第6章
Theyoungmenappearedquitenakedinthepalaestra，andeventhegirlsofSpartaranracespubliclyinthesamecondition；[1]andsomedaywhenourbodies(andmindstoo)havebecomecleanweshallreturntosimilarinstitutions。Butthatwillnotbejustyet。Aslongasthedefilementofthiscommercialcivilizationisonusweshallpreferourdirtandconcealment。Thepowersthatbewillprotestagainstchange。HeinrichScham，inhischarminglittlepamphletNackendeMenschen，[2]describestheconsternationofthecommercialpeopleatsuchideas:
“"Whatwillbecomeofus，"criedthetailors，"ifyougonaked?"
“Andallthelotofthem，hat，cravat，shirt，andshoemakersjoinedinthechorus。
“"ANDWHERESHALLICARRYMYMONEY?"criedonewhohadjustbeenmadeadirector。”
[1]SeeTheocritus，Idyllxviii。
[2]PublishedatLeipzigabout1893。
XIII。THEGENESISOFCHRISTIANITY
ReferringbacktotheexistenceofsomethingresemblingagreatWorld-religionwhichhascomedownthecenturies，continuallyexpandingandbranchingintheprocess，wehavenowtoconsiderthegenesisofthatspecialbrandorbranchofitwhichwecallChristianity。Eachreligionorcult，paganorChristian，hashad，aswehaveseen，avastamountincommonwiththegeneralWorld-religion；yeteachhashaditsownspecialcharacteristics。WhathavebeenthemaincharacteristicsoftheChristianbranch，asdifferentiatingitfromtheotherbranches?
WesawinthelastchapterthatacertainasceticattitudetowardsSexwasoneofthemostsalientmarksoftheChristianChurch；andthatwhereasmostofthepagancults(thoughoccasionallyfavoringfrightfulausteritiesandcruelsacrifices)didonthewholerejoiceinpleasureandtheworldofthesenses，Christianity——followinglargelyonJudaism——displayedatendencytowardsrenunciationoftheworldandtheflesh，andawithdrawalintotheinnerandmorespiritualregionsofthemind。ThesametendencymaybetracedintheEgyptianandPhrygiancultsofthatperiod。ItwillberememberedhowJuvenal(Sat。VI，510-40)chaffsthepriestsofCybeleatRomeformakingthemselves“eunuchsforthekingdomofheaven"ssake，“
ortherichRomanladyforplunginginthewintryTiberforapropitiationtoIsis。Nodoubtamongthelaterpagans“thelongintolerabletyrannyofthesensesoverthesoul“
hadbecomeaveryseriousmatter。ButChristianityrepresentedperhapsthemostpowerfulreactionagainstthis；
andthisreactionhad，asindicatedinthelastchapter，theenormouslyvaluableresultthat(forthetime)itdisentangledlovefromsexandestablishedLove，pureandundefiled，asruleroftheworld。“GodisLove。”But，asalsoindicated，thedivorcebetweenthetwoelementsofhumannature，carriedtoanextreme，ledintimetoacripplingofbothelementsandthedevelopmentofacertainmorbidityandself-consciousnesswhich，itcannotbedenied，ispainfullymarkedamongsomesectionsofChristians——especiallythoseofthealtruisticand"philanthropic"type。
AnothercharacteristicofChristianitywhichisalsoveryfineinitswaybuthasitslimitsofutility，hasbeenitsinsistenceon“morality。”Somemodernwritersindeedhavegonesofar——forgetting，Isuppose，theStoics——astoclaimthatChristianity"schiefmarkisitshighmorality，andthatthepagansgenerallywerequitewantinginthemoralsense！This，ofcourse，isaprofoundmistake。Ishouldsaythat，inthetruesenseoftheword，theearlyandtribalpeopleshavebeenmuchmore"moral"asarule——thatis，readyasindividualstopayrespecttotheneedsofthecommunity——thanthelaterandmorecivilizedsocieties。Butthemistakearisesfromthedifferentinterpretationsoftheword；forwhereasallthepaganreligionsinsistedverystronglyonthejust-
mentionedkindofmorality，whichweshouldcallcIVICDUTY
TOONE"SNEIGHBOR，theChristianmademoralitytoconsistmoreespeciallyinamansDUTYTOGOD。Itbecamewiththemaprivateaffairbetweenamansselfand-God，ratherthanapublicaffair；andthusledintheendtoaveryobnoxiousandquitepharisaickindofmorality，whosechiefinspirationwasnotthehelpingofone"sfellow-manbutthesavingofone"sownsoul。
TheremayperhapsbeothersalientpointsofdifferentiationbetweenChristianityandtheprecedingpaganreligions；butforthepresentwemayrecognizethesetwo——(a)thetendencytowardsarenunciationoftheworld，andtheconsequentcultivationofapurelyspiritualloveand(b)theinsistenceonamoralitywhoseinspirationwasaprivatesenseofdutytoGodratherthanapublicsenseofdutytoone"sneighborandtosocietygenerally。Itmaybeinterestingtotracethecauseswhichledtothisdifferentiation。
ThreecenturiesbeforeoureratheconquestsofAlexanderhadhadtheeffectofspreadingtheGreekthoughtandcultureovermostoftheknownworld。Avastnumberofsmallbodiesofworshipersoflocaldeities，withtheirvariousritualsandreligiouscustoms，hadthusbeenbrokenup，oratleastbroughtintocontactwitheachotherandpartiallymodifiedandhellenized。Theorbitofamoregeneralconceptionoflifeandreligionwasalreadybeingtraced。
BythetimeofthefoundingofthefirstChristianChurchtheimmenseconquestsofRomehadgreatlyextendedandestablishedtheprocess。TheMediterraneanhadbecomeagreatRomanlake。Merchantshipsandroutesoftrafficcrosseditinalldirections；touristsvisiteditsshores。Theknownworldhadbecomeone。Thenumberlesspeoples，tribes，nations，societieswithinthegirdleoftheEmpire，withtheirvariouslanguages，creeds，customs，religions，philosophies，wereprofoundlyinfluencingeachother。[1]Agreatfusionwastakingplace；anditwasbecominginevitablethatthenextgreatreligiousmovementwouldhaveaworld-widecharacter。
