemergesonlyinsofarasthechurchissubjectedtoinwarddivisions。Itisonlythereafterthatthestate，incontrastwiththeparticularsects，hasattainedtouniversalityofthought-itsformalprinciple-andisbringingthisuniversalityintoexistence。(Inordertounderstandthis，itisnecessarytoknownotonlywhatuniversalityisinitself，butalsowhatitsexistenceis。Hencesofarfromitsbeingoritshavingbeenamisfortuneforthestatethatthechurchisdisunited，itisonlyasaresultofthatdisunionthatthestatehasbeenabletoreachitsappointedendasaself-consciouslyrationalandethicalorganisation。Moreover，thisdisunionisthebestpieceofgoodfortunewhichcouldhavebefalleneitherthechurchorthoughtsofarasthefreedomandrationalityofeitherisconcerned)。

Addition:Thestateisactual，anditsactualityconsistsinthis，thattheinterestofthewholeisrealisedinandthroughparticularends。Actualityisalwaystheunityofuniversalandparticular，theuniversaldismemberedintheparticularswhichseemtobeself-subsistent，althoughtheyreallyareupheldandcontainedonlyinthewhole。Wherethisunityisnotpresent，athingisnotactualeventhoughitmayhaveacquiredexistence。Abadstateisonewhichmerelyexists；asickbodyexiststoo，butithasnogenuinereality。Ahandwhichiscutoffstilllookslikeahand，anditexists，butwithoutbeingactual。Genuineactualityisnecessity；whatisactualisinherentlynecessary。

Necessityconsistsinthis，thatthewholeissunderedintothedifferencesoftheconceptandthatthisdividedwholeyieldsafixedandpermanentdeterminacy，thoughonewhichisnotfossilisedbutperpetuallyrecreatesitselfinitsdissolution。

Toamaturestatethoughtandconsciousnessessentiallybelong。Thereforethestateknowswhatitwillsandknowsitassomethingthought。Nowsinceknowinghasitsseatinthestate，theseatofsciencemustbetheretooandnotinthechurch。Despitethis，itisoftensaidnowadaysthatthestatemustgrowoutofreligion。Thestateismindfullymatureanditexhibitsitsmomentsinthedaylightofconsciousness。NowthefactthatwhatishiddenintheIdeastepsforthintoobjectiveexistencegivesthestatetheappearanceofsomethingfinite，andsothestaterevealsitselfasadomainofworldliness，whilereligiondisplaysitselfasadomainoftheinfinite。Ifthisbeso，thestateseemstobethesubordinate，andsincewhatisfinitecannotstandonitsownfeet，thestateisthereforesaidtoneedthechurchasitsbasis。Asfinite，itlacksjustification，anditisonlythroughreligionthatitcanbecomesacrosanctandpertaintotheinfinite。Thishandlingofthematter，however，issupremelyone-sided。Ofcoursethestateisessentiallyworldlyandfinite；ithasparticularendsandparticularpowers；butitsworldlycharacterisonlyoneofitsaspects，anditisonlytoanunintelligentsuperficialglancethatitisfiniteandnothingmore。Forthestatehasalife-givingsoul，andthesoulwhichanimatesitissubjectivity，whichcreatesdifferencesandyetatthesametimeholdsthemtogetherinunity。Intherealmofreligiontootherearedistinctionsandlimitations。God，itissaid，istriune；thustherearethreepersonswhoseunityaloneisSpirit(Geist)。

ThereforetoapprehendthenatureofGodconcretelyistoapprehenditthroughdistinctionsalone。

HenceinthekingdomofGodtherearelimitations，justasthereareintheworld，andtoholdthatmind(Geist)onearth，i。e。thestate，isonlyafinitemind，isaone-sidedview，sincethereisnothingirrationalaboutactuality。Ofcourseabadstateisworldlyandfiniteandnothingelse，buttherationalstateisinherentlyinfinite。

Secondly，itisaverredthatthestatemustdenyeitsjustificationfromreligion。Inreligion，theIdeaismindintheinwardnessoftheheart，butitisthissameIdeawhichgivesitselfaworldlyformasthestateandfashionsforitselfanembodimentandanactualityinknowingandwilling。Nowifyousaythatthestatemustbegroundedonreligion，youmaymeanthatitshouldrestonrationalityandariseoutofit；butyourstatementmayalsobemisunderstoodtomeanthatmenaremostadroitlyschooledtoobedienceiftheirmindsareshackledbyaslavishreligion。(TheChristianreligion，however，isthereligionoffreedom，thoughitmustbeadmittedthatthisreligionmaybecomechangedincharacterandpervertedfromfreedomtobondagewhenitisinfectedwithsuperstition。)Nowifyoumeanthatmenmusthavereligionsothattheirminds，alreadyshackled，maythemoreeasilybeoppressedbythestate，thenthepurportofyourstatementisbad。Butifyoumeanthatmenoughttorespectthestate，thiswholewhoselimbstheyare，thenofcoursethebestmeansofeffectingthisistogivethemphilosophicalinsightintotheessenceofthestate，though，indefaultofthat，areligiousframeofmindmayleadtothesameresult。Forthisreason，thestatemayhaveneedofreligionandfaith。Butthestateremainsessentiallydistinctfromreligion，sincewhateveritclaims，itclaimsintheformofalegalduty，anditisamatterofindifferencetoitinwhatspiritthatdutyisperformed。Thefieldofreligion，ontheotherhand，istheinnerlife，andjustasthestatewouldjeopardisetherightofthatlifeif，likereligion，itmadeclaimsonit，soalsowhenthechurchactslikeastateandimposespenalties，itdegeneratesintoareligionoftyranny。

