第6章

§214。

Butapartfrombeingappliedtoparticularinstances，rightbybeingembodiedinpositivelawbecomesapplicabletothesinglecase。Henceitentersthespherewherequantity，nottheconcept，istheprincipleofdetermination。Thisisthesphereofthequantitativeassuch，ofthequantitativeasthatwhichdeterminestherelativevalueinexchangeofqualia。Inthissphere，theconceptmerelylaysdownagenerallimit，withinwhichvacillationisstillallowed。Thisvacillationmustbeterminated，however，intheinterestofgettingsomethingdone，andforthisreasonthereisaplacewithinthatlimitforcontingentandarbitrarydecisions。

Remark:Thepurelypositivesideoflawlieschieflyinthisfocusingoftheuniversalnotmerelyonaparticularinstance，butonanisolatedcase，i。e。initsdirectapplication。Reasoncannotdetermine，norcantheconceptprovideanyprinciplewhoseapplicationcoulddecidewhetherjusticerequiresforanoffence(i)acorporalpunishmentoffortylashesorthirty-nine，or(ii)afineoffivedollarsorfourdollarsninety-three，four，&c。，cents，or(iii)imprisonmentofayearorthreehundredandsixty-four，three，&c。，days，orayearandone，two，orthreedays。Andyetinjusticeisdoneatonceifthereisonelashtoomany，oronedollaroronecent，oneweekinprisonoroneday，toomanyortoofew。

Reasonitselfrequiresustorecognisethatcontingency，contradiction，andshowhaveasphereandarightoftheirown，restrictedthoughitbe，anditisirrationaltostrivetoresolveandrectifycontradictionswithinthatsphere。Heretheonlyinterestpresentisthatsomethingbeactuallydone，thatthematterbesettledanddecidedsomehow，nomatterhow(withinacertainlimit)。Thisdecisionpertainstoabstractsubjectivity，toformalself-certainty，whichmaydecideeitherbysimplyholdingtoitspower(withinthatlimit)ofsettlingthematterbymerelyterminatingdeliberationandtherebydismissingitoutofhand，orelsebyadoptingsomereasonfordecisionsuchaskeepingtoroundnumbersoralwaysadopting，saythirty-nine。

Itistruethatthelawdoesnotsettletheseultimatedecisionsrequiredbyactuallife；itleavestheminsteadtothejudge”sdiscretion，merelylimitinghimbyamaximumandminimum。Butthisdoesnotaffectthepointatissue，becausethemaximumandminimumarethemselvesineveryinstanceonlyroundnumbersoncemore。Tofixthem，therefore，doesnotexemptthejudgefrommakingafinite，purelypositive，decision，sinceonthecontrarysuchadecisionisstilllefttohimbythenecessitiesofthecase。

Addition:Thereisoneessentialelementinlawandtheadministrationofjusticewhichcontainsameasureofcontingencyandwhicharisesfromthefactthatthelawisauniversalprescriptionwhichhastobeappliedtothesinglecase。Ifyouwishedtodeclareyourselfagainstthiscontingency，youwouldbetalkinginabstractions。Themeasureofaman”spunishment，forexample，cannotbemadeequivalenttoanydeterminationoftheconceptofpunishment，andthedecisionmade，whateveritbe，isfromthispointofviewarbitraryalways。Butthiscontingencyisitselfnecessary，andifyouargueagainsthavingacodeatallonthegroundthatanycodeisincomplete，youareoverlookingjustthatelementoflawinwhichcompletionisnottobeachievedandwhichthereforemustjustbeacceptedasitstands。

(b)Lawdeterminatelyexistent§215。

Iflawsaretohaveabindingforce，itfollowsthat，inviewoftherightofself-consciousness(see§132andtheRemarkthereto)theymustbemadeuniversallyknown。

Remark:Tohangthelawssohighthatnocitizencouldreadthem(asDionysiustheTyrantdid)

isinjusticeofoneandthesamekindastoburytheminrowuponrowoflearnedtomes，collectionsofdissentingjudgmentsandopinions，recordsofcustoms，&c。，andinadeadlanguagetoo，sothatknowledgeofthelawofthelandisaccessibleonlytothosewhohavemadeittheirprofessionalstudy。Rulerswhohavegivenanationallawtotheirpeoplesintheformofawell-arrangedandclear-cutlegalcodeorevenamereformlesscollectionoflaws，likeJustinian”s—havebeenthegreatestbenefactorsoftheirpeoplesandhavereceivedthanksandpraisefortheirbeneficence。Butthetruthisthattheirworkwasatthesametimeagreatactofjustice。

Addition:Thelegalprofession，possessedofaspecialknowledgeofthelaw，oftenclaimsthisknowledgeasitsmonopolyandrefusestoallowanylaymantodiscussthesubject。PhysicistssimilarlyhavetakenamissGoethe”stheoryaboutcoloursbecausehedidnotbelongtotheircraftandwasapoetintothebargain。Butwedonotneedtobeshoemakerstoknowifourshoesfit，andjustaslittlehaveweanyneedtobeprofessionalstoacquireknowledgeofmattersofuniversalinterest。Lawisconcernedwithfreedom，theworthiestandholiestthinginman，thethingmanmustknowifitistohaveobligatoryforceforhim。

§216。

Forapubliclegalcode，simplegenerallawsarerequired，andyetthenatureofthefinitematerialtowhichlawisappliedleadstothefurtherdeterminingofgenerallawsadinfinitum。Ontheonehand，thelawoughttobeacomprehensivewhole，closedandcomplete；andyet，ontheotherhand，theneedforfurtherdeterminationsiscontinual。Butsincethisantinomyarisesonlywhenuniversalprinciples，whichremainfixedandunchanged，areappliedtoparticulartypesofcase，therighttoacompletelegalcoderemainsunimpaired，liketherightthatthesesimplegeneralprinciplesshouldbecapableofbeinglaiddownandunderstoodapartandindistinctionfromtheirapplicationtosuchparticulartypes。

Remark:Afruitfulsourceofcomplexityinlegislationisthegradualintrusionofreason，ofwhatisinherentlyandactuallyright，intoprimitiveinstitutionswhichhavesomethingwrongattheirrootsandsoarepurelyhistoricalsurvivals。ThisoccurredinRomanlaw，aswasremarkedabove(seeRemarkto§180)，inmedievalfeudallaw，&c。Itisessentialtonotice，however，thattheverynatureofthefinitematerialtowhichlawisappliednecessarilyentailsaninfiniteprogressintheapplicationtoitofprinciplesuniversalinthemselvesandinherentlyandactuallyrational。

Itismisunderstandingwhichhasgivenrisealiketothedemand—amorbidcravingofGermanscholarschiefly—thatalegalcodeshouldbesomethingabsolutelycomplete，incapableofanyfreshdeterminationindetail，andalsototheargumentthatbecauseacodeisincapableofsuchcompletion，thereforeweoughtnottoproducesomething‘incomplete”，i。e。weoughtnottoproduceacodeatall。Themisunderstandingrestsinbothcasesonamisconceptionofthenatureofafinitesubject-matterlikeprivatelaw，whoseso-called‘completeness”isaperennialapproximationtocompleteness，onamisconceptionofthedifferencesbetweentheuniversalofreasonandtheuniversaloftheUnderstanding，andalsointheapplicationofthelattertothematerialoffinitudeandatomicitywhichgoesonforever。—LeplusgrandennemiduBien，c”estleMeilleuristheutteranceoftruecommonsenseagainstthecommonsenseofidleargumentationandabstractreflection。

Addition:Completenessmeanstheexhaustivecollectionofeverysinglething，pertainingtoagivenfield，andnoscienceorbranchofknowledgecanbecompleteinthissense。Now。ifwesaythatphilosophyoranyoneofthesciencesisincomplete，wearenotfarfromholdingthatwemustwaituntilthedeficiencyismadeup，sincethebestpartmaystillbewanting。Buttakeupthisattitudeandadvanceisimpossible，eitheringeometry，whichseemstobeaclosedsciencealthoughnewpropositionsdoarise，orinphilosophy，whichisalwayscapableoffreshnessindetaileventhoughitssubjectistheuniversalIdea。Inthepast，theuniversallawalwaysconsistedofthetencommandments；nowwecanseeatoncethatnottolaydownthelaw‘Thoushaltnotkill”，onthegroundthatalegalcodecannotbecomplete，isanobviousabsurdity。Anycodecouldbestillbetter—noeffortofreflectionisrequiredtojustifythisaffirmation；wecanthinkofthebest，finest，andnoblestasstillbetter，finer，andnobler。Butabigoldtreeputsforthmoreandmorebrancheswithouttherebybecominganewtree；thoughitwouldbesillytorefusetoplantatreeatallsimplybecauseitmightproducenewbranches。