[1]ForanenlargementonthisthemeseeGlover"sConflictofReligionsintheearlyRomanEmpire；alsoS。J。Case，EvolutionofEarlyChristianity(UniversityofChicago，1914)。TheAdonisworship，forinstance(aresurrection-cult)，“wasstillthrivinginSyriaandCypruswhenPaulpreachedthere，“andtheworshipofIsisandSerapishadalreadyreachedthen，RomeandNaples。
Itwasprobablethatthisnewreligionwouldcombinemanyelementsfromtheprecedingritualsinonecult。InconnectionwiththefinetemplesandelaborateservicesofIsisandCybeleandMithratherewasgrowingupapowerfulpriesthood；FranzCumont[1]speaksof“thelearnedpriestsoftheAsiaticcults“asbuildingup，onthefoundationsofoldfetichismandsuperstition，acompletereligiousphilosophy——justastheBrahminshadbuiltthemonismoftheVedantaonthe“monstrousidolatriesofHinduism。”
Anditwaslikelythatasimilarprocesswouldevolvethenewreligionexpected。ToutainagaincallsattentiontothepatronageaccordedtoallthesecultsbytheRomanEmperors，asfavoringanewcombinationandsynthesis:——
“Hadrien，Commode，SeptimeSevere，JuliaDomna，Elagabal，AlexandreSevere，enparticulierontcontribubepersonnellementalapopulariteetausuccesdescultesquisecelebraientenl"honneurdeSerapisetd"Isis，desdivinitessyriennesetdeMithra。”[2]
[1]SeeCumont，ReligionsOrientalesdanslePaganismeRomain(Paris，1906)，p。253。
[2]Cultespaiensdansl"EmpireRomain(2vols。，1911)，vol。ii，p。263。
ItwasalsoprobablethatthisnewReligionwouldshow(asindicatedinthelastchapter)areactionagainstmeresex-indulgence；and，asregardsitsstandardofMoralitygenerally，that，amongsomanyconflictingpeopleswiththeirvariouscivicandlocalcustoms，itcouldnotwellidentifyitselfwithanyONEofthesebutwouldevolveaninnerinspirationofitsownwhichinitsbestformwouldbeloveoftheneighbor，regardlessoftherace，creedorcustomsoftheneighbor，andwhosesanctionwouldnotresideinanyoftheexternalauthoritiesthusconflictingwitheachother，butinthesenseofthesoul"sdirectresponsibilitytoGod。
SomuchforwhatwemightexpectaprioriastotheinfluenceofthesurroundingsonthegeneralformofthenewReligion。Andwhataboutthekindofcreedorcreedswhichthatreligionwouldfavor?Hereagainwemustseethattheinfluenceofthesurroundingscompelledacertainresult。Thosedoctrineswhichwehavedescribedintheprecedingchapters——doctrinesofSinandSacrifice，aSavior，theEucharist，theTrinity，theVirgin-birth，andsoforth——wereintheirvariousformsseething，sotospeak，allaround。Itwasimpossibleforanynewreligioussynthesistoescapethem；allitcoulddowouldbetoappropriatethem，andtogivethemperhapsacolorofitsown。Thusitisintothemidstofthisgerminatingmassthatwemustimaginethevariouspagancults，likefertilizingstreams，descending。Totraceallthesestreamswouldofcoursebeanimpossibletask；butitmaybeofuse，asanexampleoftheprocess，totakethecaseofsomeparticularbelief。LetustakethebeliefinthecomingofaSavior-god；andthiswillbethemoresuitableasitisabeliefwhichhasinthepastbeencommonlyheldtobedistinctiveofChristianity。Ofcourseweknownowthatitisnotinanysensedistinctive，butthatthelongtraditionoftheSaviorcomesdownfromtheremotesttimes，andperhapsfromeverycountryoftheworld。[1]TheMessianicpropheciesoftheJewsandthefifty-thirdchapterofIsaiahemptiedthemselvesintotheChristianteachings，andinfectedthemtosomedegreewithaJudaictinge。The“Messiah“meansofcoursetheAnointedOne。TheHebrewwordoccurssome40timesintheOldTestament；
andeachtimeintheSeptuagintorGreektranslation(mademainlyinthethirdcenturyBEFOREourera)thewordistranslated
InTheBookofEnoch，writtennotlaterthanB。C。170，[2]
theChristisspokenofasalreadyexistinginheaven，andabouttocomeasjudgeofallmen，andisdefinitelycalled“theSonofMan。”TheBookofRevelationsisFULLofpassagesfromEnoch；soaretheEpistlesofPaul；
sotootheGospels。TheBookofEnochbelievesinaGoldenAgethatistocome；ithasDantesquevisionsofHeavenandHell，andofAngelsgoodandevil，anditspeaksofa“gardenofRighteousness“withthe“TreeofWisdom“initsmidst。Everywhere，saysProf。Drews，inthefirstcenturyB。C。，therewasthelongingforacomingSavior。
[1]Evento-day，theArabianlandsarealwaysvibratingwithpropheciesofacomingMahdi。
[2]SeeEditionbyR。H。Charles(1893)。
ButtheSavior-god，aswealsoknow，wasafamiliarfigureinEgypt。ThegreatOsiriswastheSavioroftheworld，bothinhislifeanddeath:inhislifethroughthenobleworkshewroughtforthebenefitofmankind，andinhisdeaththroughhisbetrayalbythepowersofdarknessandhisresurrectionfromthetombandascentintoheaven。[1]
TheEgyptiandoctrinesdescendedthroughAlexandriaintoChristianity——andthoughtheydidnotinfluencethelatterdeeplyuntilabout300A。D。，yettheythensucceededinreachingtheChristianChurches，givingacolortotheirteachingswithregardtotheSavior，andpersuadingthemtoacceptandhonortheEgyptianworshipofIsisintheChristianformoftheVirginMary。
[1]Seech。ii。
Again，anothergreatstreamofinfluencedescendedfromPersiaintheformofthecultofMithra。Mithra，aswehaveseen，[1]stoodasagreatMediatorbetweenGodandman。