Athirddifferencewhichisconnectedwiththeforegoingisthatthecontentofreligionisandremainsveiled，andconsequentlyreligion"splaceisinthefieldoftheheart，feeling，andrepresentativethinking。Inthisfieldeverythinghastheformofsubjectivity。Thestate，ontheotherhand，actualisesitselfandgivesitsspecificinstitutionsastable，objective，existence。Nowifreligiousfeelingwishedtoassertitselfinthestateinthesamewayasitiswonttodoinitsownfield，itwouldoverturntheorganisationofthestate，becausethedifferentorgansofthestatehavelatitudetopursuetheirseveraldistinctpaths，whileinreligioneverythingisalwaysreferredbacktothewhole。Ifthiswhole，then，wishedtoengulfalltheconcernsofthestate，thiswouldbetantamounttofanaticism；thewishtohavethewholeineveryparticularcouldbefulfilledonlybythedestructionoftheparticular，andfanaticismisjusttherefusaltogivescopetoparticulardifferences。Hencetosay:"Tothepiousmannolawisgiven"isnothingbutanexpressionofthissamefanaticism。Oncepietyusurpstheplaceofthestate，itcannottoleratethedeterminatebutsimplyshattersit。Itisquiteconsistentwiththisifpietyleavesdecisionstoconscience，totheinnerlife，andisnotgovernedbyreasons。Thisinnerlifedoesnotdevelopintoreasonedargumentorgiveanaccountofitself。Henceifpietyistopassfortheactualityofthestate，alllawsarecasttothewindsandsubjectivefeelingisthelegislator。Thisfeelingmaybepurecaprice，andwhetheritisornotcanonlybelearntfromitsactions。Butbybecomingactionsandprecepts，itsactionsassumetheguiseoflaws，andthisisjusttheveryoppositeofthesubjectivefeelingwithwhichwestarted。ThisfeelinghasGodforitsobject，andwemightmakehimthedeterminantofeverything。

ButGodistheuniversalIdeaandthisfeelingcanregardhimonlyastheindeterminate，whichistooimmaturetodeterminewhatisexistentinthestateinadevelopedform。Itispreciselythefactthateverythinginthestateisfixedandsecurewhichisthebulwarkagainstcapriceanddogmaticopinion。Religionassuch，then，oughtnottobethegovernor。

§271。

Theconstitutionofthestateis，inthefirstplace，theorganisationofthestateandtheself-relatedprocessofitsorganiclife，aprocesswherebyitdifferentiatesitsmomentswithinitselfanddevelopsthemtoself-subsistence。Secondly，thestateisanindividual，uniqueandexclusive，andthereforerelatedtoothers。Thusitturnsitsdifferentiatingactivityoutwardandaccordinglyestablisheswithinitselftheidealityofitssubsistinginwarddifferentiations。

Addition:Justasirritabilityinthelivingorganismisitselffromonepointofviewsomethinginward，somethingpertainingtotheorganismassuch，sohereagaintheoutwardreferenceisaninwardtendency。Theinnersideofthestateassuchisthecivilpower，whileitsoutwardtendencyisthemilitarypower，althoughthishasafixedplaceinsidethestateitself。Nowtohaveboththesepowersinequilibriumconstitutesanimportantfactorinthespiritofthestate。Sometimesthecivilpoweriswhollyeffacedandrestsentirelyonthemilitarypower，aswasthecase，forinstance，inthetimeoftheRomanEmperorsandthePraetorians。Atothertimes，nowadaysforexample，themilitarypowerisamereby-productofthecivilpoweronceallthecitizensareconscriptable。

1。TheConstitution(onitsinternalsideonly)

2。Sovereigntyvis-à-visforeignStatesB。InternationalLaw§330。

Internationallawspringsfromtherelationsbetweenautonomousstates。Itisforthisreasonthatwhatisabsoluteinitretainstheformofanought-to-be，sinceitsactualitydependsondifferentwillseachofwhichissovereign。

