第4章

(e)Subjectiveopinionisatlastexpresslygivenoutasthemeasuring-rodofrightanddutyanditissupposedthattheconvictionwhichholdssomethingtoberightistodecidetheethicalcharacterofanaction。Sincethegoodwewilltodoisherestillwithoutcontent，theprincipleofconvictiononlyaddstheinformationthatthesubsumptionofanactionunderthecategoryofgoodispurelyapersonalmatter。Ifthisbeso，theverypretenceofanethicalobjectivityhastotallydisappeared。A

doctrinelikethisisdirectlyconnectedwiththeself-styledphilosophy，oftenmentionedalready，whichdeniesthatthetruthisknowable-andthetruthofmindquawill，therationalityofmindinitsself-actualisingprocess，isthelawsofethics。Asserting，assuchphilosophisingdoes，thattheknowledgeofthetrueisanemptyvanity，transcendingtheterritoryofscience(whichissupposedtobemereappearance)，itmustinthematterofactionatoncefinditsprinciplealsointheapparent；therebyethicsisreducedtothespecialtheoryoflifeheldbytheindividualandtohisprivateconviction:Thedegradationintowhichphilosophyhasthussunkappearsdoubtlessatafirstglancetobeonlyanaffairofsupremeindifference，anoccurrenceconfinedtothetrivialfieldofacademicfutilities；buttheviewnecessarilymakesitselfahomeinethics，anessentialpartofphilosophy；anditisthenthatthetruemeaningofthesetheoriesmakesitsfirstappearanceinandisapprehendedbytheworldofactuality。

Theresultofthedisseminationoftheviewthatsubjectiveconviction，anditalone，decidestheethicalcharacterofanactionisthatthechargeofhypocrisy，oncesofrequent，isnowrarelyheard；

youcanonlyqualifywickednessashypocrisyontheassumptionthatcertainactionsareinherentlyandactuallymisdeeds，vicesandcrimes，andthatthedefaulterisnecessarilyawareofthemassuch，becauseheisawareofandrecognisestheprinciplesandoutwardactsofpietyandhonestyeveninthepretencetowhichhemisappliesthem。Inotherwords，itwasgenerallyassumedasregardsevilthatitisadutytoknowthegoodandtobeawareofitsdistinctionfromevil。Inanycase，however，itwasanabsoluteinjunctionwhichforbadethecommissionofviciousandcriminalactionsandwhichinsistedonsuchactionsbeingimputedtotheagent，sofarashewasamanandnotabeast。Butifagoodheart，agoodintention，asubjectiveconvictionaresetforthasthesourcesfromwhichconductderivesitsworth，thenthereisnolongeranyhypocrisyorimmoralityatall；forwhateveramandoes，hecanalwaysjustifybythereflectiononitofgoodintentionsandmotives，andbytheinfluenceofthatconvictionitisgood。

Footnote:"ThathefeelscompletelyconvincedIhavenottheleastdoubt。Buthowmanymenareledbysuchfeelingsofconvictionintotheworstofmisdeeds！Besides，ifeverythingmaybeexcusedonthisground，thenthatterminatestherationaljudgementofgoodandwicked，honourableandshameful，resolutions。Lunacyinthatcasewouldhaveequalrightswithreason；orinotherwordsreasonwouldhavenorightswhatever，itsjudgementwouldceasetohaveanyvalidity。Itsvoicewouldbeaminusquantity；truthwouldbethepossessionofthemanwithnodoubts！Itrembleattheresultsofsuchtoleration，foritwouldbeexclusivelytotheadvantageofunreason。"(Jacobi1802。)

Thusthereisnolongeranythingabsolutelyviciousorcriminal；andinsteadoftheabovementionedfrankandfree，hardenedandunperturbedsinner，wehavethemanwhoisconsciousofbeingfullyjustifiedbyintentionandconviction。Mygoodintentioninmyactionandmyconvictionofitsgoodnessmakeitgood。Wespeakofjudgingandestimatinganaction；butonthisprincipleitisonlytheintentionandconvictionoftheagent，hisfaith，bywhichheoughttobejudged。Not，however，hisfaithinthesenseinwhichChristrequiresfaithinobjectivetruth，sothatononewhohasafalsefaith，i。e。aconvictionbadinitscontent，thejudgementtobepronouncedmustbeacondemnation，i。e。oneinconformitywiththiscontent。Onthecontrary，faithheremeansfidelitytoconviction，andthequestiontobeaskedaboutactionis:"HastheagentinhisactingkepttruetohisconvictionFidelitytoformalsubjectiveconvictionisthusmadethesolemeasuring-rodofduty。

Thisprinciple，underwhichconvictionisexpresslymadesomethingsubjective，cannotbutthrustuponusthethoughtofpossibleerror，withthefurtherimpliedpresuppositionofanabsolutelaw。

Butthelawisnoagent；itisonlytheactualhumanbeingwhoacts。And，ontheaforesaidprinciple，theonlyquestion，inestimatingtheworthofhumanactions，ishowfarhehastakenupthelawintohisconviction。Butifonthistheoryitisnotactionswhicharetobejudged，i。e。measuredgenerally，bythatlaw，itisimpossibletoseewhatthelawisforandwhatenditistoserve。Suchalawisdegradedtoamereexternalletter，infacttoanemptyword，ifitisonlymyconvictionwhichmakesitalawandinvestsitwithobligatoryforce。

SuchalawmayclaimitsauthorityfromGodorthestate。Itmayevenhavebehindittheauthorityoftensofcenturiesduringwhichitwasthebondwhichgavemen，withalltheirdeedsanddestiny，coherenceandsubsistence。Andtheseareauthoritieswhichenshrinetheconvictionsofcountlessindividuals。NowifIsetagainstthesetheauthorityofmysingleconviction-forasmysubjectiveconvictionitssolevalidityisauthority-thatatfirstseemsapieceofmonstrousself-conceit，butinvirtueoftheprinciplethatsubjectiveconvictionistobethemeasuring-rod，itispronouncednottobeself-conceitatall。

Evenifreasonandconscience-whichshallowscienceandbadsophistrycanneveraltogetherexpel-admitwithanobleillogicalitythaterrorispossible，stillbydescribingcrime，andevilgenerally，asonlyanerror，weminimisethefault。Toerrishuman-whohasnotbeenmistakenononepointoranother，whetherhehadfreshorpickledcabbagefordinneryesterday，andaboutinnumerableotherthingsofmoreorlessimportance?Butthedifferencebetweenimportanceandtrivialityvanishesifeverythingturnsonthesubjectivityofconvictionandonpersistenceinit。Thesaidnobleillogicalitywhichadmitsthepossibilityoferrorisinevitabletheninthenatureofthecase，butwhenitcomesroundtosaythatawrongconvictionisonlyanerror，itonlyfallsintoafurtherillogicality，theillogicalityofdishonesty。Atonemomentconvictionismadethebasisofethicsandofman"ssupremevalue，andisthuspronouncedthesupremeandthesacrosanct；atanother，allwehavetodowithiserror，andmyconvictionissomethingtrivialandcasual，infactsomethingstrictlyexternal，whichmayturnoutthiswayorthat。Really，mybeingconvincedissomethingsupremelytrivialifIcannotknowthetruth；forthenitisamatterofindifferencehowI

think，andallthatislefttomythinkingisthatemptygood，theabstractiontowhichtheUnderstandingreducesthegood。

Oneotherpoint。Itfollowsfurther，onthisprincipleofjustificationbyconviction，thatlogicrequiresme，indealingwiththewayothersactagainstmyaction，toadmitthattheyarequiteintheright-

sofaratanyrateastheymaintainwithfaithandconvictionthatmyactioniscriminal。Onsuchlogic，notmerelydoIgainnothing，Iamevendeposedfromthepostoflibertyandhonourintoasituationofslaveryanddishonour。Justice，whichintheabstractismineaswellastheirs，Ifeelonlyasaforeignsubjectiveconviction，andwhenitisexecutedonme，Ifancymyselftobetreatedonlybyanexternalforce。

(f)Finally，thesupremeforminwhichthissubjectivismiscompletelycomprisedandexpressedisthephenomenonwhichhasbeencalledbyanameborrowedfromPlato-"Irony"。Thenamealone，however，istakenfromPlato；heusedittodescribeawayofspeakingwhichSocratesemployedinconversationwhendefendingtheIdeaoftruthandjusticeagainsttheconceitoftheSophistsandtheuneducated。Whathetreatedironically，however，wasonlytheirtypeofmind，nottheIdeaitself。Ironyisonlyamanneroftalkingagainstpeople。Exceptasdirectedagainstpersons，theessentialmovementofthoughtisdialectic，andPlatowassofarfromregardingthedialecticalinitself，stilllessirony，asthelastwordinthoughtandasubstitutefortheIdea，thatheterminatedthefluxandrefluxofthinking，letaloneofasubjectiveopinion，andsubmergeditinthesubstantialityoftheIdea。