§217。

Theprincipleofrightnesspassesoverincivilsocietyintolaw。Myindividualright，whoseembodimenthashithertobeenimmediateandabstract，nowsimilarlybecomesembodiedintheexistentwillandknowledgeofeveryone，inthesensethatitbecomesrecognised。Hencepropertyacquisitionsandtransfersmustnowbeundertakenandconcludedonlyintheformwhichthatembodimentgivestothem。Incivilsociety，propertyrestsoncontractandontheformalitieswhichmakeownershipcapableofproofandvalidinlaw。

Remark:Original，i。e。direct，titlesandmeansofacquisition(see§§54ff。)aresimplydiscardedincivilsocietyandappearonlyasisolatedaccidentsorassubordinatedfactorsofpropertytransactions。Itiseitherfeeling，refusingtomovebeyondthesubjective，orreflection，clingingtoitsabstractessences，whichcastsformalitiesaside，whilethedry-as-dustUnderstandingmayforitspartclingtoformalitiesinsteadoftherealthingandmultiplythemindefinitely。

Apartfromthis，however，themarchofmentaldevelopmentisthelongandhardstruggletofreeacontentfromitssensuousandimmediateform，endowitwithitsappropriateformofthought，andtherebygiveitsimpleandadequateexpression。Itisbecausethisisthecasethatwhenthedevelopmentoflawisjustbeginning，ceremoniesandformalitiesaremorecircumstantialandcountratherasthethingitselfthanasitssymbol。ThuseveninRomanlaw，anumberofformsandespeciallyphraseswereretainedfromold-fashionedceremonialusages，insteadofbeingreplacedbyintelligibleformsandphrasesadequatelyexpressingthem。

Addition:Lawandtherightareidenticalinthesensethatwhatisimplicitlyrightispositedinthelaw。Ipossesssomething，ownaproperty，whichIoccupiedwhenitwasownerless。Thispossessionmustnowfurtherberecognisedandpositedasmine。Henceincivilsocietyformalitiesariseinconnectionwithproperty。Boundarystonesareerectedasasymbolforotherstorecognise。Entriesaremadeinmortgageandpropertyregisters。Mostpropertyincivilsocietyisheldoncontract，andcontractualformsarefixedanddeterminate。Nowwemayhaveanantipathytoformalitiesofthiskindandwemaysupposethattheyonlyexisttobringinmoneytotheauthorities；wemayevenregardthemassomethingoffensiveandasignofmistrustbecausetheyimpairthevalidityofthesaying:‘Amanisasgoodashisword。”Buttheformalityisessentialbecausewhatisinherentlyrightmustalsobepositedasright。Mywillisarationalwill；ithasvalidity，anditsvalidityshouldberecognisedbyothers。Atthispoint，then，mysubjectivityandthatofothersmustbesetasideandthewillmustachievethesecurity，stability，andobjectivitywhichcanbeattainedonlythroughsuchformalities。

§218。

Sincepropertyandpersonalityhavelegalrecognitionandvalidityincivilsociety，wrongdoingnowbecomesaninfringement，notmerelyofwhatissubjectivelyinfinite，butoftheuniversalthingwhichisexistentwithinherentstabilityandstrength。Henceanewattitudearises:theactionisseenasadangertosocietyandtherebythemagnitudeofthewrongdoingisincreased。Ontheotherhand，however，thefactthatsocietyhasbecomestrongandsureofitselfdiminishestheexternalimportanceoftheinjuryandsoleadstoamitigationofitspunishment。

Remark:Thefactthataninjurytoonememberofsocietyisaninjurytoallothersdoesnotaltertheconceptionofwrongdoing，butitdoesalteritinrespectofitsoutwardexistenceasaninjurydone，aninjurywhichnowaffectsthemindandconsciousnessofcivilsocietyasawhole，notmerelytheexternalembodimentofthepersondirectlyinjured。Inheroictimes，asweseeinthetragedyoftheancients，thecitizensdidnotfeelthemselvesinjuredbywrongswhichmembersoftheroyalhousesdidtooneanother。

Implicitly，crimeisaninfinite，injury；butasanexistentfactitmustbemeasuredinquantityandquality(see§96)，andsinceitsfieldofexistenceherehastheessentialcharacterofaffectinganideaandconsciousnessofthevalidityofthelaws，itsdangertocivilsocietyisadeterminantofthemagnitudeofacrime，orevenoneofitsqualitativecharacteristics。

Nowthisqualityormagnitudevarieswiththestateofcivilsociety；andthisisthejustificationforsometimesattachingthepenaltyofdeathtoatheftofafewpenceoraturnip，andatothertimesalightpenaltytoatheftofahundredormoretimesthatamount。Ifweconsideritsdangertosociety，thisseemsatfirstsighttoaggravatethecrime；butinfactitisjustthiswhichhasbeentheprimecauseofthemitigationofitspunishment。Apenalcode，then，isprimarilythechildofitsageandthestateofcivilsocietyatthetime。

Addition:Itseemstobeacontradictionthatacrimecommittedinsocietyappearsmoreheinousandyetispunishedmoreleniently。Butwhileitwouldbeimpossibleforsocietytoleaveacrimeunpunished，sincethatwouldbetoposititasright，stillsincesocietyissureofitself，acrimemustalwaysbesomethingidiosyncraticincomparison，somethingunstableandexceptional。Theverystabilityofsocietygivesacrimethestatusofsomethingpurelysubjectivewhichseemstobetheproductratherofnaturalimpulsethanofaprudentwill。Inthislight，crimeacquiresamilderstatus，andforthisreasonitspunishmenttoobecomesmilder。Ifsocietyisstillinternallyweak，thenanexamplemustbemadebyinflictingpunishments，sincepunishmentisitselfanexampleoveragainsttheexampleofcrime。Butinasocietywhichisinternallystrong，thecommissionofcrimeissomethingsofeeblethatitsannulmentmustbecommensurablewithitsfeebleness。Harshpunishments，therefore，arenotunjustinandbythemselves；theyarerelatedtocontemporaryconditions。Acriminalcodecannotholdgoodforalltime，andcrimesareonlyshowsofrealitywhichmaydrawonthemselvesagreaterorlesserdegreeofdisavowal。

(c)TheCourtofJustice§219。

Bytakingtheformoflaw，rightstepsintoadeterminatemodeofbeing。Itisthensomethingonitsownaccount，andincontrastwithparticularwillingandopiningoftheright，itisself-subsistentandhastovindicateitselfassomethinguniversal。，Thisisachievedbyrecognisingitandmakingitactualinaparticularcasewithoutthesubjectivefeelingofprivateinterest；andthisisthebusinessofapublicauthority—thecourtofjustice。

Remark:Thehistoricaloriginofthejudgeandhiscourtmayhavehadtheformofapatriarch”sgifttohispeopleorofforceorfreechoice；butthismakesnodifferencetotheconceptofthething。Toregardtheintroductionofalegalsystemasnomorethananoptionalactofgraceorfavouronthepartofmonarchsandgovernments(asHerrvonHallerdoesinhisRestaurationderStaatswissenschaft)isapieceofthemerethoughtlessnesswhichhasnoinklingofthepointatissueinadiscussionoflawandthestate。Thepointisthatlegalandpoliticalinstitutionsarerationalinprincipleandthereforeabsolutelynecessary，andthequestionoftheforminwhichtheyaroseorwereintroducedisentirelyirrelevanttoaconsiderationoftheirrationalbasis。

AttheotherextremefromHerrvonHaller”spointofviewisthebarbarousnationthattheadministrationofjusticeisnow，asitwasinthedayswhenmightwasright，animproperexerciseofforce，asuppressionoffreedom，andadespotism。Theadministrationofjusticemustberegardedasthefulfilmentofadutybythepublicauthority，nolessthanastheexerciseofaright；

andsofarasitisaright，itdoesnotdependuponanoptionaldelegationtooneauthoritybytheindividualmembersofsociety。

§220。

Whentherightagainstcrimehastheformofrevenge(see§102)，itisonlyrightimplicit，notrightintheformofright，i。e。noactofrevengeisjustified。Insteadoftheinjuredparty，theinjureduniversalnowcomesonthescene，andthishasitsproperactualityinthecourtoflaw。Ittakesoverthepursuitandtheavengingofcrime，andthispursuitconsequentlyceasestobethesubjectiveandcontingentretributionofrevengeandistransformedintothegenuinereconciliationofrightwithitself，i。e。intopunishment。Objectively，thisisthereconciliationofthelawwithitself；bytheannulmentofthecrime，thelawisrestoredanditsauthorityistherebyactualised。Subjectively，itisthereconciliationofthecriminalwithhimself，i。e。withthelawknownbyhimashisownandasvalidforhimandhisprotection；whenthislawisexecuteduponhim，hehimselffindsinthisprocessthesatisfactionofjusticeandnothingsavehisownact。

§221。

Amemberofcivilsocietyhastherightinjudiciostareand，correspondingly，thedutyofacknowledgingthejurisdictionofthecourtandacceptingitsdecisionasfinalwhenhisownrightsareindispute。