Addition:Statesarenotprivatepersonsbutcompletelyautonomoustotalitiesinthemselves，andsotherelationbetweenthemdiffersfromamoralrelationandarelationinvolvingprivaterights。Attemptshaveoftenbeenmadetoregardthestateasapersonwiththerightsofpersonsandasamoralentity。Butthepositionwithprivatepersonsisthattheyareunderthejurisdictionofacourtwhichgiveseffecttowhatisrightinprinciple。Nowarelationbetweenstatesoughtalsotoberightinprinciple，butinmundaneaffairsaprincipleoughtalsotohavepower。Nowsincethereisnopowerinexistencewhichdecidesinfaceofthestatewhatisrightinprincipleandactualisesthisdecision，itfollowsthatsofarasinternationalrelationsareconcernedwecannevergetbeyondan"ought"。Therelationbetweenstatesisarelationbetweenautonomousentitieswhichmakemutualstipulationsbutwhichatthesametimearesuperiortothesestipulations。

§331。

Thenationstateismindinitssubstantiverationalityandimmediateactualityandisthereforetheabsolutepoweronearth。Itfollowsthateverystateissovereignandautonomousagainstitsneighbours。Itisentitledinthefirstplaceandwithoutqualificationtobesovereignfromtheirpointofview，i。e。toberecognisedbythemassovereign。Atthesametime，however，thistitleispurelyformal，andthedemandforthisrecognitionofthestate，merelyonthegroundthatitisastate，isabstract。Whetherastateisinfactsomethingabsolutedependsonitscontent，i。e。

onitsconstitutionandgeneralsituation；andrecognition，implyingasitdoesanidentityofbothformandcontent，isconditionalontheneighbouringstate"sjudgementandwill。

Remark:Astateisaslittleanactualindividualwithoutrelationstootherstates(see§322)asanindividualisactuallyapersonwithoutrapportwithotherpersons(see§71andelsewhere)。

Theauthorityofastateand，moreparticularly，sofarasitsforeignrelationsareconcerned，ofitsmonarchalso，ispartlyapurelydomesticmatter(onestateshouldnotmeddlewiththedomesticaffairsofanother)。Ontheotherhand，however，itisnolessessentialthatthisauthorityshouldreceiveitsfullandfinallegitimationthroughitsrecognitionbyotherstates，althoughthisrecognitionrequirestobesafeguardedbytheprovisothatwhereastateistoberecognisedbyothers，itshalllikewiserecognisethem，i。e。respecttheirautonomy；andsoitcomesaboutthattheycannotbeindifferenttoeachother"sdomesticaffairs。

Thequestionariseshowfaranomadicpeople，forinstance，oranypeopleonalowlevelofcivilisation，canberegardedasastate。AsoncewasthecasewiththeJewsandtheMohammedanpeoples，religiousviewsmayentailanoppositionatahigherlevelbetweenonepeopleanditsneighboursandsoprecludethegeneralidentitywhichisrequisiteforrecognition。

Addition:WhenNapoleonsaidbeforethePeaceofCampoformiothat"theFrenchRepublicneedsrecognitionaslittleasthesunrequiresit"，whathiswordsimpliedwassimplythething"sstrengthwhichcarrieswithit，withoutanyverbalexpression，theguaranteeofrecognition。

§332。

Theimmediateactualitywhichanystatepossessesfromthepointofviewofotherstatesisparticularisedintoamultiplicityofrelationswhicharedeterminedbythearbitrarywillofbothautonomouspartiesandwhichthereforepossesstheformalnatureofcontractspureandsimple。Thesubject-matterofthesecontracts，however，isinfinitelylessvariedthanitisincivilsociety，becauseincivilsocietyindividualsarereciprocallyinterdependentinthemostnumerousrespects，whileautonomousstatesareprincipallywholeswhoseneedsaremetwithintheirownborders。

§333。

Thefundamentalpropositionofinternationallaw(i。e。theuniversallawwhichoughttobeabsolutelyvalidbetweenstates，asdistinguishedfromtheparticularcontentofpositivetreaties)isthattreaties，asthegroundofobligationsbetweenstates，oughttobekept。Butsincethesovereigntyofastateistheprincipleofitsrelationstoothers，statesaretothatextentinastateofnatureinrelationtoeachother。Theirrightsareactualisedonlyintheirparticularwillsandnotinauniversalwillwithconstitutionalpowersoverthem。Thisuniversalprovisoofinternationallawthereforedoesnotgobeyondanought-to-be，andwhatreallyhappensisthatinternationalrelationsinaccordancewithtreatyalternatewiththeseveranceoftheserelations。

Remark:ThereisnoPraetortojudgebetweenstates；atbesttheremaybeanarbitratororamediator，andevenheexerciseshisfunctionscontingentlyonly，i。e。independenceontheparticularwillsofthedisputants。Kanthadanideaforsecuring"perpetualpeace"byaLeagueofNationstoadjusteverydispute。Itwastobeapowerrecognisedbyeachindividualstate，andwastoarbitrateinallcasesofdissensioninordertomakeitimpossiblefordisputantstoresorttowarinordertosettlethem。Thisideapresupposesanaccordbetweenstates；thiswouldrestonmoralorreligiousorothergroundsandconsiderations，butinanycasewouldalwaysdependultimatelyonaparticularsovereignwillandforthatreasonwouldremaininfectedwithcontingency。