Withhisbaptismsandeucharists，andhistwelvedisciples，andhisbirthinacave，andsoforth，heseemedtotheearlyFathersaninventionofthedevilandamostdangerousmockeryonChristianity——andallthemoresobecausehisworshipwasbecomingsoexceedinglypopular。ThecultseemstohavereachedRomeaboutB。C。70。ItspreadfarandwidethroughtheEmpire。ItextendedtoGreatBritain，andnumerousremainsofMithraicmonumentsandsculpturesinthiscountry——atYork，Chesterandotherplaces——testifytoitswideacceptanceevenhere。AtRomethevogueofMithraismbecamesogreatthatinthethirdcenturyA。D。，itwasquitedoubtful[2]whetheritORChristianitywouldtriumph；theEmperorAurelianin273
foundedacultoftheInvincibleSuninconnectionwithMithraism；[3]andasSt。Jerometellsusinhisletters，[4]
thelatterculthadatalatertimetobesuppressedinRomeandAlexandriabyPHYSICALFORCE，sopowerfulwasit。
[1]Ch。ii。
[2]SeeCumont，op。cit。，whosays，p。171:——“Jamais，pasmemea1"epoquedesinvasionsmussulmanes，l"Europenesemblapluspresdedevenirasiatiquequ"aumomentouDiocletienreconnaissaitofficiellementenMithra，leprotecteurdel"empirereconstitue。”
SeealsoCumont"sMysteresdeMithra，preface。TheRomanArmy，infact，stucktoMithrathroughout，asagainstChristianity；andsodidtheRomannobility。(SeeS。Augustine"sConfessions，BookVIII，ch。2。)
[3]CumontindeedsaysthattheidentificationofMithrawiththeSun(theemblemofimperialpower)formedonereasonwhyMithraismwasNOTpersecutedatthattime。
[4]Epist。cvii，adLaetam。SeeRobertson"sPaganChrists，p。
350。
Norwasforcetheonlymethodemployed。IMITATIONisnotonlythesincerestflattery，butitisoftenthemostsubtleandeffectivewayofdefeatingarival。ThepriestsoftherisingChristianChurchwere，likethepriestsofALL
religions，notwantingincraft；andatthismomentwhenthequestionofaWorld-religionwasinthebalance，itwasanobviouspolicyforthemtothrowintotheirownscaleasmanyelementsaspossibleofthepopularPagancults。
Mithraismhadbeenflourishingfor600years；anditis，tosaytheleast，CURIOUSthattheMithraicdoctrinesandlegendswhichIhavejustmentionedshouldallhavebeenadopted(quiteunintentionallyofcourse！)intoChristianity；
andstillmoresothatsomeothersfromthesamesource，likethelegendoftheShepherdsattheNativityandthedoctrineoftheResurrectionandAscension，whichareNOTmentionedatallintheoriginaldraftoftheearliestGospel(St。Mark)，shouldhavemadetheirappearance，intheChristianwritingsatalatertime，whenMithraismwasmakinggreatforwardstrides。HistoryshowsthatasaChurchprogressesandexpandsitgenerallyfeelscompelledtoenlargeandfortifyitsownfoundationsbyinsertingmaterialwhichwasnotthereatfirst。Ishallshortlygiveanotherillustrationofthis；atpresentIwillmerelypointoutthattheChristianwriters，astimewenton，notonlyintroducednewdoctrines，legends，miraclesandsoforth——mostofwhichwecantracetoantecedentpagansources——butthattheytookespecialpainstodestroythepaganrecordsandsoobliteratetheevidenceoftheirowndishonesty。WelearnfromPorphyry[1]thattherewereseveralelaboratetreatisessettingforththereligionofMithra；andJ。M。Robertsonadds(PaganChrists，p。325):“everyoneofthesehasbeendestroyedbythecareoftheChurch，anditisremarkablethateventhetreatiseofFirmicusismutilatedatapassage(v。)whereheseemstobeaccusingChristiansoffollowingMithraicusages。”WhileagainProfessorMurraysays，“ThepolemicliteratureofChristianityisloudandtriumphant；thebooksofthePaganshavebeenDESTROYED。”[2]
[1]DeAbstinentia，ii。56；iv。16。
[2]FourStages，p。180。WehaveprobablyaninstanceofthisdestructioninthetotaldisappearanceofCelsus"livelyattackonChristianity(180A。D。)，ofwhich，however，portionshavebeenfortunatelypreservedinOrigen"sratherprolixrefutationofthesame。
ReturningtothedoctrineoftheSavior，Ihavealreadyinprecedingchaptersgivensomanyinstancesofbeliefinsuchadeityamongthepagans——whetherhebecalledKrishnaorMithraorOsirisorHorusorApolloorHercules——thatitisnotnecessarytodwellonthesubjectanyfurtherinordertopersuadethereaderthatthedoctrinewas"intheair"atthetimeoftheadventofChristianity。EvenDionysus，thenaprominentfigureinthe"Mysteries，"
wascalledEleutherios，TheDeliverer。ButitmaybeofinteresttotracethesamedoctrineamongthePRE-CHRISTIAN
sectsofGnostics。TheGnostics，saysProfessorMurray，[1]
“arestillcommonlythoughtofasabodyofCHRISTIAN
heretics。InrealitytherewereGnosticsectsscatteredovertheHellenisticworldBEFOREChristianityaswellasafter。
TheymusthavebeenestablishedinAntiochandprobablyinTarsuswellbeforethedaysofPaulorApollos。TheirSavior，liketheJewishMessiah，wasestablishedinmen"smindsbeforetheSavioroftheChristians。"Ifwelookclose，"saysProfessorBousset，"theresultemergeswithgreatclearnessthatthefigureoftheRedeemerassuchdidnotwaitforChristianitytoforceitswayintothereligionofGnosis，butwasalreadypresentthereundervariousforms。"“
[1]FourStages，p。143。
ThisGnosticRedeemer，continuesProfessorMurray，“isdescendedbyafairlycleargenealogyfromthe"TritosSoter"("thirdSavior")[1]ofearlyGreece，contaminatedwithsimilarfigures，likeAttisandAdonisfromAsiaMinor，OsirisfromEgypt，andthespecialJewishconceptionoftheMessiahoftheChosenpeople。Hehasvariousnames，whichthenameofJesusor"Christos，""theAnointed，"tendsgraduallytosupersede。Aboveall，heisinsomesenseMan，or"thesecondMan"or"theSonofMan"……
Heisthereal，theultimate，theperfectandeternalMan，ofwhomallbodilymenarefeeblecopies。”[2]
[1]Thereseemstobesomedoubtabouttheexactmeaningofthisexpression。EvenZeushimselfwassometimescalled"Soter，"andatfeasts，itissaid，theTHIRDgobletwasalwaysdrunkinhishonor。