Addition:Sinceanyindividualhastherightinjudiciostare，hemustalsoknowwhatthelawisorotherwisethisprivilegewouldbeuselesstohim。Butitisalsohisdutytostandhistrial。Underthefeudalsystem，thenoblesoftenrefusedtostandtheirtrial。Theydefiedthecourtandallegedthatthecourtwaswrongtodemandtheirappearance。Feudalconditions，however，contravenedtheveryideaofacourt。Nowadaysmonarchshavetorecognisethejurisdictionofthecourtintheirprivateaffairs，andinfreestatestheycommonlylosetheircase。

§222。

Incourtthespecificcharacterwhichrightnessacquiresisthatitmustbedemonstrable。Whenpartiesgotolaw，theyareputinthepositionofhavingtomakegoodtheirevidenceandtheirclaimsandtomakethejudgeacquaintedwiththefacts。Thesestepsinalegalprocessarethemselvesrights，andtheircoursemustthereforebefixedbylaw。Theyalsoconstituteanessentialpartofjurisprudence。

Addition:Amanmaybeindignantifarightwhichheknowshehasisrefusedhimbecausehecannotproveit。ButifIhavearight，itmustatthesametimebearightpositedinlaw。Imustbeabletoexplainandproveit，anditsvaliditycanonlyberecognisedinsocietyifitsrightnessinprincipleisalsomadeapositedrightnessinlaw。

§223。

Thesestepsinalegalprocessaresubdividedcontinuallywithinnofixedlimitsintomoreandmoreactions，eachbeingdistinctinitselfandaright。Hencealegalprocess，in，itselfinanycaseameans，nowbeginstobesomethingexternaltoitsendandcontrastedwithit。Thislongcourseofformalitiesisarightofthepartiesatlawandtheyhavetherighttotraverseitfrombeginningtoend。Still，itmaybeturnedintoanevil，andevenaninstrumentofwrong，andforthisreasonitisbylawmadethedutyofthepartiestosubmitthemselvestothesimpleprocessofarbitration(beforeatribunalofarbitrators)andtotheattempttoreconciletheirdifferencesoutofcourt，inorderthatthey—andrightitself，asthesubstanceofthethingandsothethingreallyatissuemaybeprotectedagainstlegalprocessesandtheirmisuse。

Remark:Equityinvolvesadeparturefromformalrightsowingtomoralorotherconsiderationsandisconcernedprimarilywiththecontentofthelawsuit。Acourtofequity，however，comestomeanacourtwhichdecidesinasinglecasewithoutinsistingontheformalitiesofalegalprocessor，inparticular，ontheobjectiveevidencewhichtheletterofthelawmayrequire。Further，itdecidesonthemeritsofthesinglecaseasauniqueone，notwithaviewtodisposingofitinsuchawayastocreateabindinglegalprecedentforthefuture。

§224。

Amongsttherightsofthesubjectiveconsciousnessarenotonlythepublicationofthelaws(see§215)butalsothepossibilityofascertainingtheactualisationofthelawinaparticularcase(thecourseoftheproceedings，thelegalargument，&c。)

—i。e。thepublicityofjudicialproceedings。Thereasonforthisisthatatrialisimplicitlyaneventofuniversalvalidity，andalthoughtheparticularcontentoftheactionaffectstheinterestsofthepartiesalone，itsuniversalcontent，i。e。therightatissueandthejudgmentthereon，affectstheinterestsofeverybody。

Remark:Ifthemembersofthebenchdeliberateamongstthemselvesaboutthejudgmentwhichtheyaretodeliver，suchdeliberationsexpressopinionsandviewsstillpersonalandsonaturallyarenotpublic。

Addition:Itisstraightforwardcommonsensetoholdthatthepublicityoflegalproceedingsisrightandjust。Astrongreasonagainstsuchpublicityhasalwaysbeentherankofjustices；theyareunwillingtositinpublicandtheyregardthemselvesasasanctuaryoflawwhichlaymenarenottoenter。Butanintegralpartofjusticeistheconfidencewhichcitizenshaveinit，anditisthiswhichrequiresthatproceedingsshallbepublic。Therightofpublicitydependsonthefactthat(i)theaimofthecourtisjustice，whichasuniversalfallsunderthecognisanceofeveryone，and(ii)itisthroughpublicitythatthecitizensbecomeconvincedthatthejudgmentwasactuallyjust。

§225。

Bythejudgmentofthecourt，thelawisappliedtoasinglecase，andtheworkofjudgmenthastwodistinctaspects:first，ascertainmentofthenatureofthecaseasaunique，single，occurrence(e。g。whetheracontract，&c。，&c。，hasbeenmade，whetheratrespasshasbeencommitted，andifsobywhom)and，incriminalcases，reflectiontodeterminetheessential，criminal，—characterofthedeed(seeRemarkto§119)；secondly，thesubsumptionofthecaseunderthelawthatrightmustberestored。Punishmentincriminalcasesisaconceptionfallingunderthislaw。Decisionsonthesetwodifferentaspectsaregivenbydifferentfunctionaries。

Remark:IntheRomanjudicialsystem，thisdistinctionoffunctionsappearedinthatthePraetorpronouncedjudgmentontheassumptionthatthefactsweresoandso，andthenappointedaspecialjudextoinquireintothefacts。

InEnglishlaw，itislefttotheinsightoroptionoftheprosecutortodeterminetheprecisecharacterofacriminalact(e。g。whetheritismurderormanslaughter)andthecourtispowerlesstoaltertheindictmentifitfindstheprosecutor”schoicewrong。

§226。

First，theconductoftheentireprocessofinquiry，secondly，thedetailedstagesoftheactionbetweentheparties(thesestagesthemselvesbeingrights—see§222)，andthenalsothesecondoftheaspectsoftheworkofjudgmentmentionedinthepreviousParagraph，areallataskwhichproperlybelongstothejudgeatlaw。Heistheorganofthelaw，andthecasemustbe‘preparedforhiminsuchawayastomakepossibleitssubsumptionfoundersomeprinciple；thatistosay，itmustbestrippedofits。apparent，empirical，characterandexaltedintoarecognisedfactofageneraltype。

§227。

Thefirstaspectoftheworkofjudgment，i。e。theknowledgeofthefactsofthecaseasaunique，single，occurrence，andthedescriptionofitsgeneralcharacter，involvesinitselfnopronouncementonpointsoflaw。Thisisknowledgeattainablebyanyeducatedman。Insettlingthecharacterofanaction，thesubjectivemoment，i。e。theagent”sinsightandintention(seetheSecondPart)，istheessentialthing；andapartfromthis，theproofdependsnotonobjectsofreasonorabstractionsoftheUnderstanding，butonlyonsingledetailsandcircumstances，objectsofsensuousintuitionandsubjectivecertainty，andthereforedoesnotcontaininitselfanyabsolute，objective，probativefactor。Itfollowsthatjudgmentonthefactsliesinthelastresortwithsubjectiveconvictionandconscience(animisententia)，whiletheproof，restingasitdoesonthestatementsandaffidavitsofothers，receivesitsfinalthoughpurelysubjectiveverificationfromtheoath。

Remark:Inthismatteritisofthefirstimportancetofixoureyesonthetypeofproofhereinquestionandtodistinguishitfromknowledgeandproofofanothersort。Toestablishbyproofarationalcategory，liketheconceptofrightitself，meanstoapprehenditsnecessity，andsodemandsamethodotherthanthatrequisitefortheproofofageometricaltheorem。Further，inthislattercase，thefigureisdeterminedbytheUnderstandingandmadeabstractinadvanceaccordingtoarule。Butinthecaseofsomethingempiricalincontent，likeafact，thematerialofknowledgeisagivensensuousintuitionandsubjectivesense-certainty，andstatementsandaffidavitsaboutsuchmaterial。Itisthenaquestionofdrawingconclusionsandputtingtwoandtwotogetheroutofdepositionsofthatkind，attestationsandotherdetails，&c。Theobjectivetruthwhichemergesfrommaterialofthiskindandthemethodappropriatetoitleads，whenattemptsaremadetodetermineitrigidlyandobjectively，tohalf-proofsandthen，byfurthersinceredeductionsfromthese—deductionswhichatthesametimeinvolveformalillogicality—toextraordinarypunishments。”ButsuchobjectivetruthmeanssomethingquitedifferentfromthetruthofarationalcategoryorapropositionwhosecontenttheUnderstandinghasdeterminedforitselfabstractlyinadvance。Toshowthat，sincethestrictlylegalcharacterofacourtcoverscompetencetoascertainthissortoftruthaboutempiricalevents，ittherebyproperlyqualifiesacourtforthistaskandsogivesitaninherentexclusiverighttoperformitandlaysonitthenecessityofperformingit—thatisthebestapproachtosettlingthequestionofhowfardecisionsonpointsoffact，aswellasonpointsoflaw，shouldbeascribedtocourtsasstrictlyjuristicbodies。