§334。

Itfollowsthatifstatesdisagreeandtheirparticularwillscannotbeharmonised，themattercanonlybesettledbywar。Astatethroughitssubjectshaswidespreadconnectionsandmany-sidedinterests，andthesemaybereadilyandconsiderablyinjured；butitremainsinherentlyindeterminablewhichoftheseinjuriesistoberegardedasaspecificbreachoftreatyorasaninjurytothehonourandautonomyofthestate。Thereasonforthisisthatastatemayregarditsinfinityandhonourasatstakeineachofitsconcerns，howeverminute，anditisallthemoreinclinedtosusceptibilitytoinjurythemoreitsstrongindividualityisimpelledasaresultoflongdomesticpeacetoseekandcreateasphereofactivityabroad。

§335。

Apartfromthis，thestateisinessencemindandthereforecannotbepreparedtostopatjusttakingnoticeofaninjuryafterithasactuallyoccurred。Onthecontrary，therearisesinadditionasacauseofstrifetheideaofsuchaninjuryastheideaofadangerthreateningfromanotherstate，togetherwithcalculationsofdegreesofprobabilityonthissideandthat，guessingatintentions，&c。，&c。

§336。

Sincestatesarerelatedtooneanotherasautonomousentitiesandsoasparticularwillsonwhichtheveryvalidityoftreatiesdepends，andsincetheparticularwillofthewholeisincontentawillforitsownwelfarepureandsimple，itfollowsthatwelfareisthehighestlawgoverningtherelationofonestatetoanother。ThisisallthemorethecasesincetheIdeaofthestateispreciselythesupersessionoftheclashbetweenright(i。e。emptyabstractfreedom)andwelfare(i。e。theparticularcontentwhichfillsthatvoid)，anditiswhenstatesbecomeconcretewholesthattheyfirstattainrecognition(see§331)。

§337。

Thesubstantialwelfareofthestateisitswelfareasaparticularstateinitsspecificinterestandsituationanditsnolessspecialforeignaffairs，includingitsparticulartreatyrelations……Itsgovernmentthereforeisamatterofparticularwisdom，notofuniversalProvidence(compareRemarkto§324)。Similarly，itsaiminrelationtootherstatesanditsprincipleforjustifyingwarsandtreatiesisnotauniversalthought(thethoughtofphilanthropy)butonlyitsactuallyinjuredorthreatenedwelfareassomethingspecific。andpeculiartoitself。

Remark:Atonetimetheoppositionbetweenmoralsandpolitics，andthedemandthatthelattershouldconformtotheformer，weremuchcanvassed。Onthispointonlyageneralremarkisrequiredhere。Thewelfareofastatehasclaimstorecognitiontotallydifferentfromthoseofthewelfareoftheindividual。Theethicalsubstance，thestate，hasitsdeterminatebeing，i。e。itsright，directlyembodiedinsomethingexistent，somethingnotabstractbutconcrete，andtheprincipleofitsconductandbehaviourcanonlybethisconcreteexistentandnotoneofthemanyuniversalthoughtssupposedtobemoralcommands。Whenpoliticsisallegedtoclashwithmoralsandsotobealwayswrong，thedoctrinepropoundedrestsonsuperficialideasaboutmorality，thenatureofthestate，andthestate"srelationtothemoralpointofview。

§338。

Thefactthatstatesreciprocallyrecogniseeachotherasstatesremains，eveninwar—thestateofaffairswhenrightsdisappearandforceandchanceholdsway—abondwhereineachcountstotherestassomethingabsolute。Henceinwar，waritselfischaracterisedassomethingwhichoughttopassaway。Itimpliesthereforetheprovisoof，thejusgentium—thatthepossibilityofpeaceberetained(andso，forexample，thatenvoysmustberespected)，and，ingeneral，thatwarbenotwagedagainstdomesticinstitutions，againstthepeaceoffamilyandprivatelife，oragainstpersonsintheirprivatecapacity。

Addition:Modernwarsarethereforehumanelywaged，andpersonisnotsetoveragainstpersoninhatred。Atmost，personalenmitiesappearinthevanguard，butinthemainbodyofthearmyhostilityissomethingvagueandgivesplacetoeachside"srespectforthedutyoftheother。

§339。

Apartfromthis，relationsbetweenstates(e。g。inwar-time，reciprocalagreementsabouttakingprisoners；inpeace-time，concessionsofrightstosubjectsofotherstatesforthepurposeofprivatetradeandintercourse，&c。)dependprincipallyuponthecustomsofnations，custombeingtheinneruniversalityofbehaviourmaintainedinallcircumstances。