Footnote:Mycolleague，thelateProfessorSolger，adoptedtheword"irony"whichFriedrichvonSchlegelbroughtintouseatacomparativelyearlyperiodofhisliterarycareerandenhancedtoequivalencewiththesaidprincipleofsubjectivityknowingitselfassupreme。ButSolger"sfinermindwasabovesuchanexaggeration；hehadphilosophicinsightandsoseizedupon，emphasised，andretainedonlythatpartofSchlegel"sviewwhichwasdialecticinthestrictsense，i。e。dialecticasthepulsatingdriveofspeculativeinquiry。Hislastpublication，asolidpieceofwork，athoroughKritiküberdieVorlesungendesHerrnAugustWilhelmvonSchlegelüberdramatischeKunstundLiteratur，Ifindsomewhatobscure，however，andIcannotagreewiththeargumentwhichhedevelops。"Trueirony"，hesays，"arisesfromtheviewthatsolongasmanlivesinthispresentworld，itisonlyinthisworldthathecanfulfilhis“appointedtask“nomatterhowelevatedasensewegivetothisexpression。Anyhopewemayhaveoftranscendingfiniteendsisfoolishandemptyconceit。"Eventhehighestisexistentforourconductonlyinashapethatislimitedandfinite。"Rightlyunderstood，thisisPlatonicdoctrine，andatrueremarkinrejectionofwhathehasreferredtoearlier，theemptystrivingtowardsthe(abstract)infinite。Buttosaythatthehighestisexistentinalimitedandfiniteshape，liketheethicalorder(andthatorderisinessenceactuallifeandaction)，isverydifferentfromsavingthatthehighestthingisafiniteend。Theoutwardshape，theformoffinitude，innowaydeprivesthecontentofethicallifeofitssubstantialityandtheinfinityinherentwithinit。Solgercontinues:"Andjustforthisreasonthehighestisinusasnegligibleasthelowestandperishesofnecessitywithusandournugatorythoughtsandfeelings。ThehighestistrulyexistentinGodalone，andasitperishesinusitistransfiguredintosomethingdivine，adivinityinwhichwewouldhavehadnosharebutforitsimmediatepresencerevealedintheverydisappearanceofouractuality；nowthemoodtowhichthisprocessdirectlycomeshomeinhumanaffairsistragicirony。"Thearbitraryname"irony"wouldbeofnoimportance，butthereisanobscurityherewhenitissaidthatitis"thehighest"whichperisheswithournothingnessandthatitisinthedisappearanceofouractualitythatthedivineisfirstrevealed；e。g。again(ibid。，p。91):"Weseeheroesbeginningtowonderwhethertheyhaveerredinthenoblestandfinestelementsoftheirfeelingsandsentiments，notonlyinregardtotheirsuccessfulissue，butalsototheirsourceandtheirworth；indeed，whatelevatesusisthedestructionofthebestitself。"

(Thejustdestructionofutterscoundrelsandcriminalswhoflaunttheirvillainy—theheroofamoderntragedyDieSchuld，isone—hasaninterestforcriminallaw，butnoneatallforartproperwhichiswhatisinquestionhere。)Thetragicdestructionoffigureswhoseethicallifeisonthehighestplanecaninterestandelevateusandreconcileustoitsoccurrenceonlyinsofarastheycomeonthesceneinoppositiontooneanothertogetherwithequallyjustifiedbutdifferentethicalpowerswhichhavecomeintocollisionthroughmisfortune，becausetheresultisthatthenthesefiguresacquireguiltthroughtheiroppositiontoanethicallaw。OutofthissituationtherearisestherightandwrongofbothpartiesandthereforethetrueethicalIdea，which，purifiedandintriumphoverthisone-sidedness，istherebyreconciledinus。Accordingly，itisnotthehighestinuswhichperishes；weareelevatednotbythedestructionofthebestbutbythetriumphofthetrue。Thisitiswhichconstitutesthetrue，purelyethical，interestofancienttragedy(inromantictragedythecharacteroftheinterestundergoesacertainmodification)。AllthisIhaveworkedoutindetailinmyPhenomenologyofMind。ButtheethicalIdeaisactualandpregnantintheworldofsocialinstitutionswithoutthemisfortuneoftragicclashesandthedestructionofindividualsovercomebythismisfortune。AndthisIdea"s(thehighest"s)revelationofitselfinitsactualityasanythingbutanullityiswhattheexternalembodimentofethicallife，thestate，purposesandeffects，andwhattheethicalself-consciousnesspossesses，intuits，andknowsinthestateandwhatthethinkingmindcomprehendsthere。

Theculminatingformofthissubjectivitywhichconceivesitselfasthefinalcourtofappeal—ourtopichere—canbenothingexceptwhatwasimplicitlypresentalreadyinitsprecedingforms，namelysubjectivityknowingitselfasthearbiterandjudgeoftruth，right，andduty。Itconsiststheninthis，thatitknowstheobjectiveethicalprinciples，butfailsinself-forgetfulnessandself-renunciationtoimmerseitselfintheirseriousnessandtobaseactionuponthem。Althoughrelatedtothem，itholdsitselfalooffromthemandknowsitselfasthatwhichwillsanddecidesthus，althoughitmayequallywellwillanddecideotherwise。Youactuallyacceptalaw，itsays，andrespectitasabsolute。Sodo1，butIgofurtherthanyou，becauseIambeyondthislawandcanmakeittosuitmyselfItisnotthethingthatisexcellent，butIwhoamso；asthemasteroflawandthingalike，Isimplyplaywiththemaswithmycaprice；myconsciouslyironicalattitudeletsthehighestperishandImerelyhugmyselfatthethought。Thistypeofsubjectivismnotmerelysubstitutesavoidforthewholecontentofethics，right，duties，andlaws—andsoisevil，infactevilthroughandthroughanduniversally—butinadditionitsformisasubjectivevoid，i。e。itknowsitselfasthiscontentlessvoidandinthisknowledgeknowsitselfasabsolute。

InmyPhenomenologyofMind，Ihaveshownhowthisabsoluteself-complacencyfailstorestinasolitaryworshipofitselfbutbuildsupasortofcommunitywhosebondandsubstanceis，e。g。，the"mutualAsseverationofconscientiousnessandgoodintentions，theenjoymentofthismutualpurity"，butisaboveall"therefreshmentderivedfromthegloryofthisself-knowledgeandself-expression，fromthegloryoffosteringandcherishingthisexperience"。Ihaveshownalsohowwhathasbeencalleda"beautifulsoul"—thatstillnoblertypeofsubjectivismwhichemptiestheobjectiveofallcontentandsofadesawayuntilitlosesallactuality—isavariationofsubjectivismlikeotherformsofthesamephenomenonakintotheseriesofthemhereconsidered。Whatissaidheremaybecomparedwiththeentiresection(C)，"Conscience"，inthePhenomenology，especiallythepartdealingwiththetransitiontoahigherstage—astage，however，theredifferentincharactersAddition:Representativethinkingmaygofurtherandperverttheevilwillintoashowofgoodness。Althoughitcannotalterthenatureofevil，itcaninvestitwithashowofgoodness。Sinceeveryactionhasapositiveaspect，andsincethecategoryofgoodasopposedtoevilislikewisereducedtopositivity，Imayclaimthatmyactioninitsbearingonmyintentionisgood。Thusevilhasgoodlinkedwithitnotonlyinmyconsciousnessbutalsoifwelookatmyactiononitspositiveside。Whenself-consciousnessgivesout，toothersonly，thatitsactionisgood，thisformofsubjectivismishypocrisy。Butifitgoessofarastoclaimthatthedeedisgoodinitsowneyesalso，thenwehaveastillhigherpeakofthesubjectivismwhichknowsitselfasabsolute。Forthistypeofmindabsolutegoodandabsoluteevilhavebothvanished，andthesubjectisthereforeatlibertytopasshimselfoffatdiscretionasanythinghelikes。Thisisthepositionoftheabsolutesophistrywhichusurpstheofficeoflawgiverandreststhedistinctionbetweengoodandevilonitsowncaprice。Thechiefhypocritesarethepiousones(theTartuffes)whoarepunctiliousineveryritualobservanceandmayevenbereligioustoallappearance，whileyettheydojustastheyplease。Thereislittlementionofhypocritesnowadays，partlybecausetheaccusationofhypocrisyseemstobetooharsh；partly，however，becausehypocrisyinitsnaiveformhasmoreorlessdisappeared。Thisdownrightfalsehood，thisveneerofgoodness，hasnowbecometootransparentnottobeseenthrough，andthedivorcebetweendoinggoodwithonehandandevilwiththeothernolongeroccurs，sinceadvancingculturehasweakenedtheoppositionbetweenthesecategories。

Instead，hypocrisyhasnowassumedthesubtlerformofProbabilism，whichinvolvestheagent"sattempttorepresentatransgressionassomethinggoodfromthepointofviewofhisprivateconscience。Thisdoctrinecanonlyarisewhenthemoralandthegoodaredeterminedbyauthority，withtheresultthatthereareasmanyreasonsasthereareauthoritiesforsupposingthatevilisgood。Casuisttheologians，Jesuitsespecially，haveworkedupthesecasesofconscienceandmultipliedthemadinfinitum。

Thesecaseshavenowbeenelaboratedtosuchahighdegreeofsubtletythatnumerousclasheshavearisenbetweenthem，andtheoppositionbetweengoodandevilhasbecomesoweakthatinsingleinstancestheyappeartoturnintooneanother。Theonlydesideratumnowisprobability，i。e。

somethingapproximatelygood，somethingwhichmaybesupportedbyanysinglereasonorauthority。Thusthespecialcharacteristicofthisattitudeisthatitscontentispurelyabstract；itsetsuptheconcretecontentassomethinginessentialorratherabandonsittobareopinion。Onthisprinciple，anyonemayhavecommittedacrimeandyethavewilledthegood。Forexample，ifabadcharacterismurdered，thepositivesideoftheactionmaybegivenouttobethewithstandingofevilandthewilltodiminishit。