Addition:Nogroundscanbeadducedforsupposingthatthejudge，i。e。thelegalexpert，shouldbetheonlypersontoestablishhowthefactslie，forabilitytodosodependsongeneral，notonpurelylegal，education。Determinationofthefactsofthecasedependsonempiricaldetails，ondepositionsaboutwhathappened，andonsimilarperceptualdata，oragainonfactsfromwhichinferencescanbedrawnaboutthedeedinquestionandwhichmakeitprobableorimprobable。

Herethen，itisanassurancewhichshouldberequired，nottruthinthehighersenseinwhichitisalwayssomethingeternal。Heresuchassuranceissubjectiveconviction，orconscience，andtheproblemis:Whatformshouldthisassurancetakeinacourtoflaw?Thedemand，commonlymadeinGermanlaw，thatacriminalshouldconfesshisguilt，hasthistobesaidforit，thattherightofself-consciousnesstherebyattainsameasureofsatisfaction；consciousnessmustchimeinwiththejudge”ssentence，anditisonlywhenthecriminalhasconfessedthatthejudgmentlosesitsaliencharactersofarasheisconcerned。Butadifficultyariseshere，becausethecriminalmaylie，andtheinterestofjusticemaybejeopardised。If，ontheotherhand，thesubjectiveconvictionofthejudgeistoholdgood，somehardshipisoncemoreinvolved，becausetheaccusedisnolongerbeingtreatedasafreeman。Nowthemiddletermbetweentheseextremesistrialbyjury，whichmeetsthedemandthatthedeclarationofguiltorinnocenceshallspringfromthesouloftheaccused。

§228。

Whenjudgmentispronounced—sofarasthefunctionofjudgmentisthesubsumptionunderthelawofthecasewhosenaturehasbeensettled—therightduetothepartiesonthescoreoftheirself-consciousnessispreservedinrelationtothelawbecausethelawisknownandsoisthelawofthepartiesthemselves，andinrelationtothesubsumption，becausethetrialispublic。Butwhenaverdictisgivenontheparticular，subjective，andexternalfactsofthecase(knowledgeofwhichfallsunderthefirstoftheaspectsdescribedin§225)，thisrightissatisfiedbytheconfidencewhichthepartiesfeelinthesubjectivityofthosewhogivetheverdict。Thisconfidenceisbasedprimarilyonthesimilaritybetweenthemandthepartiesinrespectoftheirparticularity，i。e。theirsocialposition，&c。

Remark:Therightofself-consciousness，themomentofsubjectivefreedom，mayberegardedasthefundamentalthingtokeepbeforeusinconsideringthenecessityforpublicityinlegalproceedingsandfortheso-calledjury-courts，andthisinthelastresortistheessenceofwhatevermaybeadvancedinfavouroftheseinstitutionsonthescoreoftheirutility。Otherpointsofviewandreasoningabouttheirseveraladvantagesanddisadvantagesmaygiverisetoanargumentativeexchange，butreasoningofthiskind，likealldeductivereasoning，iseithersecondaryandinconclusive，orelsedrawnfromotherandperhapshigherspheresthanthatofadvantage。Itmaybethecasethatiftheadministrationofjusticewereentirelyinthehandsofprofessionallawyers，andtherewerenolayinstitutionslikejuries，itwouldintheorybemanagedjustaswell，ifnotbetter。Itmaybeso，butevenifthispossibilityrisesbygeneralconsenttoprobability，orevencertainty，itstilldoesnotmatter，forontheothersidethereisalwaystherightofself-consciousness，insistingonitsclaimsanddissatisfiediflaymenplaynopart。

Owingtothecharacteroftheentirebodyofthelaws，knowledgebothofwhatisrightandalsoofthecourseoflegalproceedingsmaybecome，togetherwiththecapacitytoprosecuteanactionatlaw，thepropertyofaclasswhichmakesitselfanexclusivecliquebytheuseofaterminologylikeaforeigntonguetothosewhoserightsareatissue。Ifthishappens，themembersofcivilsociety，whodependfortheirlivelihoodontheirindustry，ontheirownknowledgeandwill，arekeptstrangerstothelaw，notonlytothosepartsofitaffectingtheirmostpersonalandintimateaffairs，butalsotoitssubstantiveandrationalbasis，therigitself，andtheresultisthattheybecomethewards，oreveninasensethebondsmen，ofthelegalprofession。Theymayindeedhavetherighttoappearincourtinpersonandto‘stand”there(injudiciostare)，buttheirbodilypresenceisatrifleiftheirmindsarenottobetherealso，iftheyarenottofollowtheproceedingswiththeirownknowledge，andifthejusticetheyreceiveremainsintheireyesadoompronouncedabextra。

§229。

Incivilsociety，theIdeaislostinparticularityandhasfallenasunderwiththeseparationofinwardandoutward。Intheadministrationofjustice，however，civilsocietyreturnstoitsconcept，totheunityoftheimplicituniversalwiththesubjectiveparticular，althoughherethelatterisonlythatpresentinsinglecasesandtheuniversalityinquestionisthatofabstractright。Theactualisationofthisunitythroughitsextensiontothewholeambitofparticularityis(i)thespecificfunctionofthePolice，thoughtheunificationwhichiteffectsisonlyrelative；(ii)itistheCorporationwhichactualisestheunitycompletely，thoughonlyinawholewhich，whileconcrete，isrestricted。

Addition:Incivilsociety，universalityisnecessityonly。Whenwearedealingwithhumanneeds，itisonlyrightassuchwhichissteadfast。Butthisright—onlyarestrictedsphere—hasabearingsimplyontheprotectionofproperty；welfareissomethingexternaltorightassuch。Thiswelfare，however，isanessentialendinthesystemofneeds。Hencetheuniversal，whichinthefirstinstanceistherightonly，hastobeextendedoverthewholefieldofparticularity。Justiceisabigthingincivilsociety。Givengoodlaws，astatecanflourish，andfreedomofpropertyisafundamentalconditionofitsprosperity。Still，sinceIaminextricablyinvolvedinparticularity，Ihavearighttoclaimthatinthisassociationwithotherparticulars，myparticularwelfaretooshallbepromoted。

Regardshouldhepaidtomywelfare，tomyparticularinterest，andthisisdonethroughthepoliceandtheCorporation。

C。ThePublicAuthoritiesa:Policeb:Corporation§230。

Inthesystemofneeds，thelivelihoodandwelfareofeverysinglepersonisapossibilitywhoseactualattainmentisjustasmuchconditionedbyhiscapricesandparticularendowmentasbytheobjectivesystemofneeds。Throughtheadministrationofjustice，offencesagainstpropertyorpersonalityareannulled。

Buttherightactuallypresentintheparticularrequires，first，thataccidentalhindrancestooneaimoranotherberemoved，andundisturbedsafetyofpersonandpropertybeattained；andsecondly，thatthesecuringofeverysingleperson”slivelihoodandwelfarebetreatedandactualisedasaright，i。e。thatparticularwelfareassuchbesotreated。

(a)Police[orthepublicauthority]

§231。

Inasmuchasitisstilltheparticularwillwhichgovernsthechoiceofthisorthatend，theuniversalauthoritybywhichsecurityisensuredremainsinthefirstinstance，(a)restrictedtothesphereofcontingencies，and(b)anexternalorganisation。

§232。

Crimeiscontingencyassubjectivewillingofevil，andthisiswhattheuniversalauthoritymustpreventorbringtojustice。But，crimeapart，thesubjectivewillingwhichispermissibleinactionslawfulperseandintheprivateuseofproperty，alsocomesintoexternalrelationwithothersinglepersons，aswellaswithpublicinstitutions，otherthanlaw-courts，establishedforrealisingacommonend。Thisuniversalaspectmakesprivateactionsamatterofcontingencywhichescapestheagent”scontrolandwhicheitherdoesormayinjureothersandwrongthem。

§233。

Thereishereonlyapossibilityofinjury；buttheactualnon-occurrenceofinjuryisatthisstagenotjustanothercontingency。Thepointisthattheactionsofindividualsmayalwaysbewrongful，andthisistheultimatereasonforpolicecontrolandpenaljustice。

§234。

TherelationsbetweenexternalexistentsfallintotheinfiniteoftheUnderstanding；

thereis，therefore，noinherentlineofdistinctionbetweenwhatisandwhatisnotinjurious，evenwherecrimeisconcerned，orbetweenwhatisandwhatisnotsuspicious，orbetweenwhatistobeforbiddenorsubjectedtosupervisionandwhatistobeexemptfromprohibition，fromsurveillanceandsuspicion，frominquiryandthedemandtorenderanaccountofitself。Thesedetailsaredeterminedbycustom，thespiritoftherestoftheconstitution，contemporaryconditions，thecrisisofthehour，andsoforth。