Addition:TheEuropeanpeoplesformafamilyinaccordancewiththeuniversalprincipleunderlyingtheirlegalcodes，theircustoms，andtheircivilisation。Thisprinciplehasmodifiedtheirinternationalconductaccordinglyinastateofaffairs[i。e。war]otherwisedominatedbythemutualinflictionofevils。Therelationsofstatetostateareuncertain，andthereisnoPraetoravailabletoadjustthem。Theonlyhigherjudgeistheuniversalabsolutemind，theworldmind。

§340。

Itisasparticularentitiesthatstatesenterintorelationswithoneanother。Hencetheirrelationsareonthelargestscaleamaelstromofexternalcontingencyandtheinnerparticularityofpassions，privateinterestsandselfishends，abilitiesandvirtues，vices，force，andwrong。Allthesewhirltogether，andintheirvortextheethicalwholeitself，theautonomyofthestate，isexposedtocontingency。Theprinciplesofthenationalmindsarewhollyrestrictedonaccountoftheirparticularity，foritisinthisparticularitythat，asexistentindividuals，theyhavetheirobjectiveactualityandtheirself-consciousness。Theirdeedsanddestiniesintheirreciprocalrelationstooneanotherarethedialecticofthefinitudeoftheseminds，andoutofitarisestheuniversalmind，themindoftheworld，freefromallrestriction，producingitselfasthatwhichexercisesitsright—anditsrightisthehighestrightofall—overthesefinitemindsinthe"historyoftheworldwhichistheworld"scourtofjudgement"。

C。WorldHistory§341。

Theelementinwhichtheuniversalmindexistsinartisintuitionandimagery，inreligionfeelingandrepresentativethinking，inphilosophypurefreedomofthought。Inworldhistorythiselementistheactualityofmindinitswholecompassofinternalityandexternalityalike。Worldhistoryisacourtofjudgementbecauseinitsabsoluteuniversality，theparticular-i。e。thePenates，civilsociety，andthenationalmindsintheirvariegatedactualityispresentasonlyideal，andthemovementofmindinthiselementistheexhibitionofthatfact。

§342。

Further，worldhistoryisnottheverdictofmeremight，i。e。theabstractandnon-rationalinevitabilityofablinddestiny。Onthecontrary，sincemindisimplicitlyandactuallyreason，andreasonisexplicittoitselfinmindasknowledge，worldhistoryisthenecessarydevelopment，outoftheconceptofmind"sfreedomalone，ofthemomentsofreasonandsooftheself-consciousnessandfreedomofmind。Thisdevelopmentistheinterpretationandactualisationoftheuniversalmind。

§343。

Thehistoryofmindisitsownact。Mindisonlywhatitdoes，anditsactistomakeitselftheobjectofitsownconsciousness。Inhistoryitsactistogainconsciousnessofitselfasmind，toapprehenditselfinitsinterpretationofitselftoitself。Thisapprehensionisitsbeinganditsprinciple，andthecompletionofapprehensionatonestageisatthesametimetherejectionofthatstageanditstransitiontoahigher。Touseabstractphraseology，themindapprehendingthisapprehensionanew，orinotherwordsreturningtoitselfagainoutofitsrejectionofthislowerstageofapprehension，isthemindofthestagehigherthanthatonwhichitstoodinitsearlierapprehension。

Remark:ThequestionoftheperfectibilityandEducationoftheHumanRaceariseshere。

Thosewhohavemaintainedthisperfectibilityhavedivinedsomethingofthenatureofmind，somethingofthefactthatitisitsnaturetohavegnothiseantonasthelawofitsbeing，and，sinceitapprehendsthatwhichitis，tohaveaformhigherthanthatwhichconstituteditsmerebeing。Buttothosewhorejectthisdoctrine，mindhasremainedanemptyword，andhistoryasuperficialplayofcasual，so-called"merelyhuman"，strivingsandpassions。Evenif，inconnectionwithhistory，theyspeakofProvidenceandtheplanofProvidence，andsoexpressafaithinahigherpower，theirideasremainemptybecausetheyexpresslydeclarethatforthemtheplanofProvidenceisinscrutableandincomprehensible。

§344。

Inthecourseofthisworkoftheworldmind，states，nations，andindividualsariseanimatedbytheirparticulardeterminateprinciplewhichhasitsinterpretationandactualityintheirconstitutionsandinthewholerangeoftheirlifeandcondition。

Whiletheirconsciousnessislimitedtotheseandtheyareabsorbedintheirmundaneinterests，theyareallthetimetheunconscioustoolsandorgansoftheworldmindatworkwithinthem。Theshapeswhichtheytakepassaway，whiletheabsolutemindpreparesandworksoutitstransitiontoitsnexthigherstage。