[2]SeealsoTheGnosticStoryofJesusChrist，byGilbertT。
Sadler(C。W。Daniel，1919)。
ThispassagebringsvividlybeforethemindtheprocessofwhichIhavespoken，namely，thefusionandmutualinterchangeofideasonthesubjectoftheSaviorduringtheperiodanteriortoourera。AlsoitexemplifiestousthroughwhatanabstractsphereofGnosticreligiousspeculationthedoctrinehadtotravelbeforereachingitsexpressioninChristianity。[1]ThisexaltedandhighphilosophicalconceptionpassedonandcameoutagaintosomedegreeintheFourthGospelandthePaulineEpistles(especiallyICor。xv)；butIneedhardlysayitwasnotmaintained。
TheenthusiasmofthelittlescatteredChristianbodies——
withtheircommunismofpracticewithregardtoTHIS
worldandtheirintensityoffaithwithregardtothenext——begantowaneinthesecondandthirdcenturiesA。D。AstheChurch(withcapitalinitial)grew，sowasitlessandlessoccupiedwithrealreligiousfeeling，andmoreandmorewithitsbattlesagainstpersecutionfromoutside，anditsquarrelsanddissensionsconcerningheresieswithinitsownborders。AndwhenattheCouncilofNicaea(325
A。D)itendeavoredtoestablishanofficialcreed，thestrifeandbitternessonlyincreased。“Thereisnowildbeast，“saidtheEmperorJulian，“likeanangrytheologian。”
WherethefourthEvangelisthadpreachedthegospelofLove，andPaulhadannouncedredemptionbyaninnerandspiritualidentificationwithChrist，“AsinAdamalldie，soinChristshallallbemadealive“；andwhereassomeatanyrateofthePagancultshadtaughtaglorioussalvationbythenewbirthofadivinebeingwithineachman:
“Beofgoodcheer，Oinitiatesinthemysteryoftheliberatedgod；FortoyoutoooutofallyourlaborsandsorrowsshallcomeLiberation“——theNicenecreedhadnothingtopropoundexceptsomeextremelyfutilespeculationsabouttherelationtoeachotheroftheFatherandtheSon，andtherelationofBOTHtotheHolyGhost，andofallTHREEtotheVirginMary——speculationswhichonlyservedfortherenewalofshamefulstrifeandanimosities——riotsandbloodshedandmurder——withintheChurch，andthemockeryoftheheathenwithout。Andasfarasitdealtwiththecrucifixion，deathandresurrectionoftheLorditdidnotdifferfromthescoreofprecedingpagancreeds，exceptinthethoroughmaterialismandlackofpoetryinstatementwhichitexhibits。AftertheCouncilofNicaea，infact，theJudaictingeinthedoctrinesoftheChurchbecomesmoreapparent，andmoreandmoreitsSchemeofSalvationthroughChristtakesthecharacterofarathersordidandhucksteringbargainbywhichMangetsthebetterofGodbypersuadingthelattertosacrificehisownSonfortheredemptionoftheworld！WiththeexceptionofafewepisodesliketheformationduringtheMiddleAgesofthenoblebrotherhoodsandsisterhoodsofFrairsandNuns，dedicatedtothehelpandhealingofsufferinghumanity，andtheappearanceofafewrealloversofmankind(andtheanimals)likeSt。Francis——(andthesemanifestationscanhardlybeclaimedbytheChurch，whichprettyconsistentlyopposedthem)——itmaybesaidthatafteraboutthefourthcenturytherealspiritandlightofearlyChristianenthusiasmdiedaway。TheincursionsofbarbariantribesfromtheNorthandEast，andlaterofMoorsandArabsfromtheSouth，familiarizedtheEuropeanpeopleswiththeideasofbloodshedandviolence；grossandmaterialconceptionsoflifewereintheascendant；andaromanticandaspiringChristianitygaveplacetoaworldlyandvulgarChurchianity。
[1]WhentravellinginIndiaIfoundthattheGnanisorWiseMentherequitecommonlymaintainedthatJesus(judgingfromhisteaching)musthavebeeninitiatedatsometimeintheesotericdoctrinesoftheVedanta。
Ihaveinthesetwoorthreepagesdealtonly——andthatverybriefly——withtheentryofthepagandoctrineoftheSaviorintotheChristianfield，showingitstransformationthereandhowChristianitycouldnotwellescapehavingadoctrineofaSavior，oravoidgivingacolorofitsowntothatdoctrine。Tofollowoutthesamecoursewithotherdoctrines，likethosewhichIhavementionedabove，wouldobviouslybeanendlesstask——whichmustbelefttoeachstudentorreadertopursueaccordingtohisopportunityandcapacity。Itisclearanyhow，thatalltheseelementsofthepaganreligions——pouringdownintothevastreservoir，orratherwhirlpool，oftheRomanEmpire，andmixingamongallthesenumerousbrotherhoods，societies，collegia，mystery-clubs，andgroupswhichwereatthattimelookingoutintentlyforsomenewrevelationorinspiration——
didmoreorlessautomaticallyactandreactuponeachother，andbythegeneralconditionsprevailingweremodified，tilltheyultimatelycombinedandtookunitedshapeinthemovementwhichwecallChristianity，butwhichonly——asIhavesaid——narrowlyescapedbeingcalledMithraism——sonearlyrelatedandcloselyalliedwerethesecultswitheachother。
Atthispointitwillnaturallybeasked:“AndwhereinthisschemeoftheGenesisofChristianityisthechieffigureandaccreditedleaderofthemovement——namelyJesusChristhimself——fortoallappearanceintheaccountheregivenofthematterheispracticallynon-existentoranegligiblequantity?“Andthequestionisaverypertinentone，andverydifficulttoanswer。“WhereisthefounderoftheReligion?“——ortoputitinanotherform:
“IsitnecessarytosupposeahumanandvisibleFounderatall?“Afewyearsagosuchamerequestionwouldhavebeenaccountedrankblasphemy，andwouldonly——