Addition:Herenothinghardandfastcanbelaiddownandnoabsolutelinescanbedrawn。

Everythinghereispersonal；subjectiveopinionentersin，andthespiritoftheconstitutionandthecrisisofthedayhavetoprovideprecisionofdetail。Intimeofwar，forinstance，manyathing，harmlessatothertimes，hastoberegardedasharmful。Asaresultofthispresenceofaccident，ofpersonalarbitrariness，thepublicauthorityacquiresameasureofodium。Whenreflectivethinkingisveryhighlydeveloped，thepublicauthoritymaytendtodrawintoitsorbiteverythingitpossiblycan，forineverythingsomefactormaybefoundwhichmightmakeitdangerousinoneofitsbearings。Insuchcircumstances，thepublicauthoritymaysettoworkverypedanticallyandembarrasstheday-to-daylifeofpeople。Buthowevergreatthisannoyance，noobjectivelinecanbedrawnhereeither。

§235。

Intheindefinitemultiplicationandinterconnectionofday-to-dayneeds，(a)theacquisitionandexchangeofthemeanstotheirsatisfactions—satisfactionwhicheveryoneconfidentlyexpectstobepossibleofattainmentwithouthindrance，and(b)theendeavoursmadeandthetransactionscarriedoutinordertoshortentheprocessofattainmentasmuchaspossible，giverisetofactorswhichareacommoninterest，andwhenonemanoccupieshimselfwiththesehislabourisatthesametimedoneforall。Thesituationisproductivetooofcontrivancesandorganisationswhichmaybeofusetothecommunityasawhole。Theseuniversalactivitiesandorganisationsofgeneralutilitycallfortheoversightandcareofthepublicauthority。

§236。

Thedifferinginterestsofproducersandconsumersmaycomeintocollisionwitheachother；andalthoughafairbalancebetweenthemonthewholemaybebroughtaboutautomatically，stilltheiradjustmentalsorequiresacontrolwhichstandsabovebothandisconsciouslyundertaken。Therighttotheexerciseofsuchcontrolinasinglecase(e。g。inthefixingofthepricesofthecommonestnecessariesoflife)dependsonthefactthat，bybeingpubliclyexposedforsale，goodsinabsolutelyuniversaldailydemandareofferednotsomuchtoanindividualassuchbutrathertoauniversalpurchaser，thepublic；andthusboththedefenceofthepublic”srightnottobedefrauded，andalsothemanagementofgoodsinspection，maylie，asacommonconcern，withapublicauthority。Butpubliccareanddirectionaremostofallnecessaryinthecaseofthelargerbranchesofindustry，becausethesearedependentonconditionsabroadandoncombinationsofdistantcircumstanceswhichcannotbegraspedasawholebytheindividualstiedtotheseindustriesfortheirliving。

Remark:Attheotherextremetofreedomoftradeandcommerceincivilsocietyispublicorganisationtoprovideforeverythinganddetermineeveryone”slabour—takeforexampleinancienttimesthelabouronthepyramidsandtheotherhugemonumentsinEgyptandAsiawhichwereconstructedforpublicends，andtheworker”staskwasnotmediatedthroughhisprivatechoiceandparticularinterest。Thisinterestinvokesfreedomoftradeandcommerceagainstcontrolfromabove；butthemoreblindlyitsinksintoself-seekingaims，themoreitrequiressuchcontroltobringitbacktotheuniversal。Controlisalsonecessarytodiminishthedangerofupheavalsarisingfromclashinginterestsandtoabbreviatetheperiodinwhichtheirtensionshouldbeeasedthroughtheworkingofanecessityofwhichtheythemselvesknownothing。

Addition:Theoversightandcareexercisedbythepublicauthorityaimsatbeingamiddletermbetweenanindividualandtheuniversalpossibility，affordedbysociety，ofattainingindividualends。

Ithastoundertakestreet-lighting，bridge-building，thepricingofdailynecessaries，andthecareofpublichealth。Inthisconnection，twomainviewspredominateatthepresenttime。Oneassertsthatthesuperintendenceofeverythingproperlybelongstothepublicauthority，theotherthatthepublicauthorityhasnothingatalltosettleherebecauseeveryonewilldirecthisconductaccordingtotheneedsofothers。Theindividualmusthavearighttoworkforhisbreadashepleases，butthepublicalsohasarighttoinsistthatessentialtasksshallbeproperlydone。Bothpointsofviewmustbesatisfied，andfreedomoftradeshouldnotbesuchastojeopardisethegeneralgood。

§237。

Nowwhilethepossibilityofsharinginthegeneralwealthisopentoindividualsandisassuredtothembythepublicauthority，stillitissubjecttocontingenciesonthesubjectiveside(quiteapartfromthefactthatthisassurancemustremainincomplete)，andthemoreitpresupposesskill，health，capital，andsoforthasitsconditions，themoreisitsosubject。

§238。

Originallythefamilyisthesubstantivewholewhosefunctionitistoprovidefortheindividualonhisparticularsidebygivinghimeitherthemeansandtheskillnecessarytoenablehimtoearnhislivingoutoftheresourcesofsociety，orelsesubsistenceandmaintenanceintheeventofhissufferingadisability。Butcivilsocietytearstheindividualfromhisfamilyties，estrangesthemembersofthefamilyfromoneanother，andrecognisesthemasself-subsistentpersons。Further，forthepaternalsoilandtheexternalinorganicresourcesofnaturefromwhichtheindividualformerlyderivedhislivelihood，itsubstitutesitsownsoilandsubjectsthepermanentexistenceofeventheentirefamilytodependenceonitselfandtocontingency。Thustheindividualbecomesasonofcivilsocietywhichhasasmanyclaimsuponhimashehasrightsagainstit。

Addition:Tobesure，thefamilyhastoprovidebreadforitsmembers，butincivilsocietythefamily”issomethingsubordinateandonlylaysthefoundations；itseffectiverangeisnolongersocomprehensive。Civilsocietyisratherthetremendouspowerwhichdrawsmenintoitselfandclaimsfromthemthattheyworkforit，oweeverythingtoit，anddoeverythingbyitsmeans。Ifmanistobeamemberofcivilsocietyinthissense，hehasrightsandclaimsagainstitjustashehadrightsandclaimsinthefamily。Civilsocietymustprotectitsmembersanddefendtheirrights，whileitsrightsimposedutiesoneveryoneofitsmembers。

§239。

Initscharacterasauniversalfamily，civilsocietyhastherightanddutyofsuperintendingandinfluencingeducation，inasmuchaseducationbearsuponthechild”scapacitytobecomeamemberofsociety。Society”srighthereisparamountoverthearbitraryandcontingentpreferencesofparents，particularlyincaseswhereeducationistobecompletednotbytheparentsbutbyothers。Tothesameend，societymustprovidepubliceducationalfacilitiessofarasispracticable。

Addition:Thelinewhichdemarcatestherightsofparentsfromthoseofcivilsocietyisveryhardtodrawhere。Parentsusuallysupposethatinthematterofeducationtheyhavecompletefreedomandmayarrangeeverythingastheylike。Thechiefoppositiontoanyformofpubliceducationusuallycomesfromparentsanditistheywhotalkandmakeanoutcryaboutteachersandschoolsbecausetheyhaveafaddishdislikeofthem。Nonetheless，societyhasarighttoactonprinciplestestedbyitsexperienceandtocompelparentstosendtheirchildrentoschool，tohavethemvaccinated，andsoforth。ThedisputesthathaveariseninFrancebetweentheadvocatesofstatesupervisionandthosewhodemandthateducationshallbefree，i。e。attheoptionoftheparents，arerelevanthere。

§240。

Similarly，societyhastherightanddutyofactingastrusteetothosewhoseextravagancedestroysthesecurityoftheirownsubsistenceortheirfamilies。Itmustsubstituteforextravagancethepursuitoftheendsofsocietyandtheindividualsconcerned。

Addition:TherewasanAthenianlawcompellingeverycitizentogiveanaccountofhissourceoflivelihoodsNowadayswetaketheviewthatthisisnobody”sbusinessbuthisown。Ofcourseeveryindividualisfromonepointofviewindependent，buthealsoplayshispartinthesystemofcivilsociety，andwhileeverymanhastherighttodemandsubsistencefromit，itmustatthesametimeprotecthimfromhimself。Itisnotsimplystarvationwhichisatissue；thefurtherendinviewistopreventtheformationofapauperisedrabble。Sincecivilsocietyisresponsibleforfeedingitsmembers，italsohastherighttopressthemtoprovidefortheirownlivelihood。

§241。

Notonlycaprice，however，butalsocontingencies，physicalconditions，andfactorsgroundedinexternalcircumstances(see§200)mayreducementopoverty。Thepoorstillhavetheneedscommontocivilsociety，andyetsincesocietyhaswithdrawnfromthemthenaturalmeansofacquisition(see§217)

andbrokenthebondofthefamily—inthewidersenseoftheclan(see§181)