NowthenextstepbeyondProbabilismisthatitisnolongeraquestionofsomeoneelse"sstatementorauthority；itisaquestiononlyofthesubjecthimself，i。e。ofhisownconvictionsconvictionwhichaloneisabletomakeathinggood。Thedefecthereisthateverythingissupposedtofallwithintheorbitofconvictionaloneandthattheabsolutelyright，forwhichthisconvictionshouldbeonlytheform，nolongerexists。ItiscertainlynotamatterofindifferencewhetherIdosomethingbyhabitandcustomorbecauseIamactuatedthroughoutbythetruthwhichunderliesthese。Butobjectivetruthisstilldifferentfrommyconviction，becauseconvictionlacksthedistinctionbetweengoodandevil。Convictionalwaysremainsconviction，andthebadcouldonlybethatofwhichIamnotconvinced。

Nowwhilethisobliterationofgoodandevilimpliesaveryloftyattitude，thereisinvolvedinthisattitudetheadmissionthatitissubjecttoerror，andtothatextentitisbroughtdownfromitspedestalintomerefortuitousnessandseemsundeservingofrespect。Nowthisformofsubjectivismisirony，theconsciousnessthatthisprincipleofconvictionisnotworthmuchandthat，loftycriterionthoughitbe，itisonlycapricethatgovernsit。ThisattitudeisreallyaproductofFichte"sphilosophy，whichproclaimsthattheEgoisabsolute，i。e。isabsolutecertainty，the"universalself-hood"whichadvancesthroughacourseoffurtherdevelopmenttoobjectivity。OfFichtehimselfitcannotpropertybesaidthathemadesubjectivecapriceaguidingprincipleinethics，but，lateron，thisprincipleofthemereparticular，inthesenseof"particularself-hood"，wasdeifiedbyFriedrichvonSchlegelwithreferencetothegoodandthebeautiful。Asaresult，hemadeobjectivegoodnessonlyanimageofmyconviction，receivingsupportfrommyeffortsalone，anddependentforitsappearanceanddisappearanceonmeasitslordandmaster。IfIrelatemyselftosomethingobjective，itvanishesatthesamemomentbeforemyeyes，andsoIhoveroverapitofnothingness，summoningshapesfromthedepthsandannihilatingthem。Thissupremetypeofsubjectivismcanemergeonlyinaperiodofadvancedculturewhenfaithhaslostitsseriousness，anditsessenceissimply"allisvanity"。

TransitionfromMoralitytoEthicalLife§141。

Forthegoodasthesubstantialuniversaloffreedom，butassomethingstillabstract，therearethereforerequireddeterminatecharacteristicsofsomesortandtheprinciplefordeterminingthem，thoughaprincipleidenticalwiththegooditself。Forconsciencesimilarly，asthepurelyabstractprincipleofdetermination，itisrequiredthatitsdecisionsshallbeuniversalandobjective。Ifgoodandconscienceareeachkeptabstractandtherebyelevatedtoindependenttotalities，thenbothbecometheindeterminatewhichoughttobedetermined。Buttheintegrationofthesetworelativetotalitiesintoan—absoluteidentityhasalreadybeenimplicitlyachievedinthatthisverysubjectivityofpureself-certainty，awareinitsvacuityofitsgradualevaporation，isidenticalwiththeabstractuniversalityofthegood。Theidentityofthegoodwiththesubjectivewill，anidentitywhichthereforeisconcreteandthetruthofthemboth，isEthicalLife。

Remark:Thedetailsofsuchatransitionoftheconceptaremadeintelligibleinlogic。Here，however，itneedonlybesaidthatitisthenatureoftherestrictedandthefinite(i。e。heretheabstractgoodwhichonlyoughtto:be[butisnot]，andtheequallyabstractsubjectivitywhichonlyought"tobegood[butisnot])tohaveitsoppositeimplicitwithinit，thegooditsactuality，andsubjectivity(themomentinwhichethicallifeisactual)thegood；butsincetheyareone-sidedtheyarenotyetpositedinaccordancewiththeirimplicitnature。Theybecomesopositedintheirnegation。Thatistosay，intheirone-sidedness，wheneachisbentondecliningtohaveinitwhatisinitimplicitly—whenthegoodiswithoutsubjectivityandadeterminatecharacter，andthedeterminingprinciple，subjectivity，iswithoutwhatisimplicitwithinit—andwhenbothbuildthemselvesintoindependenttotalities，theyareannulledandtherebyreducedtomoments，tomomentsoftheconceptwhichbecomesmanifestastheirunityand，havingacquiredrealitypreciselythroughthispositingofitsmoments，isnowpresentasIdea—astheconceptwhichhasmatureditsdeterminationstorealityandatthesametimeispresentintheiridentityastheirimplicitessence。

Theembodimentoffreedomwhichwas[a]firstofallimmediateasright，is[b]characterisedinthereflectionofself-consciousnessasgood。[c]Thethirdstage，originatinghere，initstransitionfrom[b]toethicallife，asthetruthofgoodandsubjectivity，isthereforethetruthbothofsubjectivityandright。Ethicallifeisasubjectivedisposition，butoneimbuedwithwhatisinherentlyright。ThefactthatthisIdeaisthetruthoftheconceptoffreedomissomethingwhich，inphilosophy，mustbeproved，notpresupposed，notadoptedfromfeelingorelsewhere。Thisdemonstrationiscontainedonlyinthefactthatrightandthemoralself-consciousnessbothdisplayinthemselvestheirregressiontothisIdeaastheiroutcome。Thosewhohopetobeabletodispensewithproofanddemonstrationinphilosophyshowtherebythattheyarestillfarfromknowingthefirstthingaboutwhatphilosophyis。Onothertopicsarguetheymay，butinphilosophytheyhavenorighttojoinintheargumentiftheywishtoarguewithouttheconcept。

Addition:Eachofthetwoprincipleshithertodiscussed，namelygoodintheabstractandconscience，isdefectiveinlackingitsopposite。Goodintheabstractevaporatesintosomethingcompletelypowerless，intowhichImayintroduceanyandeverycontent，whilethesubjectivityofmindbecomesjustasworthlessbecauseitlacksanyobjectivesignificance。Thusalongingmayariseforanobjectiveorderinwhichmangladlydegradeshimselftoservitudeandtotalsubjection，ifonlytoescapethetormentofvacuityandnegation。ManyProtestantshaverecentlygoneovertotheRomanCatholicChurch，andtheyhavedonesobecausetheyfoundtheirinnerlifeworthlessandgraspedatsomethingfixed，atasupport，anauthority，evenifitwasnotexactlythestabilityofthoughtwhichtheycaught。

Theunityofthesubjectivewiththeobjectiveandabsolutegoodisethicallife，andinitwefindthereconciliationwhichaccordswiththeconcept。Moralityistheformofthewillingeneralonitssubjectiveside。Ethicallifeismorethanthesubjectiveformandtheself-determinationofthewill；

inadditionithasasitscontenttheconceptofthewill，namelyfreedom。Therightandthemoralcannotexistindependently；theymusthavetheethicalastheirsupportandfoundation，fortherightlacksthemomentofsubjectivity，whilemoralityinturnpossessesthatmomentalone，andconsequentlyboththerightandthemorallackactualitybythemselves。Onlytheinfinite，theIdea，isactual。Rightexistsonlyasabranchofawholeorliketheivywhichtwinesitselfroundatreefirmlyrootedonitsownaccount。

ThirdPart:EthicalLife§142。

EthicallifeistheIdeaoffreedominthatontheonehanditisthegoodbecomealive—thegoodendowedinself-consciousnesswithknowingandwillingandactualisedbyself-consciousaction—whileontheotherhandself-consciousnesshasintheethicalrealmitsabsolutefoundationandtheendwhichactuatesitseffort。Thusethicallifeistheconceptoffreedomdevelopedintotheexistingworldandthenatureofself-consciousness。

§143。

Sincethisunityoftheconceptofthewillwithitsembodiment—i。e。theparticularwill—isknowing，consciousnessofthedistinctionbetweenthesetwomomentsoftheIdeaispresent，butpresentinsuchawaythatnoweachofthesemomentsisinitsowneyesthetotalityoftheIdeaandhasthattotalityasitsfoundationandcontent。

§144。

[a]Theobjectiveethicalorder，whichcomesonthesceneinplaceofgoodintheabstract，issubstancemadeconcretebysubjectivityasinfiniteform。Henceitpositswithinitselfdistinctionswhosespecificcharacteristherebydeterminedbytheconcept，andwhichendowtheethicalorderwithastablecontentindependentlynecessaryandsubsistentinexaltationabovesubjectiveopinionandcaprice。Thesedistinctionsareabsolutelyvalidlawsandinstitutions。

Addition:Throughoutethicallifetheobjectiveandsubjectivemomentsarealikepresent，butbothofthemareonlyitsforms。Itssubstanceisthegood，i。e。theobjectiveisfilledwithsubjectivity。Ifweconsiderethicallifefromtheobjectivestandpoint，wemaysaythatinitweareethicalunselfconsciously。Inthissense，Antigoneproclaimsthat"nooneknowswhencethelawscome；theyareeverlasting"，i。e。theirdeterminatecharacterisabsoluteandhasitssourceinthenatureofthething。Nonetheless，however，thesubstanceofethicallifehasaconsciousnessalso，thoughthestatusofthisconsciousnessisneverhigherthanthatofbeingonemoment。