ifpassedover——havebeenignoredonaccountofitssupposedabsurdity。To-day，however，owingtotheenormousamountofworkwhichhasbeendoneoflateonthesubjectofChristianorigins，thequestiontakesonquiteadifferentcomplexion。AndfromStraussonwardsagrowinglyinfluentialandlearnedbodyofcriticsisinclinedtoregardthewholestoryoftheGospelsasLEGENDARY。ArthurDrews，forinstance，aprofessoratKarlsruhe，inhiscelebratedbookTheChrist-Myth，[1]placesDavidF。Straussasfirstinthemythfield——thoughheallowsthatDupuisinL"originedetouslescultes(1795)hadgiventhecluetothewholeidea。HethenmentionsBrunoBauer(1877)ascontendingthatJesuswasapureinventionofMark"s，andJohnM。RobertsonashavinginhisChristianityandMythology(1900)giventhefirstthoroughlyreasonedexpositionofthelegendarytheory；alsoEmilioBossiinItaly，whowroteJesuChristononemaiesistito，andsimilarauthorsinHolland，Poland，andothercountries，includingW。BenjaminSmith，theAmericanauthorofThePre-christianJesus(1906)，andP。JenseninDasGilgameschEposindenWelt-literatur(1906)，whomakestheJesus-storyavariantoftheBabylonianepic，2000B。C。Aprettystronglist！[2]“But，“
continuesDrews，“ordinaryhistoriansstillignoreallthis。”
Finally，hedismissesJesusas“afigureswimmingobscurelyinthemistsoftradition。”NeverthelessIneedhardlyremarkthat，largeandlearnedasthebodyofopinionhererepresentedis，astilllarger(butlesslearned)bodyfightsdesperatelyfortheactualHISTORICITYofJesus，andsomeevenstillfortheoldviewofhimasaquiteuniqueandmiraculousrevelationofGodhoodonearth。
[1]DieChristus-mythe:verbesserteunderweitezteAusgabe，Jena，1910。
[2]TowhichwemayalsoaddSchweitzer"sQuestofthehistoricalJesus(1910)。
Atfirst，nodoubt，theLEGENDARYtheoryseemsalittleTOO
far-fetched。Thereisafashioninallthesethings，anditMAYbethatthereisafashionevenhere。ButwhenyoureflecthowrapidlylegendsgrowupeveninthesedaysofexactScienceandanomniscientPress；howthefigureofShakespeare，deadonly300years，isalmostcompletelylostinthemistofTime，andeventheauthenticityofhisworkshasbecomeasubjectofcontroversy；whenyoufindthatWilliamTell，supposedtohavelivedsome300
yearsagainbeforeShakespeare，andwhosedeedsinminutestdetailhavebeenrecitedandhonoredalloverEurope，isalmostcertainlyapureinvention，andneverexisted；whenyouremember——asmentionedearlierinthisbook[1]——thatitwasmorethanfivehundredyearsafterthesupposedbirthofJesusbeforeanyseriouseffortwasmadetoestablishthedateofthatbirth——andthatthenapurelymythicaldatewaschosen:the25thDecember，thedayoftheSUN"Snewbirthafterthewintersolstice，andthetimeofthesupposedbirthofApollo，Bacchus，andtheotherSungods；
when，moreover，youthinkforamomentwhatthestateofhistoricalcriticismmusthavebeen，andthegeneralstandardofcredibility，1，900yearsago，inacountrylikeSyria，andamonganignorantpopulation，whereanystorycirculatingfromliptolipwasassuredofcredenceifsufficientlymarvelousorimaginative；——why，thenthelegendarytheorydoesnotseemsoimprobable。ThereisnodoubtthatafterthedestructionofJerusalem(inA。D。
70)，littlegroupsofbelieversinaredeeming"Christ"wereformedthereandinotherplaces，justastherehadcertainlyexisted，inthefirstcenturyB。C。，groupsofGnostics，Therapeutae，EssenesandotherswhoseteachingswereverySIMILARtotheChristian，andtherewasnowademandfrommanyofthesegroupsfor"writings"and"histories"whichshouldheartenandconfirmtheyoungandgrowingChurches。
TheGospelsandEpistles，ofwhichtherearestillextantagreatabundance，bothapocryphalandcanonical，metthisdemand；buthowfartheirrecordsofthepersonofJesusofNazaretharereliablehistory，orhowfartheyaremerelyimaginativepicturesofthekindofmantheSaviourmightbeexpectedtobe，[2]isaquestionwhich，asIhavealreadysaid，isadifficultoneforskilledcriticstoanswer，andoneonwhichIcertainlyhavenointentionofgivingapositiveverdict。PersonallyImustsayIthinkthe"legendary"
solutionquitelikely，andinsomewaysmoresatisfactorythantheoppositeone——forthesimplereasonthatitseemsmuchmoreencouragingtosupposethatthestoryofJesus，(graciousandbeautifulasitis)isamythwhichgraduallyformeditselfintheconscienceofmankind，andthuspointsthewayofhumanity"sfutureevolution，thantosupposeittobethemererecordofanuniqueandmiraculousinterpositionofProvidence，whichdependedentirelyonthepowersabove，andcouldhardlybeexpectedtooccuragain。
[1]Ch。II。
[2]OneofCelsus"accusationsagainsttheChristianswasthattheirGospelshadbeenwritten“severaltimesover“(seeOrigen，ContraCelsum，ii。26，27)。
However，thequestionisnotwhatwedesire，butwhatwecanprovetobetheactualfact。AndcertainlythedifficultiesinthewayofregardingtheGospelstory(orstories，forthereisnotoneconsistentstory)asTRUEareenormous。Ifanyonewillread，forinstance，inthefourGospels，theeventsofthenightprecedingthecrucifixionandreckonthetimewhichtheywouldnecessarilyhavetakentoenact——
theLastSupper，theagonyintheGarden，thebetrayalbyJudas，thehalingbeforeCaiaphasandtheSanhedrin，andthenbeforePilateintheHallofjudgment(thoughcourtsforthetrialofmalefactorsdonotGENERALLYsitinthemiddleofthenight)；then——inLuke——theinterposedvisittoHerod，andtheRETURNtoPilate；Pilate"sspeechesandwashingofhandsbeforethecrowd；thenthescourgingandthemockingandthearrayingofJesusinpurplerobeasaking；thenthepreparationofaCrossandthelongandpainfuljourneytoGolgotha；andfinallytheCrucifixionatsunrise；——hewillsee——ashasoftenbeenpointedout——