—theirpovertyleavesthemmoreorlessdeprivedofalltheadvantagesofsociety，oftheopportunityofacquiringskilloreducationofanykind，aswellasoftheadministrationofjustice，thepublichealthservices，andoftenevenoftheconsolationsofreligion，andsoforth。Thepublicauthoritytakestheplaceofthefamilywherethepoorareconcernedinrespectnotonlyoftheirimmediatewantbutalsooflazinessofdisposition，malignity，andtheotherviceswhichariseoutoftheirplightandtheirsenseofwrong。

§242。

Povertyand，ingeneral，thedistressofeverykindtowhicheveryindividualisexposedfromthestartinthecycleofhisnaturallifehasasubjectivesidewhichdemandssimilarlysubjectiveaid，arisingbothfromthespecialcircumstancesofaparticularcaseandalsofromloveandsympathy。Thisistheplacewheremoralityfindsplentytododespiteallpublicorganisation。Subjectiveaid，however，bothinitselfandinitsoperation，isdependentoncontingencyandconsequentlysocietystrugglestomakeitlessnecessary，bydiscoveringthegeneralcausesofpenuryandgeneralmeansofitsrelief，andbyorganisingreliefaccordingly。

Remark:Casualalmsgivingandcasualendowments，e。g。fortheburningoflampsbeforeholyimages，&c。，aresupplementedbypublicalmshouses，hospitals，street-lighting，andsoforth。Thereisstillquiteenoughleftoverandabovethesethingsforcharitytodoonitsownaccount。Afalseviewisimpliedbothwhencharityinsistsonhavingthispoor-reliefreservedsolelytoprivatesympathyandtheaccidentaloccurrenceofknowledgeandacharitabledisposition，andalsowhenitfeelsinjuredormortifiedbyuniversalregulationsandordinanceswhichareobligatory。Publicsocialconditionsareonthecontrarytoberegardedasallthemoreperfecttheless(incomparisonwithwhatisarrangedpublicly)isleftforanindividualtodobyhimselfashisprivateinclinationdirects。

§243。

Whencivilsocietyisinastateofunimpededactivity，itisengagedinexpandinginternallyinpopulationandindustry。Theamassingofwealthisintensifiedbygeneralising(a)thelinkageofmenbytheirneeds，and(b)themethodsofpreparinganddistributingthemeanstosatisfytheseneeds，becauseitisfromthisdoubleprocessofgeneralisationthatthelargestprofitsarederived。Thatisonesideofthepicture。Theothersideisthesubdivisionandrestrictionofparticularjobs。Thisresultsinthedependenceanddistressoftheclasstiedtoworkofthatsort，andtheseagainentailinabilitytofeelandenjoythebroaderfreedomsandespeciallytheintellectualbenefitsofcivilsociety。

§244。

Whenthestandardoflivingofalargemassofpeoplefallsbelowacertainsubsistencelevel—alevelregulatedautomaticallyastheonenecessaryforamemberofthesociety—andwhenthereisaconsequentlossofthesenseofrightandwrong，ofhonestyandtheself-respectwhichmakesamaninsistonmaintaininghimselfbyhisownworkandeffort，theresultisthecreationofarabbleofpaupers。Atthesametimethisbringswithit，attheotherendofthesocialscale，conditionswhichgreatlyfacilitatetheconcentrationofdisproportionatewealthinafewhands。

Addition:Thelowestsubsistencelevel，thatofarabbleofpaupers，isfixedautomatically，buttheminimumvariesconsiderablyindifferentcountries。InEngland，eventheverypoorestbelievethattheyhaverights；thisisdifferentfromwhatsatisfiesthepoorinothercountries。Povertyinitselfdoesnotmakemenintoarabble；arabbleiscreatedonlywhenthereisjoinedtopovertyadispositionofmind，aninnerindignationagainsttherich，againstsociety，againstthegovernment，&c。Afurtherconsequenceofthisattitudeisthatthroughtheirdependenceonchancemenbecomefrivolousandidle，liketheNeapolitanlazzaroniforexample。Inthiswaythereisbornintherabbletheeviloflackingself-respectenoughtosecuresubsistencebyitsownlabourandyetatthesametimeofclaimingtoreceivesubsistenceasitsright。Againstnaturemancanclaimnoright，butoncesocietyisestablished，povertyimmediatelytakestheformofawrongdonetooneclassbyanother。Theimportantquestionofhowpovertyistobeabolishedisoneofthemostdisturbingproblemswhichagitatemodemsociety。

§245。

Whenthemassesbegintodeclineintopoverty，(a)theburdenofmaintainingthemattheirordinarystandardoflivingmightbedirectlylaidonthewealthierclasses，ortheymightreceivethemeansoflivelihooddirectlyfromotherpublicsourcesofwealth(e。g。fromtheendowmentsofrichhospitals，monasteries，andotherfoundations)。Ineithercase，however，theneedywouldreceivesubsistencedirectly，notbymeansoftheirwork，andthiswouldviolatetheprincipleofcivilsocietyandthefeelingofindividualindependenceandself-respectinitsindividualmembers。(b)Asanalternative，theymightbegivensubsistenceindirectlythroughbeinggivenwork，i。e。theopportunitytowork。Inthiseventthevolumeofproductionwouldbeincreased，buttheevilconsistspreciselyinanexcessofproductionandinthelackofaproportionatenumberofconsumerswhoarethemselvesalsoproducers，andthusitissimplyintensifiedbybothofthemethods(a)and(b)bywhichitissoughttoalleviateit。Ithencebecomesapparentthatdespiteanexcessofwealthcivilsocietyisnotrichenough，i。e。itsownresourcesareinsufficienttocheckexcessivepovertyandthecreationofapenuriousrabble。

Remark:IntheexampleofEnglandwemaystudythesephenomenaonalargescaleandalsoinparticulartheresultsofpoor-rates，immensefoundations，unlimitedprivatebeneficence，andabovealltheabolitionoftheGuildCorporations。InBritain，particularlyinScotland，themostdirectmeasureagainstpovertyandespeciallyagainstthelossofshameandself-respect—thesubjectivebasesofsociety—aswellasagainstlazinessandextravagance，&c。，thebegettersoftherabble，hasturnedouttobetoleavethepoortotheirfateandinstructthemtobeginthestreets。

§246。

Thisinnerdialecticofcivilsocietythusdrivesit—oratanyratedrivesaspecificcivilsociety—topushbeyonditsownlimitsandseekmarkets，andsoitsnecessarymeansofsubsistence，inotherlandswhichareeitherdeficientinthegoodsithasover-produced，orelsegenerallybackwardinindustry，&c。

§247。

Theprincipleoffamilylifeisdependenceonthesoil，onland，terrafirma。

Similarly，thenaturalelementforindustry，animatingitsoutwardmovement，isthesea。Sincethepassionforgaininvolvesrisk，industrythoughbentongainyetliftsitselfaboveit；insteadofremainingrootedtothesoilandthelimitedcircleofcivillifewithitspleasuresanddesires，itembracestheelementofflux，danger，anddestruction。Further，theseaisthegreatestmeansofcommunication，andtradebyseacreatescommercialconnectionsbetweendistantcountriesandsorelationsinvolvingcontractualrights。Atthesametime，commerceofthiskindisthemostpotentinstrumentofculture，andthroughittradeacquiresitssignificanceinthehistoryoftheworld。

Riversarenotnaturalboundariesofseparation，whichiswhatthey。havebeenaccountedtobeinmodemtimes。Onthecontrary，itistruertosaythatthey，andthesealikewise，linkmentogether。Horaceiswrongwhenhesays:

deusabsciditprudensOceanodissociabilitetras。

Remark:TheproofofthisliesnotmerelyinthefactthatthebasinsofriversareInhabitedbyasingleclanortribe，butalso，forexample，intheancientbondsbetweenGreece，Ionia，andMagnaGraecia，betweenBrittanyandBritain，betweenDenmarkandNorway，Sweden，Finland，Livonia，&c。，bonds，further，whichareespeciallystrikingincontrastwiththecomparativelyslightintercoursebetweentheinhabitantsofthelittoralandthoseofthehinterland。Torealisewhataninstrumentofcultureliesinthelinkwiththesea，considercountrieswhereindustryflourishesandcontrasttheirrelationtotheseawiththatofcountrieswhichhaveeschewedsea-faringandwhich，likeEgyptandIndia，havebecomestagnantandinthemostfrightfulandscandaloussuperstition。