§345。

Justiceandvirtue，wrongdoing，powerandvice，talentsandtheirachievements，passionsstrongandweak，guiltandinnocence，grandeurinindividualandnationallife，autonomy，fortuneandmisfortuneofstatesandindividuals，allthesehavetheirspecificsignificanceandworthinthefieldofknownactuality；thereintheyarejudgedandthereintheyhavetheirpartial，thoughonlypartialjustification。

World-history，however，isabovethepointofviewfromwhichthesethingsmatter。EachofitsstagesisthepresenceofanecessarymomentintheIdeaoftheworldmind，andthatmomentattainsitsabsoluterightinthatstage。Thenationwhoselifeembodiesthismomentsecuresitsgoodfortuneandfame，anditsdeedsarebroughttofruition。

§346。

Historyismindclothingitselfwiththeformofeventsortheimmediateactualityofnature。Thestagesofitsdevelopmentarethereforepresentedasimmediatenaturalprinciples。These，becausetheyarenatural，areapluralityexternaltooneanother，andtheyarepresentthereforeinsuchawaythateachofthemisassignedtoonenationintheexternalformofitsgeographicalandanthropologicalconditions。

§347。

ThenationtowhichisascribedamomentoftheIdeaintheformofanaturalprincipleisentrustedwithgivingcompleteeffecttoitintheadvanceoftheself-developingself-consciousnessoftheworldmind。Thisnationisdominantinworldhistoryduringthisoneepoch，anditisonlyonce(see§345)thatitcanmakeitshourstrike。Incontrastwiththisitsabsoluterightofbeingthevehicleofthispresentstageintheworldmind"sdevelopment，themindsoftheothernationsarewithoutrights，andthey，alongwiththosewhosehourhasstruckalready，countnolongerinworldhistory。

Remark:Thehistoryofasingleworld-historicalnationcontains(a)thedevelopmentofitsprinciplefromitslatentembryonicstageuntilitblossomsintotheself-consciousfreedomofethicallifeandpressesinuponworldhistory；and(b)theperiodofitsdeclineandfall，sinceitisitsdeclineandfallthatsignalisestheemergenceinitofahigherprincipleasthepurenegativeofitsown。Whenthishappens，mindpassesoverintothenewprincipleandsomarksoutanothernationforworld-historicalsignificance。Afterthisperiod，thedecliningnationhaslosttheinterestoftheabsolute；itmayindeedabsorbthehigherprinciplepositivelyandbeginbuildingitslifeonit，buttheprincipleisonlylikeanadoptedchild，notlikearelativetowhomitstiesareimmanentlyvitalandvigorous。Perhapsitlosesitsautonomy，oritmaystillexist，ordragoutitsexistence，asaparticularstateoragroupofstatesandinvolveitselfwithoutrhymeorreasoninmanifoldenterprisesathomeandbattlesabroad。

§348。

Allactions，includingworld-historicalactions，culminatewithindividualsassubjectsgivingactualitytothesubstantial(seeRemarkto§279)。Theyarethelivinginstrumentsofwhatisinsubstancethedeedoftheworldmindandtheyarethereforedirectlyatonewiththatdeedthoughitisconcealedfromthemandisnottheiraimandobject(see§344)。Forthedeedsoftheworldmind，therefore，theyreceivenohonourorthankseitherfromtheircontemporaries(see§344)orfrompublicopinioninlaterages。Allthatisvouchsafedtothembysuchopinionisundyingfameinrespectofthesubjectiveformoftheiracts。

§349。

Anationdoesnotbeginbybeingastate。Thetransitionfromafamily，ahorde，aclan，amultitude，&c。，topoliticalconditionsistherealisationoftheIdeaintheformofthatnation。Withoutthisform，anation，as—anethicalsubstance—

whichiswhatitisimplicitly，lackstheobjectivityofpossessinginitsowneyesandintheeyesofothers，auniversalanduniversallyvalidembodimentinlaws，i。e。indeterminatethoughts，andasaresultitfailstosecurerecognitionfromothers。Solongasitlacksobjectivelawandanexplicitlyestablishedrationalconstitution，itsautonomyisformalonlyandisnotsovereignty。

Remark:Itwouldbecontraryeventocommonplaceideastocallpatriarchalconditionsa"constitution"orapeopleunderpatriarchalgovernmentastate"oritsindependence"sovereignty"。

Hence，beforehistoryactuallybegins，wehaveontheonehanddullinnocence，devoidofinterest，and，ontheother，thecourageofrevengeandofthestruggleforformalrecognition(see§331

andRemarkto§57)

§350。

ItistheabsoluterightoftheIdeatostepintoexistenceinclear-cutlawsandobjectiveinstitutions，beginningwithmarriageandagriculture(seeRemarkto§

203)，whetherthisrightbeactualisedintheformofdivinelegislationandfavour，orintheformofforceandwrong。Thisrightistherightofheroestofoundstates。