§145。

ItisthefactthattheethicalorderisthesystemofthesespecificdeterminationsoftheIdeawhichconstitutesitsrationality。Hencetheethicalorderisfreedomortheabsolutewillaswhatisobjective，acircleofnecessitywhosemomentsaretheethicalpowerswhichregulatethelifeofindividuals。Tothesepowersindividualsarerelatedasaccidentstosubstance，anditisinindividualsthatthesepowersarerepresented，havetheshapeofappearance，andbecomeactualised。

Addition:Sincethelawsandinstitutionsoftheethicalordermakeuptheconceptoffreedom，theyarethesubstanceoruniversalessenceofindividuals，whoarethusrelatedtothemasaccidentsonly。Whethertheindividualexistsornotisallonetotheobjectiveethicalorder。Italoneispermanentandisthepowerregulatingthelifeofindividuals。Thustheethicalorderhasbeenrepresentedbymankindaseternaljustice，asgodsabsolutelyexistent，incontrastwithwhichtheemptybusinessofindividualsisonlyagameofsee-saw。

§146。

[b]Thesubstantialorder，intheself-consciousnesswhichithasthusactuallyattainedinindividuals，knowsitselfandsoisanobjectofknowledge。Thisethicalsubstanceanditslawsandpowersareontheonehandanobjectoveragainstthesubject，andfromhispointofviewtheyare—areinthehighestsenseofself-subsistentbeing。Thisisanabsoluteauthorityandpowerinfinitelymorefirmlyestablishedthanthebeingofnature。

Remark:Thesun，themoon，mountains，rivers，andthenaturalobjectsofallkindsbywhichwearesurrounded，are。Forconsciousnesstheyhavetheauthoritynotonlyofmerebeingbutalsoofpossessingaparticularnaturewhichitacceptsandtowhichitadjustsitselfindealingwiththem，usingthem，orinbeingotherwiseconcernedwiththem。Theauthorityofethicallawsisinfinitelyhigher，becausenaturalobjectsconcealrationalityunderthecloakofcontingencyandexhibititonlyintheirutterlyexternalanddisconnectedway。

§147。

Ontheotherhand，theyarenotsomethingalientothesubject。Onthecontrary，hisspiritbearswitnesstothemastoitsownessence，theessenceinwhichhehasafeelingofhisselfhood，andinwhichhelivesasinhisownelementwhichisnotdistinguishedfromhimself。Thesubjectisthusdirectlylinkedtotheethicalorderbyarelationwhichismorelikeanidentitythaneventherelationoffaithortrust。

Remark:Faithandtrustemergealongwithreflection；theypresupposethepowerofformingideasandmakingdistinctions。Forexample，itisonethingtobeapagan，adifferentthingtobelieveinapaganreligion。Thisrelationorratherthisabsenceofrelation，thisidentityinwhichtheethicalorderistheactuallivingsoulofself-consciousness，cannodoubtpassoverintoarelationoffaithandconvictionandintoarelationproducedbymeansoffurtherreflection，i。e。intoaninsightduetoreasoningstartingperhapsfromsomeparticularpurposesinterests，andconsiderations，fromfearorhope，orfromhistoricalconditions。Butadequateknowledgeofthisidentitydependsonthinkingintermsoftheconcept。

§148。

Assubstantiveincharacter，theselawsandinstitutionsaredutiesbindingonthewilloftheindividual，becauseassubjective，asinherentlyundetermined，ordeterminedasparticular，hedistinguisheshimselffromthemandhencestandsrelatedtothemastothesubstanceofhisownbeing。

Remark:The"doctrineofduties"inmoralphilosophy(Imeantheobjectivedoctrine，notthatwhichissupposedtobecontainedintheemptyprincipleofmoralsubjectivity，becausethatprincipledeterminesnothing—(see§134)isthereforecomprisedinthesystematicdevelopmentofthecircleofethicalnecessitywhichfollowsinthisThirdPart。Thedifferencebetweentheexpositioninthisbookandtheformofa"doctrineofduties"liessolelyinthefactthat，inwhatfollows，thespecifictypesofethicallifeturnupasnecessaryrelationships；theretheexpositionends，withoutbeingsupplementedineachcasebytheadditionthat"thereforemenhaveadutytoconformtothisinstitution"。

A"doctrineofduties"whichisotherthanaphilosophicalsciencetakesitsmaterialfromexistingrelationshipsandshowsitsconnectionwiththemoralist"spersonalnotionsorwithprinciplesandthoughts，purposes，impulses，feelings，&c。，thatareforthcomingeverywhere；andasreasonsforacceptingeachdutyinturn，itmaytackonitsfurtherconsequencesintheirbearingontheotherethicalrelationshipsoronwelfareandopinion。Butanimmanentandlogical"doctrineofduties"canbenothingexcepttheserialexpositionoftherelationshipswhicharenecessitatedbytheIdeaoffreedomandarethereforeactualintheirentirety，towithinthestate。

§149。

Thebondofdutycanappearasarestrictiononlyonindeterminatesubjectivityorabstractfreedom，andontheimpulseseitherofthenaturalwillorofthemoralwillwhichdeterminesitsindeterminategoodarbitrarily。Thetruthis，however，thatindutytheindividualfindshisliberation；first，liberationfromdependenceonmerenaturalimpulseandfromthedepressionwhichasaparticularsubjecthecannotescapeinhismoralreflectionsonwhatoughttobeandwhatmightbe；

secondly，liberationfromtheindeterminatesubjectivitywhich，neverreachingrealityortheobjectivedeterminacyofaction，remainsself-enclosedanddevoidofactuality。Indutytheindividualacquireshissubstantivefreedom。

Addition:Dutyisarestrictiononlyontheself-willofsubjectivity。Itstandsinthewayonlyofthatabstractgoodtowhichsubjectivityadheres。Whenwesay:"Wewanttobefree"，theprimarymeaningofthewordsissimply:"Wewantabstractfreedom"，andeveryinstitutionandeveryorganofthestatepassesasarestrictiononfreedomofthatkind。Thusdutyisnotarestrictiononfreedom，butonlyonfreedomintheabstract，i。e。onunfreedom。Dutyistheattainmentofouressence，thewinningofpositivefreedom。

§150。

Virtueistheethicalorderreflectedintheindividualcharactersofarasthatcharacterisdeterminedbyitsnaturalendowment。Whenvirtuedisplaysitselfsolelyastheindividual"ssimpleconformitywiththedutiesofthestationtowhichhebelongs，itisrectitude。

Remark:Inanethicalcommunity，itiseasytosaywhatmanmustdo，whatarethedutieshehastofulfilinordertobevirtuous:hehassimplytofollowthewell-knownandexplicitrulesofhisownsituation。Rectitudeisthegeneralcharacterwhichmaybedemandedofhimbylaworcustom。Butfromthestandpointofmorality，rectitudeoftenseemstobesomethingcomparativelyinferior，somethingbeyondwhichstillhigherdemandsmustbemadeononeselfandothers，becausethecravingtobesomethingspecialisnotsatisfiedwithwhatisabsoluteanduniversal；itfindsconsciousnessofpeculiarityonlyinwhatisexceptional。

Thevariousfacetsofrectitudemayequallywellbecalledvirtues，sincetheyarealsopropertiesoftheindividual，althoughnotspeciallyofhimincontrastwithothers。Talkaboutvirtue，however，readilybordersonemptyrhetoric，becauseitisonlyaboutsomethingabstractandindeterminate；

andfurthermore，argumentativeandexpositorytalkofthesortisaddressedtotheindividualastoabeingofcapriceandsubjectiveinclination。Inanexistingethicalorderinwhichacompletesystemofethicalrelationshasbeendevelopedandactualised，virtueinthestrictsenseofthewordisinplaceandactuallyappearsonlyinexceptionalcircumstancesorwhenoneobligationclasheswithanother。Theclash，however，mustbeagenuineone，becausemoralreflectioncanmanufactureclashesofallsortstosuititspurposeandgiveitselfaconsciousnessofbeingsomethingspecialandhaving。madesacrifices。Itisforthisreasonthatthephenomenonofvirtueproperiscommonerwhensocietiesandcommunitiesareuncivilised，sinceinthosecircumstancesethicalconditionsandtheiractualisationaremoreamatterofprivatechoiceorthenaturalgeniusofanexceptionalindividual。Forinstance，itwasespeciallytoHerculesthattheancientsascribedvirtue。Inthestatesofantiquity，ethicallifehadnotgrownintothisfreesystemofanobjectiveorderself-subsistentlydeveloped，andconsequentlyitwasbythepersonalgeniusofindividualsthatthisdefecthadtobemadegood。Itfollowsthatifa"doctrineofvirtues"isnotamere"doctrineofduties"，andifthereforeitembracestheparticularfacetofcharacter，thefacetgroundedinnaturalendowment，itwillbeanaturalhistoryofmind。

Sincevirtuesareethicalprinciplesappliedtotheparticular，andsinceinthistheirsubjectiveaspecttheyaresomethingindeterminate，thereturnsupherefordeterminingthemthequantitativeprincipleofmoreorless。Theresultisthatconsiderationofthemintroducestheircorrespondingdefectsorvices，asinAristotle，whodefinedeachparticularvirtueasstrictlyameanbetweenanexcessandadeficiency。