thatthewholestoryisphysicallyimpossible。Asarecordofactualeventsthestoryisimpossible；butasarecordorseriesofnotesderivedfromthewitnessingofa“mystery-
play“——andsuchplayswithVERYSIMILARincidentswerecommonenoughinantiquityinconnectionwithcultsofadyingSavior，itverylikelyIStrue(onecanseetheverydramaticcharacteroftheincidents:thewashingofhands，thethreefolddenialbyPeter，thepurplerobeandcrownofthorns，andsoforth)；andassuchitisnowacceptedbymanywell-qualifiedauthorities。[1]
[1]Dr。FrazerinTheGoldenBough(vol。ix，“TheScapegoat，“p。
400)speaksofthefrequencyinantiquityofaMystery-playrelatingtoaGod-manwhogiveshislifeandbloodforthepeople；andheputsforwardtentativelyandbynomeansdogmaticallythefollowingnote:——“Suchadrama，ifweareright，wastheoriginalstoryofEstherandMordecai，or(togivetheiroldernames)IshtarandMarduk。ItwasplayedinBabylonia，andfromBabyloniathereturningCaptivesbroughtittoJudaea，whereitwasacted，ratherasanhistoricalthanamythicalpiece，byplayerswho，havingtodieingrimearnestonacrossorgallows，werenaturallydrawnfromthegaolratherthanthegreen-room。A
chainofcauses，whichbecausewecannotfollowthemmight——inthelooselanguageofcommonlife——becalledanaccident，determinedthatthepartofthedyinggodinthisannualplayshouldbethrustuponJesusofNazareth，whomtheenemieshehadmadeinhighplacesbyhisoutspokenstrictureswereresolvedtoputoutoftheway。”Seealsovol。iv，“TheDyingGod，“inthesamebook。
Therearemanyotherdifficulties。TheraisingofLazarus，alreadydeadthreedays，theturningofwaterintowine(amiracleattributedtoBacchus，ofold)，thefeedingofthefivethousand，andothersofthemarvelsare，tosaytheleast，noteasyofdigestion。The“SermonontheMount“which，withthe“Lord"sPrayer“embeddedinit，formsthegreatandacceptedrepositoryof"Christian"
teachingandpiety，iswellknowntobeacollectionofsayingsfrompre-christianwritings，includingthePsalms，Isaiah，Ecclesiasticus，theSecretsofEnoch，theShemonehesreh(abookofHebrewprayers)，andothers；andthefactthatthiscollectionwasreallymadeAFTERthetimeofJesus，andcouldnothaveoriginatedfromhim，isclearfromthestresswhichitlayson“persecutions“and“falseprophets“——thingswhichwerecertainlynotasourceoftroubleatthetimeJesusissupposedtobespeaking，thoughtheywereatalatertime——aswellasfromtheoccurrenceoftheword“Gentiles，“whichbeinghereusedapparentlyincontra-
distinctionto“Christians“couldnotwellbeappropriateatatimewhennorecognizedChristianbodiesasyetexisted。
ButthemostremarkablepointinthisconnectionistheabsolutesilenceoftheGospelofMarkonthesubjectoftheResurrectionandAscension——thatis，oftheORIGINAL
Gospel，foritisnowallowedonallhandsthatthetwelveversesMarkxvi。9totheend，arealaterinsertion。Consideringthenatureofthisevent，astoundingindeed，ifphysicallytrue，anduniqueinthehistoryoftheworld，itisstrangethatthisGospel——theearliestwrittenofthefourGospels，andnearestintimetotheactualevidence——
makesnomentionofit。ThenextGospelinpointoftime——thatofMatthew——mentionsthematterratherbrieflyandtimidly，andreportsthestorythatthebodyhadbeenSTOLENfromthesepulchre。Lukeenlargesconsiderablyandgivesawholelongchaptertotheresurrectionandascension；
whiletheFourthGospel，writtenfullytwentyyearslaterstill——sayaboutA。D。120——givestwochaptersandaGREAT
VARIETYOFDETAILS！
Thisincreaseofdetail，however，asonegetsfartherandfartherfromtheactualeventisjustwhatonealwaysfinds，asIhavesaidbefore，inlegendarytraditions。A
veryinterestingexampleofthishaslatelycometolightinthecaseofthetraditionsconcerningthelifeanddeathofthePersianBab。TheBab，asmostofmyreaderswillknow，wastheFounderofagreatreligiousmovementwhichnownumbers(ornumberedbeforetheGreatWar)
somemillionsofadherents，chieflyMahommedans，Christians，JewsandParsees。Theperiodofhismissionaryactivitywasfrom1845to1850。HisGospelwassingularlylikethatofJesus——agospeloflovetomankind——only(asmightbeexpectedfromthedifferenceofdate)withanevenwiderandmoredeliberateinclusionofallclasses，creedsandraces，sinnersandsaints；andtheincidentsandentourageofhisministrywerealsosingularlysimilar。
HewasbornatShirazin1820，andgrowingupapromisingboyandyouth，fellattheageOf21undertheinfluenceofacertainSeyyidKazim，leaderofaheterodoxsect，andakindoffore-runnerorJohntheBaptisttotheBab。Theresultwasaperiodofmentaltrouble(likethe“temptationinthewilderness“)，afterwhichtheyouthreturnedtoShirazandattheageoftwenty-fivebeganhisownmission。
HisrealnamewasMirzaAliMuhammad，buthecalledhimselfthenceforthTheBab，i。e。theGate(“IamtheWay“)；
andgraduallytheregatheredroundhimdisciples，drawnbythefascinationofhispersonalityandthedevotionofhischaracter。ButwiththerapidincreaseofhisfollowinggreatjealousyandhatredwereexcitedamongtheMullahs，theupholdersofafanaticalandnarrow-
mindedMahommedanismandquitecorrespondingtotheScribesandPhariseesoftheNewTestament。BythemhewasdenouncedtotheTurkishGovernment。Hewasarrestedonachargeofcausingpoliticaldisturbance，andwascondemnedtodeath。Amonghisdiscipleswasonefavorite，[1]whowasabsolutelydevotedtohisMasterandrefusedtoleavehimatthelast。Sotogethertheyweresuspendedoverthecitywall(atTabriz)andsimultaneouslyshot。Thiswasonthe8thJuly，1850。