§351。

Thesameconsiderationjustifiescivilisednationsinregardingandtreatingasbarbariansthosewholagbehindthemininstitutionswhicharetheessentialmomentsofthestate。Thusapastoralpeoplemaytreathuntersasbarbarians，andbothofthesearebarbariansfromthepointofviewofagriculturists，&c。Thecivilisednationisconsciousthattherightsofbarbariansareunequaltoitsownandtreatstheirautonomyasonlyaformality。

Remark:Whenwarsanddisputesariseinsuchcircumstances，thetraitwhichgivesthemasignificanceforworldhistoryisthefactthattheyamstrugglesforrecognitioninconnectionwithsomethingofspecificintrinsicworth。

§352。

TheconcreteIdeas，themindsofthenations，havetheirtruthandtheirdestinyintheconcreteIdeawhichisabsoluteuniversality，i。e。intheworldmind。Arounditsthronetheystandastheexecutorsofitsactualisationandassignsandornamentsofitsgrandeur。Asmind，itisnothingbutitsactivemovementtowardsabsoluteknowledgeofitselfandthereforetowardsfreeingitsconsciousnessfromtheformofnaturalimmediacyandsocomingtoitself。Thereforetheprinciplesoftheformationsofthisself-consciousnessinthecourseofitsliberation-theworld-historicalrealms-arefourinnumber。

§353。

Initsfirstandimmediaterevelation，mindhasasitsprincipletheshapeofthesubstantialmind，i。e。theshapeoftheidentityinwhichindividualityisabsorbedinitsessenceanditsclaimsarenotexplicitlyrecognised。

Thesecondprincipleisthissubstantialmindendowedwithknowledgesothatmindisboththepositivecontentandfillingofmindandalsotheindividualself-awarenesswhichisthelivingformofmind。Thisprincipleisethicalindividualityasbeauty。

Thethirdprincipleistheinwarddeepeningofthisindividualself-awarenessandknowledgeuntilitreachesabstractuniversalityandthereforeinfiniteoppositiontotheobjectiveworldwhichinthesameprocesshasbecomemind-forsaken。

Theprincipleofthefourthformationistheconversionofthisoppositionsothatmindreceivesinitsinnerlifeitstruthandconcreteessence，whileinobjectivityitisathomeandreconciledwithitself。Themindwhichhasthusrevertedtothesubstantialitywithwhichitbeganisthemindwhichhasreturnedoutoftheinfiniteopposition，andwhichconsequentlyengendersandknowsthisitstruthasthoughtandasaworldofactuallaws。

§354。

Inaccordancewiththesefourprinciples，theworld-historicalrealmsarethefollowing:(1)theOriental，(2)theGreek，(3)theRoman，(4)theGermanic。

§355。

(1)TheOrientalrealm。

Theworld-viewofthisfirstrealmissubstantial，withoutinwarddivision，anditarisesinnaturalcommunitiespatriarchicallygoverned。Accordingtothisview，themundaneformofgovernmentistheocratic，therulerisalsoahighpriestorGodhimself；constitutionandlegislationareatthesametimereligion，whilereligiousandmoralcommands，orusagesrather，areatthesametimenaturalandpositivelaw。Inthemagnificenceofthisr6gimeasawhole，individualpersonalitylosesitsrightsandperishes；theexternalworldofnatureiseitherdirectlydivineorelseGod"sornament，andthehistoryoftheactualispoetry。Distinctionsaredevelopedincustoms，government，andstateontheirmanysides，andindefaultoflawsandamidstthesimplicityofmanners，theybecomeunwieldy，diffuse，andsuperstitiousceremonies，theaccidentsofpersonalpowerandarbitraryrule，andclassdifferencesbecomecrystallisedintohereditarycastes。HenceintheOrientalstatenothingisfixed，andwhatisstableisfossilised；itlivesthereforeonlyinanoutwardmovementwhichbecomesintheendanelementalfuryanddesolation。

Itsinnercalmismerelythecalmofnon-politicallifeandimmersioninfeeblenessandexhaustion。

Remark:Astillsubstantial，natural，mentalityisamomentinthedevelopmentofthestate，andthepointatwhichanystatetakesthisformistheabsolutebeginningofitshistory。ThishasbeenemphasisedanddemonstratedwithlearningandprofoundinsightinconnectionwiththehistoryofparticularstatesbyDr。StuhrinhisbookDerUntergang。derNaturstaaten-workinwhichheleadsthewaytoarationaltreatmentofconstitutionalhistoryandofhistorygenerally。Theprincipleofsubjectivityandself-consciousfreedomistheretooshowntobetheprincipleoftheGermanicpeople，butthebookgoesnofurtherthanthedeclineofnaturalstates，andconsequentlytheprincipleisonlybroughttothepointwhereitappearseitherasarestlessmobility，ashumancapriceandcorruption，orinitsparticularformasemotion，andwhereithasnotyetdevelopedtotheobjectivityoftheself-conscioussubstantialityortoanorganisedlegalsystem。