Thecontentwhichassumestheformofdutiesandthenvirtuesisthesameasthatwhichalsohastheformofimpulses(seeRemarkto§19)。Impulseshavethesamebasiccontentasdutiesandvirtues，butinimpulsesthiscontentstillbelongstotheimmediatewillandtoinstinctivefeeling；ithasnotbeendevelopedtothepointof，becomingethical。Consequently，impulseshaveincommonwiththecontentofdutiesandvirtuesonlytheabstractobjectonwhichtheyaredirected，anobjectindeterminateinitself，andsodevoidofanythingtodiscriminatethemasgoodorevil。Orinotherwords，impulses，consideredabstractlyintheirpositiveaspectalone，aregood，while，consideredabstractlyintheirnegativeaspectalone，theyareevil(see§18)。

Addition:Toconformtotheethicalorderonthisorthatparticularoccasionishardlyenoughtomakeamanvirtuous；heisvirtuousonlywhenthismodeofbehaviourisafixedelementinhischaracter。Virtueisratherlikeethicalvirtuosity，[Heroes("ethicalvirtuosi")livedinuncivilisedconditions(seeAdditionto§93)andtherewasnoethicallifeinsocietyastheyfoundit；butsincetheyintroducedethicalinstitutionsforthefirsttime(seeRemarksto§§167and203)，theydisplayedvirtueasakindofvirtuosity。Nowadays，ethicallifeiscommontoeveryoneandconsistsinconformitytotheexistingorder，notindivergencefromit。]andthereasonwhywespeakofvirtuelessnowadaysthanformerlyisthatethicallivingislessliketheformofaparticularindividualscharacter。TheFrenchareparexcellencethepeoplewhospeakmostofvirtue，andthereasonisthatamongstthemethicallifeintheindividualsismoreamatterofhisownidiosyncrasiesoranaturalmodeofconduct。TheGermans，ontheotherhand，aremorethoughtful，andamongstthemthesamecontentacquirestheformofuniversality。

§151。

Butwhenindividualsaresimplyidentifiedwiththeactualorder，ethicallife(dasSittliche)appearsastheirgeneralmodeofconduct，i。e。ascustom(Sitte)，whilethehabitualpracticeofethicallivingappearsasasecondnaturewhich，putintheplaceoftheinitial，purelynaturalwill，isthesoulofcustompermeatingitthroughandthrough，thesignificanceandtheactualityofitsexistence。Itismindlivingandpresentasaworld，andthesubstanceofmindthusexistsnowforthefirsttimeasmind。

Addition:Justasnaturehasitslaws，andasanimals，trees，andthesunfulfiltheirlaw，socustom(Sitte)isthelawappropriatetofreemind。Rightandmoralityarenotyetwhatethics(Sitte)is，namelymind。Inright，particularityisstillnottheparticularityoftheconcept，butonlythatofthenaturalwill。So，too，atthestandpointofmorality，self-consciousnessisnotyetmind"sconsciousnessofitself。Atthatlevelitisonlytheworthofthesubjectinhimselfthatisinquestion，i。e。thesubjectwhodetermineshimselfbyreferencetogoodincontrastwithevil，whostillhasself-willastheformofhiswilling。Here，however，atthestandpointofethics，thewillismind"swillandithasacontentwhichissubstantiveandinconformitywithitself。

Educationistheartofmakingmenethical。Itbeginswithpupilswhoselifeisattheinstinctivelevelandshowsthemthewaytoasecondbirth，thewaytochangetheirinstinctivenatureintoasecond，intellectual，nature，andmakesthisintellectuallevelhabitualtothem。Atthispointtheclashbetweenthenaturalandthesubjectivewilldisappears，thesubject"sinternalstrugglediesaway。Tothisextent，habitispartofethicallifeasitisofphilosophicthoughtalso，sincesuchthoughtdemandsthatmindbetrainedagainstcapriciousfancies，andthatthesebedestroyedandovercometoleavethewayclearforrationalthinking。Itistruethatamaniskilledbyhabit，i。e。ifhehasoncecometofeelcompletelyathomeinlife，ifhehasbecomementallyandphysicallydull，andiftheclashbetweensubjectiveconsciousnessandmentalactivityhasdisappeared；formanisactiveonlyinsofarashehasnotattainedhisendandwillstodevelophispotentialitiesandvindicatehimselfinstrugglingtoattainit。Whenthishasbeenfullyachieved，activityandvitalityareatanend，andtheresult-lossofinterestinlife-ismentalorphysicaldeath。

§152。

Inthiswaytheethicalsubstantialorderhasattaineditsright，anditsrightitsvalidity。Thatistosay，theself-willoftheindividualhasvanishedtogetherwithhisprivateconsciencewhichhadclaimedindependenceandopposeditselftotheethicalsubstance。For，whenhischaracterisethical，herecognisesastheendwhichmoveshimtoacttheuniversalwhichisitselfunmovedbutisdisclosedinitsspecificdeterminationsasrationalityactualised。Heknowsthathisowndignityandthewholestabilityofhisparticularendsaregroundedinthissameuniversal，anditisthereinthatheactuallyattainsthese。Subjectivityisitselftheabsoluteformandexistentactualityofthesubstantialorder，andthedistinctionbetweensubjectontheonehandandsubstanceontheother，astheobject，end，andcontrollingpowerofthesubject，isthesameas，andhasvanisheddirectlyalongwith，thedistinctionbetweentheminform。

Remark:Subjectivity。isthegroundwhereintheconceptoffreedomisrealised(see§106)。Atthelevelofmorality，subjectivityisstilldistinctfromfreedom，theconceptofsubjectivity；butatthelevelofethicallifeitistherealisationoftheconceptinawayadequatetotheconceptitself。

§153。

Therightofindividualstobesubjectivelydestinedtofreedomisfulfilledwhentheybelongtoanactualethicalorder，becausetheirconvictionoftheirfreedomfindsitstruthinsuchanobjectiveorder，anditisinanethicalorderthattheyareactuallyinpossessionoftheirownessenceortheirowninneruniversality(see§

147)。

Remark:Whenafatherinquiredaboutthebestmethodofeducatinghissoninethicalconduct，aPythagoreanreplied:"Makehimacitizenofastatewithgoodlaws。"(Thephrasehasalsobeenattributedtoothers。)

Addition:Theeducationalexperiments，advocatedbyRousseauinEmile，ofwithdrawingchildrenfromthecommonlifeofeverydayandbringingthemupinthecountry，haveturnedouttobefutile，sincenosuccesscanattendanattempttoestrangepeoplefromthelawsoftheworld。

Eveniftheyounghavetobeeducatedinsolitude，itisstilluselesstohopethatthefragranceoftheintellectualworldwillnotultimatelypermeatethissolitudeorthatthepoweroftheworldmindistoofeebletogainthemasteryofthoseoutlyingregions。Itisbybecomingacitizenofagoodstatethattheindividualfirstcomesintohisright。

§154。

Therightofindividualstotheirparticularsatisfactionisalsocontainedintheethicalsubstantialorder，sinceparticularityistheoutwardappearanceoftheethicalorder—amodeinwhichthatorderisexistent。

§155。

Henceinthisidentityoftheuniversalwillwiththeparticularwill，rightanddutycoalesce，andbybeingintheethicalorderamanhasrightsinsofarashehasduties，anddutiesinsofarashehasrights。Inthesphereofabstractright，Ihavetherightandanotherhasthecorrespondingduty。Inthemoralsphere，therightofmyprivatejudgementandwill，aswellasofmyhappiness，hasnot，butonlyoughttohave，coalescedwithdutiesandbecomeobjective。

Addition:Aslavecanhavenoduties；onlyafreemanhasthem。Ifallrightswereputononesideandalldutiesontheother，thewholewouldbedissolved，sincetheiridentityaloneisthefundamentalthing，anditistothisthatwehaveheretoholdfast。

§156。

Theethicalsubstance，ascontainingindependentself-consciousnessunitedwithitsconcept，istheactualmindofafamilyandanation。

Addition:Ethicallifeisnotabstractlikethegood，butisintenselyactual。Mindhasactuality，andindividualsareaccidentsofthisactuality。Thusindealingwithethicallife，onlytwoviewsarepossible:eitherwestartfromthesubstantialityoftheethicalorder，orelseweproceedatomisticallyandbuildonthebasisofsingleindividuals。Thissecondpointofviewexcludesmindbecauseitleadsonlytoajuxtaposition。Mind，however，isnotsomethingsingle，butistheunityofthesingleandtheuniversal。

§157。

TheconceptofthisIdeahasbeingonlyasmind，assomethingknowingitselfandactual，becauseitistheobjectificationofitself，themovementrunningthroughtheformofitsmoments。Itistherefore(A)ethicalmindinitsnaturalorimmediatephase—theFamily。Thissubstantialitylosesitsunity，passesoverintodivision，andintothephaseofrelation，i。e。into(B)CivilSociety—anassociationofmembersasself-subsistentindividualsinauniversalitywhich，becauseoftheirself-subsistence，isonlyabstract。Theirassociationisbroughtaboutbytheirneeds，bythelegalsystem—themeanstosecurityofpersonandproperty—andbyanexternalorganisationforattainingtheirparticularandcommoninterests。Thisexternalstate(C)isbroughtback，toandweldedintounityintheConstitutionoftheStatewhichistheendandactualityofboththesubstantialuniversalorderandthepubliclifedevotedthereto。

ThirdPart:EthicalLifeiTheFamily(a):Marriage-(b)FamilyCapital-C:Children&Dissolution§158。