Noticealsohow，allgreatprogressivepeoplespressonwardtothesea。

§248。

Thisfar-flungconnectinglinkaffordsthemeansforthecolonisingactivity—

sporadicorsystematic—towhichmaturecivilsocietyisdrivenandbywhichitsuppliestoapartofitspopulationareturntolifeonthefamilybasisinanewlandandsoalsosuppliesitselfwithanewdemandandfieldforitsindustryAddition:Civilsocietyisthusdriventofoundcolonies。Increaseofpopulationalonehasthiseffect，butitisdueinparticulartotheappearanceofanumberofpeoplewhocannotsecurethesatisfactionoftheirneedsbytheirownlabouronceproductionrisesabovetherequirementsofconsumers。SporadiccolonisationisparticularlycharacteristicofGermany。TheemigrantswithdrawtoAmericaorRussiaandremaintherewithnohometies，andsoproveuselesstotheirnativeland。Thesecondandentirelydifferenttypeofcolonisationisthesystematic；thestateundertakesit，isawareofthepropermethodofcarryingitoutandregulatesitaccordingly。Thistypewascommonamongsttheancients，particularlytheGreeks。HardworkwasnotthebusinessofthecitizensinGreece，sincetheirenergywasdirectedrathertopublicaffairs。Soifthepopulationincreasedtosuchanextentthattheremightbedifficultyinfeedingit，theyoungpeoplewouldbesentawaytoanewdistrict，sometimesspecificallychosen，sometimeslefttochancediscovery。Inmoderntimes，colonistshavenotbeenallowedthesamerightsasthoseleftathome，andtheresultofthissituationhasbeenwarsandfinallyindependence，asmaybeseeninthehistoryoftheEnglishandSpanishcolonies。Colonialindependenceprovestobeofthegreatestadvantagetothemothercountry，justastheemancipationofslavesturnsouttothegreatestadvantageoftheowners。

§249。

Whilethepublicauthoritymustalsoundertakethehigherdirectivefunctionofprovidingfortheinterestswhichleadbeyondthebordersofitssociety(see§

246)，itsprimarypurposeistoactualiseandmaintaintheuniversalcontainedwithintheparticularityofcivilsociety，anditscontroltakestheformofanexternalsystemandorganisationfortheprotectionandsecurityofparticularendsandinterestsenmasse，inasmuchastheseinterestssubsistonlyinthisuniversal。

Thisuniversalisimmanentintheinterestsofparticularityitselfand，inaccordancewiththeIdea，particularitymakesittheendandobjectofitsownwillingandactivity。Inthiswayethicalprinciplescirclebackandappearincivilsocietyasafactorimmanentinit；thisconstitutesthespecificcharacteroftheCorporation。

(b)TheCorporation§250。

Invirtueofthesubstantialityofitsnaturalandfamilylife，theagriculturalclasshasdirectlywithinitselftheconcreteuniversalinwhichitlives。Theclassofcivilservantsisuniversalincharacterandsohastheuniversalexplicitlyasitsgroundandastheaimofitsactivity。Theclassbetweenthem，thebusinessclass，isessentiallyconcentratedontheparticular，andhenceitistoitthatCorporationsarespeciallyappropriate。

§251。

Thelabourorganisationofcivilsocietyissplit，inaccordancewiththenatureofitsparticulars，intodifferentbranches。Theimplicitlikenessofsuchparticularstooneanotherbecomesreallyexistentinanassociation，assomethingcommontoitsmembers。Henceaselfishpurpose，directedtowardsitsparticularself-interest，apprehendsandevincesitselfatthesametimeasuniversal；andamemberofcivilsocietyisinvirtueofhisownparticularskillamemberofaCorporation，whoseuniversalpurposeisthuswhollyconcreteandnowiderinscopethanthepurposeinvolvedinbusiness，itspropertaskandinterest。

§252。

Inaccordancewiththisdefinitionofitsfunctions，aCorporationhastheright，underthesurveillanceofthepublicauthority，(a)tolookafteritsowninterestswithinitsownsphere，(b)toco-optmembers，qualifiedobjectivelybytherequisiteskillandrectitude，toanumberfixedbythegeneralstructureofsociety，(c)toprotectitsmembersagainstparticularcontingencies，(d)toprovidetheeducationrequisitetofitotherstobecomemembers。Inshort，itsrightistocomeonthescenelikeasecondfamilyforitsmembers，whilecivilsocietycanonlybeanindeterminatesortoffamilybecauseitcompriseseveryoneandsoisfartherremovedfromindividualsandtheirspecialexigencies。

Remark:TheCorporationmemberistobedistinguishedfromadaylabourerorfromamanwhoispreparedtoundertakecasualemploymentonasingleoccasion。Theformerwhois，orwillbecome，masterofhiscraft，isamemberoftheassociationnotforcasualgainonsingleoccasionsbutforthewholerange，theuniversality，ofhispersonallivelihood。

Privileges，inthesenseoftherightsofabranchofcivilsocietyorganisedintoaCorporation，aredistinctinmeaningfromprivileges-proper，intheetymologicalsense。Thelatterarecasualexceptionstoreversalrules；theformer，however，areonlythecrystallisation，asregulations，ofcharacteristicsinherentinanessentialbranchofsocietyitselfowingtoitsnatureasparticular。

§253。

IntheCorporation，thefamilyhasitsstablebasisinthesensethatitslivelihoodisassuredthere，conditionallyuponcapability，i。e。ithasastablecapital(see§170)

—Inaddition，hisnexusofcapabilityandlivelihoodisarecognisedfact，withheresultthattheCorporationmemberneedsnoexternalmarksbeyondhisownmembershipasevidenceofhisskillandhisregularincomeandsubsistence，i。e。asevidencethatheisasomebody。Itisalsorecognisedthathebelongstoawholewhichisitselfanorganoftheentiresociety，andthatheisactivelyconcernedinpromotingthecomparativelydisinterestedendofthiswhole。Thushecommandstherespectduetooneinhissocialposition。

Remark:TheinstitutionofCorporationscorresponds，onaccountofitsassuranceofcapital，totheintroductionofagricultureandprivatepropertyinanothersphere(seeRemarkto§203)。

Whencomplaintsaremadeabouttheluxuryofthebusinessclassestheirpassionforextravagance—whichhaveastheirconcomitantcreationofarabbleofpaupers(see§244)—wemustnotforgetthatbesidesitsothercauses(e。g。increasingmechanisationoflabour)thisphenomenonhasanethicalground，aswasindicatedabove。UnlessheisamemberofanauthorisedCorporation(anditisonlybybeingauthorisedthatanassociationbecomesaCorporation)，anindividualiswithoutrankordignity，hisisolationreduceshisbusinesstoreself-seeking，andhislivelihoodandsatisfactionbecomeinsecure。Consequently，hehastotrytogainrecognitionforhimselfbygivingexternalproofsofsuccessinhisbusiness，andtotheseproofsnolimitscanbeset。Hecannotliveinthemannerofhisclass，fornoclassreallyexistsforhim，sinceincivilsocietyitisonlysomethingcommontoparticularpersonswhichreallyexists，i。e。somethinglegallyconstitutedandrecognised。

Hencehecannotachieveforhimselfawayoflifepropertohisclassandlessidiosyncratic。

WithintheCorporationthehelpwhichpovertyreceiveslosesitsaccidentalcharacterandthehumiliationwrongfullyassociatedwithit。Thewealthyperformtheirdutiestotheirfellowassociatesandthusrichesceasetoinspireeitherprideorenvy，prideintheirowners，envyinothers。Intheseconditionsrectitudeobtainsitsproperrecognitionandrespect。

§254。

Theso-called‘natural”rightofexercisingone”sskillandtherebyearningwhatthereistobeearnedisrestrictedwithintheCorporationonlyinsofarasitisthereinmaderationalinsteadofnatural。Thatistosay，itbecomesfreedfrompersonalopinionandcontingency，savedfromendangeringeithertheindividualworkmanorothers，recognised，guaranteed，andatthesametimeelevatedtoconsciouseffortforacommonend。

§255。

Asthefamilywasthefirst，sotheCorporationisthesecondethicalrootofthestate，theoneplantedincivilsociety。Theformercontainsthemomentsofsubjectiveparticularityandobjectiveuniversalityinasubstantialunity。Butthesemomentsaresunderedincivilsocietytobeginwith；ontheonesidethereistheparticularityofneedandsatisfaction，reflectedintoitself，andontheothersidetheuniversalityofabstractrights。IntheCorporationthesemomentsareunitedinaninwardfashion，sothatinthisunionparticularwelfareispresentasarightandisactualised。

Remark:ThesanctityofmarriageandthedignityofCorporationmembershiparethetwofixedpointsroundwhichtheunorganisedatomsofcivilsocietyrevolve。