§356。

(2)TheGreekrealm。

Thisrealmpossessesthissubstantialunityoffiniteandinfinite，butonlyasamysteriousbackground，suppressedindimrecessesofthememory，incavesandtraditionalimagery。Thisbackground，rebornoutofthemindwhichdifferentiatesitselftoindividualmentality，emergesintothedaylightofknowingandistemperedandtransfiguredintobeautyandafreeandunruffledethicallife。Henceitisinaworldofthischaracterthattheprincipleofpersonalindividualityarises，thoughitisstillnotself-enclosedbutkeptinitsidealunity。Theresultisthatthewholeisdividedintoagroupofparticularnationalminds；ultimatedecisionisascribednottothesubjectivityofexplicitlyindependentself-consciousnessbuttoapowerstandingaboveandoutsideit(seeRemarkto§279)；ontheotherhand，theduesatisfactionofparticularneedsisnotyetcomprisedinthesphereoffreedombutisrelegatedexclusivelytoaclassofslaves。

§357。

(3)TheRomanrealm。

Inthisrealm，differentiationiscarriedtoitsconclusion，andethicallifeissunderedwithoutendintotheextremesoftheprivateself-consciousnessofpersonsontheonehand，andabstractuniversalityontheother。Thisoppositionbeginsintheclashbetweenthesubstantialintuitionofanaristocracyandtheprincipleoffreepersonalityindemocraticform。Astheoppositiongrows，thefirstoftheseopponentsdevelopsintosuperstitionandthemaintenanceofheartlessself-seekingpower，whilethesecondbecomesmoreandmorecorruptuntilitsinksintoarabble。Finally，thewholeisdissolvedandtheresultisuniversalmisfortuneandthedestructionofethicallife。NationalheroesdieawayintotheunityofaPantheon，allindividualsaredegradedtothelevelofprivatepersonsequalwithoneanother，possessedofformalrights，andtheonlybondlefttoholdthemtogetherisabstractinsatiableself-will。

§358。

(4)TheGermanicrealm。

Mindanditsworldarethusbothalikelostandplungedintheinfinitegriefofthatfateforwhichapeople，theJewishpeople，washeldinreadiness。Mindisherepressedbackuponitselfintheextremeofitsabsolutenegativity。Thisistheabsoluteturningpoint；mindrisesoutofthissituationandgraspstheinfinitepositivityofthisitsinwardcharacter，i。e。itgraspstheprincipleoftheunityofthedivinenatureandthehuman，thereconciliationofobjectivetruthandfreedomasthetruthandfreedomappearingwithinself-consciousnessandsubjectivity，areconciliationwiththefulfilmentofwhichtheprincipleofthenorth，theprincipleoftheGermanicpeoples，hasbeenentrusted。

§359。

Thisprincipleisfirstofallinwardandabstract；itexistsinfeelingasfaith，love，andhope，thereconciliationandresolutionofallcontradiction。Itthendisclosesitscontent，raisingittobecomeactualityandself-consciousrationality，tobecomeamundanerealmproceedingfromtheheart，fidelity，andcomradeshipoffreemen，arealmwhichinthisitssubjectivityisequallyarealmofcrudeindividualcapriceandbarbarousmanners。Thisrealmitsetsoveragainstaworldofbeyond，anintellectualrealm，whosecontentisindeedthetruthofits(theprinciple"s)mind，butatruthnotyetthoughtandsostillveiledinbarbarousimagery。Thisworldofbeyond，asthepowerofmindoverthemundaneheart，actsagainstthelatterasacompulsiveandfrightfulforce。

§360。

ThesetworealmsstanddistinguishedfromoneanotherthoughatthesametimetheyarerootedinasingleunityandIdea。Heretheirdistinctionisintensifiedtoabsoluteoppositionandasternstruggleensuesinthecourseofwhichtherealmofmindlowerstheplaceofitsheaventoanearthlyhereandnow，toacommonworldlinessoffactandidea。Themundanerealm，ontheotherhand，buildsupitsabstractindependenceintothoughtandtheprincipleofrationalbeingandknowing，i。e。intotherationalityofrightandlaw。Inthiswaytheiroppositionimplicitlylosesitsmarrowanddisappears。Therealmoffacthasdiscardeditsbarbarityandunrighteous，caprice，whiletherealmoftruthhasabandonedtheworldofbeyondanditsarbitraryforce，sothatthetruereconciliationwhichdisclosesthestateastheimageandactualityofreasonhasbecomeobjective。Inthestate，self-consciousnessfindsinanorganicdevelopmenttheactualityofitssubstantiveknowingandwilling；inreligion，itfindsthefeelingandtherepresentationofthisitsowntruthasanidealessentiality；whileinphilosophicscience，itfindsthefreecomprehensionandknowledgeofthistruthasoneandthesameinitsmutuallycomplementarymanifestations，i。e。inthestate，innature，andintheidealworld。

TheEnd