Thefamily，astheimmediatesubstantialityofmind，isspecificallycharacterisedbylove，whichismind"sfeelingofitsownunity。Henceinafamily，one"sframeofmindistohaveself-consciousnessofone"sindividualitywithinthisunityastheabsoluteessenceofoneself，withtheresultthatoneisinitnotasanindependentpersonbutasamember。

Addition:Lovemeansingeneraltermstheconsciousnessofmyunitywithanother，sothatIamnotinselfishisolationbutwinmyself-consciousnessonlyastherenunciationofmyindependenceandthroughknowingmyselfastheunityofmyselfwithanotherandoftheotherwithme。Love，however，isfeeling，i。e。ethicallifeintheformofsomethingnatural。Inthestate，feelingdisappears；

thereweareconsciousofunityaslaw；therethecontentmustberationalandknowntous。ThefirstmomentinloveisthatIdonotwishtobeaself-subsistentandindependentpersonandthat，ifIwere，thenIwouldfeeldefectiveandincomplete。ThesecondmomentisthatIfindmyselfinanotherperson，thatIcountforsomethingintheother，whiletheotherinturncomestocountforsomethinginme。Love，therefore，isthemosttremendouscontradiction；theUnderstandingcannotresolveitsincethereisnothingmorestubbornthanthispoint(Punktualit?t)ofself-consciousnesswhichisnegatedandwhichneverthelessIoughttopossessasaffirmative。Loveisatoncethepropoundingandtheresolvingofthiscontradiction。Astheresolvingofit，loveisunityofanethicaltype。

§159。

Therightwhichtheindividualenjoysonthestrengthofthefamilyunityandwhichisinthefirstplacesimplytheindividual"slifewithinthisunity，takesontheformofright(astheabstractmomentofdeterminateindividuality)onlywhenthefamilybeginstodissolve。Atthatpointthosewhoshouldbefamily-membersbothintheirinclinationandinactualitybegintobeself-subsistentpersons，andwhereastheyformerlyconstitutedonespecificmomentwithinthewhole，theynowreceivetheirshareseparatelyandsoonlyinanexternalfashionbywayofmoney，food，educationalexpenses，andthelike。

Addition:Therightofthefamilyproperlyconsistsinthefactthatitssubstantialityshouldhavedeterminateexistence。Thusitisarightagainstexternalityandagainstsecessionsfromthefamilyunity。Ontheotherhand，torepeat，loveisafeeling，somethingsubjective，againstwhichunitycannotmakeitselfeffective。Thedemandforunitycanbesustained，then，onlyinrelationtosuchthingsasarebynatureexternalandnotconditionedbyfeeling。

§160。

Thefamilyiscompletedinthesethreephases:

(a)Marriage，theformassumedbytheconceptofthefamilyinitsimmediatephase；

(b)FamilyPropertyandCapital(theexternalembodimentoftheconcept)andattentiontothese；

(c)TheEducationofChildrenandtheDissolutionoftheFamily。

A。Marriage§161。

Marriage，astheimmediatetypeofethicalrelationship，containsfirst，themomentofphysicallife；andsincemarriageisasubstantialtie，thelifeinvolvedinitislifeinitstotality，i。e。astheactualityoftheraceanditslife-process。But，secondly，inself-consciousnessthenaturalsexualunion-aunionpurelyinwardorimplicitandforthatveryreasonexistentaspurelyexternal-ischangedintoauniononthelevelofmind，intoself-consciouslove。

Addition:Marriageisinessenceanethicaltie。Formerly，especiallyinmostsystemsofnaturallaw，attentionwaspaidonlytothephysicalsideofmarriageortoitsnaturalcharacter。

Consequently，itwastreatedonlyasasexrelationship，andthiscompletelybarredthewaytoitsothercharacteristics。Thisiscrudeenough，butitisnolesssotothinkofitasonlyacivilcontract，andevenKantdoesthis。Onthisview，thepartiesareboundbyacontractofmutualcaprice，andmarriageisthusdegradedtothelevelofacontractforreciprocaluse。Athirdviewofmarriageisthatwhichbasesitonlovealone，butthismustberejectedliketheothertwo，sinceloveisonlyafeelingandsoisexposedineveryrespecttocontingency，aguisewhichethicallifemaynotassume。Marriage，therefore，istobemorepreciselycharacterisedasethico-legal(rechtlichsittliche)love，andthiseliminatesfrommarriagethetransient，fickle，andpurelysubjectiveaspectsoflove。

§162。

Onthesubjectiveside，marriagemayhaveamoreobvioussourceintheparticularinclinationofthetwopersonswhoareenteringuponthemarriagetie，orintheforesightandcontrivanceoftheparents，andsoforth。Butitsobjectivesourceliesinthefreeconsentofthepersons，especiallyintheirconsenttomakethemselvesoneperson，torenouncetheirnaturalandindividualpersonalitytothisunityofonewiththeother。Fromthispointofview，theirunionisaself-restriction，butinfactitistheirliberation，becauseinittheyattaintheirsubstantiveself-consciousness。

Remark:Ourobjectivelyappointedendandsoourethicaldutyistoenterthemarriedstate。

Theexternaloriginofanyparticularmarriageisinthelureofthecasecontingent，anditdependsprincipallyontheextentwhichreflectivethoughthasbeendeveloped。Atoneextreme，thestepisthatthemarriageisarrangedbythecontrivanceofbenevolentparents；theappointedendofthepartiesisaunionofmutuallove，theirinclinationtomarryarisesfromthefactthateachgrowsacquaintedwiththeotherfromthefirstasadestinedpartner。Attheotherextreme，itistheinclinationofthepartieswhichcomesfirst，appearinginthemasthesetwoinfinitelyparticularisedindividuals。Themoreethicalwaytomatrimonymaybetakentobetheformerextremeoranywayatallwherebythedecisiontomarrycomesfirstandtheinclinationtodosofollows，sothatintheactualweddingbothdecisionandinclinationcoalesce。Inthelatterextreme，itistheuniquenessoftheinfinitelyparticularisedwhichmakesgooditsclaimsinaccordancewiththesubjectiveprincipleofthemodernworld(seeRemarkto§124)。

Butthoseworksofmodernart，dramaticandother，inwhichtheloveofthesexesisthemaininterest，arepervadedbyachilldespitetheheatofpassiontheyportray，fortheyassociatethepassionwithaccidentthroughoutandrepresenttheentiredramaticinterestasifitrestedsolelyonthecharactersastheseindividuals；whatrestsonthemmayindeedbeofinfiniteimportancetothem，butisofnonewhateverinitself。

Addition:Amongstpeopleswhoholdthefemalesexinscantrespect，marriagesarearrangedbytheparentsatwillwithoutconsultingtheyoungpeople。Thelatterraisenoobjection，sinceatthatlevelofculturetheparticularityoffeelingmakesnoclaimsforitself。Forthewomanitisonlyamatterofgettingahusband，fortheman，ofgettingawife。Inothersocialconditions，considerationsofwealth，connections，politicalends，maybethedeterminingfactor。Insuchcircumstances，greathardshipsmayarisethroughmakingmarriageameanstootherends。

Nowadays，however，thesubjectiveoriginofmarriage，thestateofbeinginlove，isregardedastheonlyimportantoriginatingfactor。Herethepositionisrepresentedtobethatamanmustwaituntilhishourhasstruckandthathecanbestowhisloveonlyononespecificindividual。

§163。

Theethicalaspectofmarriageconsistsintheparties"consciousnessofthisunityastheirsubstantiveaim，andsointheirlove，trust，andcommonsharingoftheirentireexistenceasindividuals。Whenthepartiesareinthisframeofmindandtheirunionisactual，theirphysicalpassionsinkstothelevelofaphysicalmoment，destinedtovanishinitsverysatisfaction。Ontheotherhand，thespiritualbondofunionsecuresitsrightsasthesubstanceofmarriageandthusrises，inherentlyindissoluble，toaplaneabovethecontingencyofpassionandthetransienceofparticularcaprice。

Remark:Itwasnotedabove(in§75)thatmarriage，sofarasitsessentialbasisisconcerned，isnotacontractualrelation。Onthecontrary，thoughmarriagebeginsincontract，itispreciselyacontracttotranscendthestandpointofcontract，thestandpointfromwhichpersonsareregardedintheirindividualityasself-subsistentunits。Theidentificationofpersonalities，wherebythefamilybecomesonepersonanditsmembersbecomeitsaccidents(thoughsubstanceisinessencetherelationofaccidentstoitself)，istheethicalmind。Takenbyitselfandstrippedofthemanifoldexternalsofwhichitispossessedowingtoitsembodimentintheseindividualsandtheinterestsofthephenomenalrealm，interestslimitedintimeandnumerousotherways，thismindemergesinashapeforrepresentativethinkingandhasbeenreveredasPenates，&c。；andingeneralitisinthismindthatthereligiouscharacterofmarriageandthefamily，orpietas，isgrounded。Itisafurtherabstractionstilltoseparatethedivine，orthesubstantive，fromitsbody，andthentostampit，togetherwiththefeelingandconsciousnessofmentalunity，aswhatisfalselycalled"Platonic"love。

Thisseparationisinkeepingwiththemonasticdoctrinewhichcharacterisesthemomentofphysicallifeaspurelynegativeandwhich，preciselybythusseparatingthephysicalfromthemental，endowstheformerbyitselfwithinfiniteimportance。