Addition:TheconsiderationbehindtheabolitionofCorporationsinrecenttimesisthattheindividualshouldfendforhimself。Butwemaygrantthisandstillholdthatcorporationmembershipdoesnotalteraman”sobligationtoearnhisliving。Undermodempoliticalconditions，thecitizenshaveonlyarestrictedshareinthepublicbusinessofthestate，yetitisessentialtoprovidemen—

ethicalentities—withworkofapubliccharacteroverandabovetheirprivatebusiness。Thisworkofapubliccharacter，whichthemodernstatedoesnotalwaysprovide，isfoundintheCorporation。Wesawearlier[Additionto§184]thatinfendingforhimselfamemberofcivilsocietyisalsoworkingforothers。Butthisunconsciouscompulsionisnotenough；itisintheCorporationthatitfirstchangesintoaknownandthoughtfulethicalmodeoflife。OfcourseCorporationsmustfallunderthehighersurveillanceofthestate，becauseotherwisetheywouldossify，buildthemselvesin，anddeclineintoamiserablesystemofcastes。Inandbyitself，however，aCorporationisnotaclosedcaste；itspurposeisrathertobringanisolatedtradeintothesocialorderandelevateittoasphereinwhichitgainsstrengthandrespect。

§256。

TheendoftheCorporationisrestrictedandfinite，whilethepublicauthoritywasanexternalorganisationinvolvingaseparationandamerelyrelativeidentityofcontrollerandcontrolledTheendoftheformerandtheexternalityandrelativeidentityofthelatterfindtheirtruthintheabsolutelyuniversalendanditsabsoluteactuality。Hencethesphereofcivilsocietypassesoverintothestate。

Remark:Thetownistheseatofthecivillifeofbusiness。Therereflectionarises，turnsinuponitself，andpursuesitsatomisingtask；eachmanmaintainshimselfinandthroughhisrelationtootherswho，likehimself，arepersonspossessedofrights。Thecountry，ontheotherhand，istheseatofanethicalliferestingonnatureandthefamily。Townandcountrythusconstitutethetwomoments，stillidealmoments，whosetruegroundisthestate，althoughitisfromthemthatthestatesprings。

Thephilosophicproofoftheconceptofthestateisthisdevelopmentofethicallifefromitsimmediatephasethroughcivilsociety，thephaseofdivision，tothestate，whichthenrevealsitselfasthetruegroundofthesephases。Aproofinphilosophicsciencecanonlybeadevelopmentofthiskind。

Sincethestateappearsasaresultintheadvanceofthephilosophicconceptthroughdisplayingitselfasthetrueground[oftheearlierphases]，thatshowofmediationisnowcancelledandthestatehasbecomedirectlypresentbeforeus。Actually，therefore，thestateassuchisnotsomuchtheresultasthebeginning。Itiswithinthestatethatthefamilyisfirstdevelopedintocivilsociety，anditistheIdeaofthestateitselfwhichdisruptsitselfintothesetwomoments。Throughthedevelopmentofcivilsociety，thesubstanceofethicallifeacquiresitsinfiniteform，whichcontainsinitselfthesetwomoments:(1)infinitedifferentiationdowntotheinwardexperienceofindependentself-consciousness，and(2)theformofuniversalityinvolvedineducation，theformofthoughtwherebymindisobjectiveandactualtoitselfasanorganictotalityinlawsandinstitutionswhichareitswillintermsofthought。

ThirdPart:EthicalLifeiii。TheStateA:ConstitutionalLawB:InternationalLawC:WorldHistory§257。

ThestateistheactualityoftheethicalIdea。Itisethicalmindquathesubstantialwillmanifestandrevealedtoitself，knowingandthinkingitself，accomplishingwhatitknowsandinsofarasitknowsit。Thestateexistsimmediatelyincustom，mediatelyinindividualself-consciousness，knowledge，andactivity，whileself-consciousnessinvirtueofitssentimenttowardsthestate，findsinthestate，asitsessenceandtheend-productofitsactivity，itssubstantivefreedom。

Remark:ThePenatesareinwardgods，godsoftheunderworld；themindofanation(Atheneforinstance)isthedivine，knowingandwillingitself。Familypietyisfeeling，ethicalbehaviourdirectedbyfeeling；politicalvirtueisthewillingoftheabsoluteendintermsofthought。

§258。

Thestateisabsolutelyrationalinasmuchasitistheactualityofthesubstantialwillwhichitpossessesintheparticularself-consciousnessoncethatconsciousnesshasbeenraisedtoconsciousnessofitsuniversality。Thissubstantialunityisanabsoluteunmovedendinitself，inwhichfreedomcomesintoitssupremeright。

Ontheotherhandthisfinalendhassupremerightagainsttheindividual，whosesupremedutyistobeamemberofthestate。

Remark:Ifthestateisconfusedwithcivilsociety，andifitsspecificendislaiddownasthesecurityandprotectionofpropertyandpersonalfreedom，thentheinterestoftheindividualsassuchbecomestheultimateendoftheirassociation，anditfollowsthatmembershipofthestateissomethingoptional。Butthestate"srelationtotheindividualisquitedifferentfromthis。Sincethestateismindobjectified，itisonlyasoneofitsmembersthattheindividualhimselfhasobjectivity，genuineindividuality，andanethicallife。Unificationpureandsimpleisthetruecontentandaimoftheindividual，andtheindividual"sdestinyisthelivingofauniversallife。Hisfurtherparticularsatisfaction，activityandmodeofconducthavethissubstantiveanduniversallyvalidlifeastheirstartingpointandtheirresult。

Rationality，takengenerallyandintheabstract，consistsinthethorough-goingunityoftheuniversalandthesingle。Rationality，concreteinthestate，consists(a)sofarasitscontentisconcerned，intheunityofobjectivefreedom(i。e。freedomoftheuniversalorsubstantialwill)andsubjectivefreedom(i。e。freedomofeveryoneinhisknowingandinhisvolitionofparticularends)；andconsequently，(b)sofarasitsformisconcerned，inself-determiningactiononlawsandprincipleswhicharethoughtsandsouniversal。ThisIdeaistheabsolutelyeternalandnecessarybeingofmind。

Butifweaskwhatisorhasbeenthehistoricaloriginofthestateingeneral，stillmoreifweaskabouttheoriginofanyparticularstate，ofitsrightsandinstitutions，oragainifweinquirewhetherthestateoriginallyaroseoutofpatriarchalconditionsoroutoffearortrust，oroutofCorporations，&c。，orfinallyifweaskinwhatlightthebasisofthestate"srightshasbeenconceivedandconsciouslyestablished，whetherthisbasishasbeensupposedtobepositivedivineright，orcontract，custom，&c-allthesequestionsarenoconcernoftheIdeaofthestate。Weareheredealingexclusivelywiththephilosophicscienceofthestate，andfromthatpointofviewallthesethingsaremereappearanceandthereforemattersforhistory。Sofarastheauthorityofanyexistingstatehasanythingtodowithreasons，thesereasonsareculledfromtheformsofthelawauthoritativewithinit。

Thephilosophicaltreatmentofthesetopicsisconcernedonlywiththeirinwardside，withthethoughtoftheirconcept。ThemeritofRousseau"scontributiontothesearchforthisconceptisthat，byadducingthewillastheprincipleofthestate，heisadducingaprinciplewhichhasthoughtbothforitsformanditscontent，aprincipleindeedwhichisthinkingitself，notaprinciple，likegregariousinstinct，forinstance，ordivineauthority，whichhasthoughtasitsformonly。

Unfortunately，however，asFichtedidlater，hetakesthewillonlyinadeterminateformastheindividualwill，andheregardstheuniversalwillnotastheabsolutelyrationalelementinthewill，butonlyasa"general"willwhichproceedsoutofthisindividualwillasoutofaconsciouswill。Theresultisthathereducestheunionofindividualsinthestatetoacontractandthereforetosomethingbasedontheirarbitrarywills，theiropinion，andtheircapriciouslygivenexpressconsent；

andabstractreasoningproceedstodrawthelogicalinferenceswhichdestroytheabsolutelydivineprincipleofthestate，togetherwithitsmajestyandabsoluteauthority。Forthisreason，whentheseabstractconclusionscameintopower，theyaffordedforthefirsttimeinhumanhistorytheprodigiousspectacleoftheoverthrowoftheconstitutionofagreatactualstateanditscompletereconstructionabinitioonthebasisofpurethoughtalone，afterthedestructionofallexistingandgivenmaterial。Thewillofitsre-founderswastogiveitwhattheyallegedwasapurelyrationalbasis，butitwasonlyabstractionsthatwerebeingused；theIdeawaslacking；andtheexperimentendedinthemaximumoffrightfulnessandterror。

Confrontedwiththeclaimsmadefortheindividualwill，wemustrememberthefundamentalconceptionthattheobjectivewillisrationalityimplicitorinconception，whetheritberecognisedornotbyindividuals，whethertheirwhimsbedeliberatelyforitornot。Wemustrememberthatitsopposite，i。e。knowingandwilling，orsubjectivefreedom(theonlythingcontainedintheprincipleoftheindividualwill)comprisesonlyonemoment，andthereforeaone-sidedmoment，oftheIdeaoftherationalwill，i。e。ofthewillwhichisrationalsolelybecausewhatitisimplicitly，thatitalsoisexplicitly。