[1]MirzaMuhammadAli；andoneshouldnotethesimilarityofthetwonames。
InNovember1850——orbetweenthatdateandOctober1851，abookappeared，writtenbyoneoftheB
andgivinginquitesimpleandunpretendingformarecordoftheaboveevents。Thereisinitnoaccountofmiraclesorofgreatpretensionstogodhoodandthelike。Itisjustaplainhistoryofthelifeanddeathofabelovedteacher。Itwascordiallyreceivedandcirculatedfarandwide；andwehavenoreasonfordoubtingitsessentialveracity。Andevenifprovednowtobeinaccurateinoneortwodetails，thiswouldnotinvalidatethemoraloftherestofthestory——whichisasfollows:
AfterthedeathoftheBabagreatpersecutiontookplace(in1852)；thereweremanyBabimartyrs，andforsomeyearsthegeneralfollowerswerescattered。Butintimetheygatheredthemselvestogetheragain；successorstotheoriginalprophetwereappointed——thoughnotwithoutdissensions——andaBabichurch，chieflyatAccaorAcreinSyria，begantobeformed。Itwasduringthisperiodthatagreatnumberoflegendsgrewup——legendsofmiraculousbabyhoodandboyhood，legendsofmiraclesperformedbythematureBab，andsoforth；andwhenthenewly-
formingChurchcametolookintothematteritconcluded(quitenaturally！)thatsuchasimplehistoryasIhaveoutlinedabovewouldneverdoforthefoundationofitsplans，nowgrownsomewhatambitious。SoanewGospelwasframed，calledtheTarikh-i-Jadid(“ThenewHistory“
or“ThenewWay“)，embodyingandincludingalotoflegendarymatter，andissuedwiththeauthorityof“theChurch。”Thiswasin1881-2；andcomparingthiswiththeoriginalrecord(calledThepointofKaf)wegetaluminousviewofthegrowthoffableinthosethirtybriefyearswhichhadelapsedsincetheBab"sdeath。Meanwhileitbecameverynecessaryofcoursetowithdrawfromcirculationasfaraspossibleallcopiesoftheoriginalrecord，lesttheyshouldgivethelietothelater"Gospel"；andthisapparentlywasdoneveryeffectively——soeffectivelyindeedthatProfessorEdwardBrowne(towhomtheworldowessomuchonaccountofhislaborsinconnectionwithBabism)，afterarduoussearch，cameatonetimetotheconclusionthattheoriginalwasnolongerextant。Mostfortunately，however，thewell-knownComtedeGobineauhadinthecourseofhisstudiesonEasternReligionsacquiredacopyofThepointofKaf；andthis，afterhisdeath，wasfoundamonghisliterarytreasuresandidentified(aswasmostfitting)byProfessorBrownehimself。
SuchinbriefisthehistoryoftheearlyBabiChurch[1]——
aChurchwhichhasgrownupandexpandedgreatlywithinthememoryofmanyyetliving。Muchmightbewrittenaboutit，butthechiefpointatpresentisforustonotethewell-verifiedandinterestingexampleitgivesoftherapidgrowthinSyriaofareligiouslegendandthereasonswhichcontributedtothisgrowth——andtobewarnedhowmuchmorerapidlysimilarlegendsprobablygrewupinthesamelandinthemiddleoftheFirstCentury，A。D。
ThestoryoftheBabisalsointerestingtousbecause，whilethismassoflegendwasformedaroundit，thereisnopossibledoubtabouttheactualexistenceofahistoricalnucleusinthepersonofMirzaAliMuhammad。
[1]Forliterature，seeEdwardG。Browne"sTraveller"sNarrativeontheEpisodeoftheBab(1891)，andhisNewHistoryoftheBabtranslatedfromthePersianoftheTarikh-i-Jadid(Cambridge，1893)。AlsoSermonsandEssaysbyHerbertRix(WilliamsandNorgate，1907)，pp。295-325，“ThePersianBab。”
Onthewhole，oneissometimesinclinedtodoubtwhetheranygreatmovementevermakesitselffeltintheworld，withoutdatingfirstfromsomepowerfulpersonalityorgroupofpersonalities，ROUNDwhichtheidealizingandmyth-
makinggeniusofmankindtendstocrystallize。Butonemustnotevenherebetoocertain。SomethingoftheApostlePaulweknow，andsomethingof"John"theEvangelistandwriteroftheEpistleIJohn；andthatthe"Christian"doctrinesdatedlargelyfromthepreachingandteachingofthesetwowecannotdoubt；butPaulneversawJesus(except“intheSpirit“)，nordoesheevermentionthemanpersonally，oranyincidentofhisactuallife(the“crucifiedChrist“beingalwaysanidealfigure)；
and"John"whowrotetheGospelwascertainlynotthesameasthedisciplewho“layinJesus"bosom“——thoughanintercalatedverse，thelastbutoneintheGospel，assertstheidentity。[1]
[1]Itisobvious，infact，thattheWHOLEofthelastchapterofSt。Johnisalaterinsertion，andagainthatthetwolastversesofthatchapterarelaterthanthechapteritself！
TheremayhavebeenahistoricJesus——andifso，togetareliableoutlineofhislifewouldindeedbeatreasure；
butatpresentitwouldseemthereisnosignofthat。IfthehistoricityofJesus，inanydegree，couldbeproved，itwouldgiveusreasonforsupposing——whatIhavepersonallyalwaysbeeninclinedtobelieve——thattherewasalsoahistoricalnucleusforsuchpersonagesasOsiris，Mithra，Krishna，Hercules，Apolloandtherest。Thequestion，infact，narrowsitselfdowntothis，Havetherebeeninthecourseofhumanevolutioncertain，sotospeak，NODAL
pointsorperiodsatwhichthepsychologiccurrentsrantogetherandcondensedthemselvesforanewstart；andhaseachsuchnodeorpointofcondensationbeenmarkedbytheappearanceofanactualandheroicman(orwoman)
whosuppliedanecessaryimpetusforthenewdeparture，andgavehisnametotheresultingmovement?ORisitsufficienttosupposetheautomaticformationofsuchnodesorstarting-pointswithouttheinterventionofanyspecialheroorgenius，andtoimaginethatineachcasethemyth-
makingtendencyofmankindCREATEDalegendaryandinspiringfigureandworshipedthesameforalongperiodafterwardsasagod?