Addition:Thedistinctionbetweenmarriageandconcubinageisthatthelatterischieflyamatterofsatisfyingnaturaldesire，whilethissatisfactionismadesecondaryintheformer。Itisforthisreasonthatphysicalexperiencesmaybementionedinmarriedlifewithoutablush，althoughoutsidethemarriagetietheirmentionwouldproduceasenseofshame。Butitisonthisaccount，too，thatmarriagemustberegardedasinprincipleindissoluble，fortheendofmarriageistheethicalend，anendsoloftythateverythingelseismanifestlypowerlessagainstitandmadesubjecttoit。Marriageisnottobedissolvedbecauseofpassion，sincepassionissubordinatetoit。Butitisnotindissolubleexceptinprinciple，sinceasChristsays，only"forthehardnessofyourheart"isdivorceestablished。Sincemarriagehasfeelingforoneofitsmoments，itisnotabsolutebutweakandpotentiallydissoluble。Legislators，however，mustmakeitsdissolutionasdifficultaspossibleandupholdtherightoftheethicalorderagainstcaprice。

§164。

Mereagreementtothestipulatedtermsofacontrastinitselfinvolvesthegenuinetransferofthepropertyinquestion(see§79)。Similarly，thesolemndeclarationbythepartiesoftheirconsenttoentertheethicalbondofmarriage，anditscorrespondingrecognitionandconfirmationbytheirfamilyandcommunity，constitutestheformalcompletionandactualityofmarriage。Theknotistiedandmadeethicalonlyafterthisceremony，wherebythroughtheuseofsigns，i。e。oflanguage(themostmentalembodimentofmind-see§78)，thesubstantialthinginthemarriageisbroughtcompletelyintobeing。Asaresult，thesensuousmoment，theonepropertophysicallife，isputintoitsethicalplaceassomethingonlyconsequentialandaccidental，belongingtotheexternalembodimentoftheethicalbond，whichindeedcansubsistexclusivelyinreciprocalloveandsupport。

Remark:Ifwithaviewtoframingorcriticisinglegalenactments，thequestionisasked:whatshouldberegardedasthechiefendofmarriage?，thequestionmaybetakentomean:whichsinglefacetofmarriageinitsactualityistoberegardedasthemostessentialone?Noonefacetbyitself，however，makesupthewholerangeofitsimplicitandexplicitcontent，i。e。ofitsethicalcharacter，andoneorotherofitsfacetsmaybelackinginanexistingmarriagewithoutdetrimenttotheessenceofmarriageitself。

Itisintheactualconclusionofamarriage，i。e。inthewedding，thattheessenceofthetieisexpressedandestablishedbeyonddisputeassomethingethical，raisedabovethecontingencyoffeelingandprivateinclination。Ifthisceremonyistakenasanexternalformality，amereso-called"civilrequirement"，itistherebystrippedofallsignificanceexceptperhapsthatofservingthepurposeofedificationandattestingthecivilrelationoftheparties。Itisreducedindeedtoamerefiatofacivilorecclesiasticalauthority。Assuchitappearsassomethingnotmerelyindifferenttothetruenatureofmarriage，butactuallyalientoit。Theheartisconstrainedbythelawtoattachavaluetotheformalceremonyandthelatterislookeduponmerelyasaconditionwhichmustprecedethecompletemutualsurrenderofthepartiestooneanother。Assuchitappearstobringdisunionintotheirlovingdispositionand，likeanalienintruder，tothwarttheinwardnessoftheirunion。Suchadoctrine，。pretentiouslyclaimstoaffordthehighestconceptionofthefreedom，"inwardness，andperfectionoflove；butinfactitisatravestyoftheethicalaspectoflove，thehigheraspectwhichrestrainspurelysensualimpulseandputsitinthebackground。Suchrestraintisalreadypresentattheinstinctivelevelinshame，anditrisestochastityandmodestyasconsciousnessbecomesmorespecificallyintelligent。Inparticular，theviewjustcriticisedcastsasidemarriage"sspecificallyethicalcharacter，whichconsistsinthis，thattheconsciousnessofthepartiesiscrystallisedoutofitsphysicalandsubjectivemodeandliftedtothethoughtofwhatissubstantive；insteadofcontinuallyreservingtoitselfthecontingencyandcapriceofbodilydesire，itremovesthemarriagebondfromtheprovinceofthiscaprice，surrenderstothesubstantive，andswearsallegiancetothePenates；thephysicalmomentitsubordinatesuntilitbecomessomethingwhollyconditionedbythetrueandethicalcharacterofthemarriagerelationandbytherecognitionofthebondasanethicalone。Itiseffronteryanditsbuttress，theUnderstanding，whichcannotapprehendthespeculativecharacterofthesubstantialtie；nevertheless，withthisspeculativecharactertherecorrespondbothethicalpurityofheartandthelegislationofChristianpeoples。

Addition:FriedrichvonSchlegelinhisLucinde，andafollowerofhisintheBriefeeinesUngenannten，Ihaveputforwardtheviewthattheweddingceremonyissuperfluousandaformalitywhichmightbediscarded。Theirreasonisthatloveis，sotheysay，thesubstanceofmarriageandthatthecelebrationthereforedetractsfromitsworth。Surrendertosensualimpulseishererepresentedasnecessarytoprovethefreedomandinwardnessoflove-anargumentnotunknowntoseducers。

Itmustbenoticedinconnectionwithsex-relationsthatagirlinsurrenderingherbodylosesherhonour。Withaman，however，thecaseisotherwise，becausehehasafieldforethicalactivityoutsidethefamily。Agirlisdestinedinessenceforthemarriagetieandforthatonly；itisthereforedemandedofherthatherloveshalltaketheformofmarriageandthatthedifferentmomentsinloveshallattaintheirtruerationalrelationtoeachother。

§165。

Thedifferenceinthephysicalcharacteristicsofthetwosexeshasarationalbasisandconsequentlyacquiresanintellectualandethicalsignificance。Thissignificanceisdeterminedbythedifferenceintowhichtheethicalsubstantiality，astheconcept，internallysundersitselfinorderthatitsvitalitymaybecomeaconcreteunityconsequentuponthisdifference。

§166。

Thusonesexismindinitsself-diremptionintoexplicitpersonalself-subsistenceandtheknowledgeandvolitionoffreeuniversality，i。e。theself-consciousnessofconceptualthoughtandthevolitionoftheobjectivefinalend。Theothersexismindmaintainingitselfinunityasknowledgeandvolitionofthesubstantive，butknowledgeandvolitionintheformofconcreteindividualityandfeeling。Inrelationtoexternality，theformerispowerfulandactive，thelatterpassiveandsubjective。Itfollowsthatmanhashisactualsubstantivelifeinthestate，inlearning，andsoforth，aswellasinlabourandstrugglewiththeexternalworldandwithhimselfsothatitisonlyoutofhisdiremptionthathefightshiswaytoself-subsistentunitywithhimself。Inthefamilyhehasatranquilintuitionofthisunity，andtherehelivesasubjectiveethicallifeontheplaneoffeeling。Woman，ontheotherhand，hashersubstantivedestinyinthefamily，andtobeimbuedwithfamilypietyisherethicalframeofmind。

Remark:Forthisreason，familypietyisexpoundedinSophocles"Antigone-oneofthemostsublimepresentationsofthisvirtue-asprincipallythelawofwoman，andasthelawofasubstantialityatoncesubjectiveandontheplaneoffeeling，thelawoftheinwardlife，alifewhichhasnotyetattaineditsfullactualisation；asthelawoftheancientgods，"theGodsoftheunderworld；as"aneverlastinglaw，andnomanknowsatwhattimeitwasfirstputforth"。Thislawistheredisplayedasalawopposedtopubliclaw，tothelawoftheland。Thisisthesupremeoppositioninethicsandthereforeintragedy；anditisindividualisedinthesameplayintheopposingnaturesofmanandwoman。

Addition:Womenarecapableofeducation，buttheyarenotmadeforactivitieswhichdemandauniversalfacultysuchasthemoreadvancedsciences，philosophy，andcertainformsofartisticproduction。Womenmayhavehappyideas，taste，andelegance，buttheycannotattaintotheideal。

(Ideale。BythiswordHegelmeans"theBeautifulandwhatevertendsthither"(ScienceofLogic，i。

163，footnote)。Itistobedistinguished，therefore，fromIdeelle]Thedifferencebetweenmenandwomenislikethatbetweenanimalsandplants。Mencorrespondtoanimals，whilewomencorrespondtoplantsbecausetheirdevelopmentismoreplacidandtheprinciplethatunderliesitistherathervagueunityoffeeling。Whenwomenholdthehelmofgovernment，thestateisatonceinjeopardy，becausewomenregulatetheiractionsnotbythedemandsofuniversalitybutbyarbitraryinclinationsandopinions。Womenareeducated-whoknowshow?-asitwerebybreathinginideas，bylivingratherthanbyacquiringknowledge。Thestatusofmanhood，ontheotherhand，isattainedonlybythestressofthoughtandmuchtechnicalexertion。

§167。

Inessencemarriageismonogamybecauseitispersonality-immediateexclusiveindividuality-whichentersintothistieandsurrendersitselftoit；andhencethetie"struthandinwardness(i。e。thesubjectiveformofitssubstantiality)proceedsonlyfromthemutual，whole-hearted，surrenderofthispersonality。Personalityattainsitsrightofbeingconsciousofitselfinanotheronlyinsofarastheotherisinthisidenticalrelationshipasaperson，i。e。asanatomicindividual。

Remark:Marriage，andespeciallymonogamy，isoneoftheabsoluteprinciplesIonwhichtheethicallifeofacommunitydepends。Hencemarriagecomestoberecordedasoneofthemomentsinthefoundingofstatesbygodsorheroes。

§168。

Further，marriageresultsfromthefreesurrenderbybothsexesoftheirpersonality-apersonalityineverypossiblewayuniqueineachoftheparties。

Consequently，itoughtnottobeenteredbytwopeopleidenticalinstockwhoarealreadyacquaintedandperfectlyknowntooneanother；forindividualsinthesamecircleofrelationshiphavenospecialpersonalityoftheirownincontrastwiththatofothersinthesamecircle。Onthecontrary，thepartiesshouldbedrawnfromseparatefamiliesandtheirpersonalitiesshouldbedifferentinorigin。

Sincetheveryconceptionofmarriageisthatitisafreelyundertakenethicaltransaction，notatiedirectlygroundedinthephysicalorganismanditsdesires，itfollowsthatthemarriageofblood-relationsrunscountertothisconceptionandsoalsotogenuinenaturalfeeling。

Remark:Marriageitselfissometimessaidtohegroundednotinnaturalrightsbutsimplyininstinctivesexualimpulses；oragainitistreatedasacontractwithanarbitrarybasis。Externalargumentsinsupportofmonogamyhavebeendrawnfromphysicalconsiderationssuchasthenumberofmenandwomen。Darkfeelingsofrepulsionareadvancedasthesolegroundforprohibitingconsanguineousmarriage。thebasisofalltheseviewsisthefashionableideaofastateofnatureandanaturaloriginforrights，andthelackoftheconceptofrationalityandfreedom。

Addition:Asenseofshame-togonofarther-isabartoconsanguineousmarriage。Butthisrepugnancefindsjustificationintheconceptofthething。Whatisalreadyunited，Imean，cannotbeunitedforthefirsttimebymarriage。Itisacommonplaceofstock-breedingthattheoffspringiscomparativelyweakwhenanimalsofthesamestockarcmated，sinceifthereistobeunificationtheremustfirstbedivision。Theforceofgeneration，asofmind，isallthegreater，thegreatertheoppositionsoutofwhichitisreproduced。Familiarity，closeacquaintance，thehabitofcommonpursuits，shouldnotprecedemarriage；theyshouldcomeaboutforthefirsttimewithinit。Andtheirdevelopmenthasallthemorevalue，thericheritisandthemorefacetsithas。

§169。

Thefamily，asperson，hasitsrealexternalexistenceinproperty；anditisonlywhenthispropertytakestheformofcapitalthatitbecomestheembodimentofthesubstantialpersonalityofthefamily。

B。TheFamilyCapital§170。

Itisnotmerelypropertywhichafamilypossesses；asauniversalandenduringperson，itrequirespossessionsspecificallydeterminedaspermanentandsecure，i。e。itrequirescapital。Thearbitrarinessofasingleowner"sparticularneedsisonemomentinpropertytakenabstractly；butthismoment，togetherwiththeselfishnessofdesire，isheretransformedintosomethingethical，intolabourandcareforacommonpossession。

Remark:Inthesagasofthefoundingofstates，oratleastofasocialandorderlylife，theintroductionofpermanentpropertyislinkedwiththeintroductionofmarriage。Thenatureofthiscapital，however，andthepropermeansofitsconsolidationwillappearinthesectiononcivilsociety。

§171。

Thefamilyasalegalentityinrelationtoothersmustberepresentedbythehusbandasitshead。Further，itishisprerogativetogooutandworkforitsliving，toattendtoitsneeds，andtocontrolandadministeritscapital。Thiscapitaliscommonpropertysothat，whilenomemberofthefamilyhaspropertyofhisown，eachhashisrightinthecommonstock。Thisright，however，maycomeintocollisionwiththeheadofthefamily"srightofadministrationowingtothefactthattheethicaltemperofthefamilyisstillonlyatthelevelofimmediacy(see§158)

andsoisexposedtopartitionandcontingency。

§172。

Amarriagebringsintobeinganewfamilywhichisself-subsistentandindependentoftheclansor"houses"fromwhichitsmembershavebeendrawn。

Thetiebetweentheseandthenewfamilyhasanaturalbasis-consanguinity，butthenewfamilyisbasedonloveofanethicaltype。Thusanindividual"spropertytoohasanessentialconnectionwithhisconjugalrelationshipandonlyacomparativelyremoteonewithhisrelationtohisclanor"house"。

Remark:Thesignificanceofmarriagesettlementswhichimposearestrictiononthecouple"scommonownershipoftheirgoods，ofarrangementstosecurecontinuedlegalassistanceforthewoman，andsoforth，tiesintheirbeingprovisionsincaseofthedissolutionofthemarriage，eithernaturallybydeath，orbydivorce，&c。Theyarealsosafeguardsforsecuringthatinsuchaneventualitythedifferentmembersofthefamilyshallsecuretheirshareofthecommonstock。

Addition:Inmanylegalcodesthewidercircleoftheclanisadheredto，andthisisregardedastheessentialbond，whiletheotherbond，thatofeachparticularfamily，appearslessimportantincomparison。ThusintheolderRomanlaw，thewifeintheeasilydissolvedtypeofmarriagestoodinacloserrelationtoherkinsfolkthantoherhusbandandchildren。Underfeudallaw，again，themaintenanceofthesplendorfamiliaemadeitnecessaryforonlythemalesofthefamilytobereckonedmembersandfortheclanasawholetocountastheimportantthing，whilethenewlyfoundedfamilydisappearedincomparison。Nevertheless，eachnewfamilyistheessentialthingincontrastwiththemoreremoteconnectionsofclan-kinship，andparentsandchildrenformthenucleusproperasopposedtotheclan，whichisalsoinacertainsensecalleda"family"。Henceanindividual"srelationtohiswealthmusthaveamoreessentialconnectionwithhismarriagethanwiththewidercircleofhiskin。

C。TheEducationofChildrenandtheDissolutionoftheFamily§173。

Insubstancemarriageisaunity，thoughonlyaunityofinwardnessordisposition；

inoutwardexistence，however，theunityissunderedinthetwoparties。Itisonlyinthechildrenthattheunityitselfexistsexternally，objectively，andexplicitlyasaunity，becausetheparentslovethechildrenastheirlove，astheembodimentoftheirownsubstance。Fromthephysicalpointofview，thepresupposition-

personsimmediatelyexistent(asparents)-herebecomesaresult，aprocesswhichrunsawayintotheinfiniteseriesofgenerations，eachproducingthenextandpresupposingtheonebefore。ThisisthemodeinwhichthesinglemindofthePenatesrevealsitsexistenceinthefinitesphereofnatureasarace。

Addition:Therelationoflovebetweenhusbandandwifeisinitselfnotobjective，becauseeveniftheirfeelingistheirsubstantialunity，stillthisunityhasnoobjectivity。Suchanobjectivityparentsfirstacquireintheirchildren，inwhomtheycanseeobjectifiedtheentiretyoftheirunion。Inthechild，amotherlovesitsfatherandheitsmother。Bothhavetheirloveobjectifiedfortheminthechild。Whileintheirgoodstheirunityisembodiedonlyinanexternalthing，intheirchildrenitisembodiedinaspiritualoneinwhichtheparentsarelovedandwhichtheylove。

§174。

Childrenhavetherighttomaintenanceandeducationattheexpenseofthefamily"scommoncapital。Therightoftheparentstotheserviceasserviceoftheirchildrenisbaseduponandisrestrictedbythecommontaskoflookingafterthefamilygenerally。Similarly，therightoftheparentsoverthewishesoftheirchildrenisdeterminedbytheobjectinview-disciplineandeducation。Thepunishmentofchildrendoesnotaimatjusticeassuch；theaimismoresubjectiveandmoralincharacter，i。e。todeterthemfromexercisingafreedomstillinthetollsofnatureandtolifttheuniversalintotheirconsciousnessandwill。

Addition:Manhastoacquireforhimselfthepositionwhichheoughttoattain；heisnotalreadyinpossessionofitbyinstinct。Itisonthisfactthatthechild"srighttoeducationisbased。Peoplesunderpatriarchalgovernmentareinthesamepositionaschildren；theyarefedfromcentralstoresandnotregardedasself-subsistentandadults。Theserviceswhichmaybedemandedfromchildrenshouldthereforehaveeducationastheirsoleendandberelevantthereto；theymustnotbeendsinthemselves，sinceachildinslaveryisinthemostunethicalofallsituationswhatever。

Oneofthechieffactorsineducationisdiscipline，thepurportofwhichistobreakdownthechild"sself-willandtherebyeradicatehispurelynaturalandsensuousself。Wemustnotexpecttoachievethisbymeregoodness，sinceitisjusttheimmediatewillwhichactsonimmediatefanciesandcaprices，notonreasonsandrepresentativethinking。Ifweadvancereasonstochildren，weleaveitopentothemtodecidewhetherthereasonsareweightyornot，andthuswemakeeverythingdependontheirwhim。Sofaraschildrenareconcerned，universalityandthesubstanceofthingsresidein，theirparents，andthisimpliesthatchildrenmustbeobedient。Ifthefeelingofsubordination，producingthelongingtogrowup，isnotfosteredinchildren，theybecomeforwardandimpertinent。