AsIhavesaidbefore，thisisaquestionwhich，interestingasitis，isnotreallyveryimportant。ThemainthingbeingthatthepropheticandcreativespiritofmankindHASfromtimetotimeevolvedthosefiguresasidealizationsofits“heart"sdesire“andplacedahaloroundtheirheads。
ThelongprocessionofthembecomesaREALpieceofHistory——thehistoryoftheevolutionofthehumanheart，andofhumanconsciousness。ButwiththepsychologyofthewholesubjectIshalldealinthenextchapter。
Imayhere，however，dwellforamomentontwootherpointswhichbelongproperlytothischapter。Ihavealreadymentionedthegreatrelianceplacedbytheadvocatesofaunique"revelation"onthehighmoralitytaughtintheGospelsandtheNewTestamentgenerally。Thereisnoneedofcoursetochallengethatmoralityortodepreciateitunduly；buttheargumentassumesthatitissogreatlysuperiortoanythingofthekindthathadbeentaughtbeforethatwearecompelledtosupposesomethinglikearevelationtoexplainitsappearance——whereasofcourseanyonefamiliarwiththewritingsofantiquity，amongtheGreeksorRomansorEgyptiansorHindusorlaterJews，knowsperfectlywellthatthereportedsayingsofJesusandtheApostlesmaybeparalleledabundantlyfromthesesources。
IhaveillustratedthisalreadyfromtheSermonontheMount。IfanyonewillglanceattheTestamentoftheTwelvePatriarchs——aJewishbookcomposedabout120B。C——hewillseethatitisfullofmoralprecepts，andespeciallypreceptsofloveandforgiveness，soardentandsonoblethatithardlysuffersinanywaywhencomparedwiththeNewTestamentteaching，andthatconsequentlynospecialmiracleisrequiredtoexplaintheappearanceofthelatter。
ThetwelvePatriarchsinquestionarethetwelvesonsofJacob，andthebookconsistsoftheirsupposeddeathbedscenes，inwhicheachpatriarchinturnreciteshisown(moreorlessimaginary)lifeanddeedsandgivespiouscounseltohischildrenandsuccessors。Itiscomposedinafineandpoeticstyle，andisfullofloftythought，remindfulinscoresofpassagesoftheGospels——wordsandall——
thecoincidencesbeingtoostrikingtobeaccidental。ItevidentlyhadadeepinfluenceontheauthorsoftheGospels，aswellasonSt。Paul。ItaffirmsabeliefinthecomingofaMessiah，andinsalvationfortheGentiles。Thefollowingaresomequotationsfromit:[1]TestamentofZebulun(p。116):“Mychildren，IbidyoukeepthecommandsoftheLord，andshowmercytoyourneighbours，andhavecompassiontowardsall，nottowardsmenonly，butalsotowardsbeasts。”Dan(p。127):“LovetheLordthroughallyourlife，andoneanotherwithatrueheart。”Joseph(p。173):“Iwassick，andtheLordvisitedme；inprison，andmyGodshowedfavoruntome。”Benjamin(p。209):
“Forasthesunisnotdefiledbyshiningondungandmire，butratherdriethupbothanddrivethawaytheevilsmell，soalsothepuremind，encompassedbythedefilementsofearth，rathercleanseththemandisnotitselfdefiled。”
[1]ThereferencesbeingtotheEditionbyR。H。Charles(1907)。
Ithinkthesequotationsaresufficienttoprovethehighstandardofthisbook，whichwaswrittenintheSecondCenturyB。C。，andFROMwhichtheNewTestamentauthorscopiouslyborrowed。
Theotherpointhastodowithmystatementatthebeginningofthischapterthattwoofthemain"characteristics"
ofChristianitywereitsinsistenceon(a)atendencytowardsrenunciationoftheworld，andaconsequentcultivationofapurelyspirituallove，and(b)onamoralitywhoseinspirationwasaprivatesenseofdutytoGodratherthanapublicsenseofdutytoone"sneighborandtosocietygenerally。Ithink，however，thatthelast-mentionedcharacteristicoughttobeviewedinrelationtoathird，namely，(c)theextraordinarilyDEMOCRATICtendencyofthenewReligion。[1]Celsus(A。D。200)jeeredattheearlyChristiansfortheirextremedemocracy:“Itisonlythesimpletons，theignoble，thesenseless——slavesandwomenfolkandchildren——whomtheywishtopersuade[tojointheirchurches]orCANpersuade“——“wool-dressersandcobblersandfullers，themostuneducatedandvulgarpersons，“and“whosoeverisasinner，orunintelligentorafool，inaword，whoeverisgod-forsaken(
OftheimmensenumbersoflesserofficialswhocarriedonthevastorganizationoftheRomanEmpire，mostperhaps，weretakenfromtheranksofthefreedmenandquondamslaves，drawnfromagreatvarietyofracesandalreadyfamiliarwithpagancultsofallkinds——Egyptian，Syrian，Chaldean，Iranian，andsoforth。[3]ThisfacthelpedtogivetoChristianity——underthefinetoleranceoftheEmpire——
itsdemocraticcharacterandalsoitswillingnesstoacceptall。Therudeandmenialmasses，whohadhithertobeenalmostbeneaththenoticeofGreekandRomanculture，flockedin；andthoughthiswasdoubtless，astimewenton，asourceofweaknesstotheChurch，andacauseofdissensionandsuperstition，yetitwasintheinevitablelineofhumanevolution，andhadapsychologicalbasiswhichImustnowendeavortoexplain。
[1]Itisimportanttonote，however，thatthissamedemocratictendencywasverymarkedinMithraism。“Ilestcertain，“saysCumont，“qu"ilafaitsespremieresconquetesdanslesclassesinferieuresdelasocieteetc"estl"aunfaitconsiderable；lemithracismeestrestelongtempslareligiondeshumbles。”
MysteresdeMithra，p。68。
[2]SeeGlover"sConflictofReligionsintheearlyRomanEmpire，ch。viii。
[3]SeeToutain，Cultespaiens，vol。ii，conclusion。
XIV。THEMEANINGOFITALL
Thegeneraldriftandmeaningofthepresentbookmustnow，I
think，frommanyhintsscatteredinthecourseofit，begrowingclear。Butitwillbewellperhapsinthischapter，attheriskofsomerepetition，tobringthewholeargumenttogether。Andtheargumentisthatsincethedawnofhumanityontheearth——manyhundredsofthousandsorperhapsamillionyearsago——therehasbeenaslowpsychologicevolution，agradualdevelopmentorrefinementofConsciousness，whichatacertainstagehasspontaneouslygivenbirthinthehumanracetothephenomenaofreligiousbeliefandreligiousritual——thesephenomena(whetherintheraceatlargeorinanybranchofit)alwaysfollowing，stepbystep，acertainorderdependingonthedegreesofpsychologicevolutionconcerned；andthatitisthisgeneralfactwhichaccountsforthestrangesimilaritiesofbeliefandritualwhichhavebeenobservedallovertheworldandinplacesfarremotefromeachother，andwhichhavebeenbrieflynotedintheprecedingchapters。
Andthemainstagesofthispsychologicevolution——thoseatanyratewithwhichwearehereconcerned——areThree:
thestageofSimpleConsciousness，thestageofSelf-
consciousness，andathirdStagewhichforwantofabetterwordwemaytermthestageofUniversalConsciousness。
Ofcoursethesethreestagesmayatsomefuturetimebeanalyzedintolesserdegrees，withusefulresult——
butatpresentIonlydesiretodrawattentiontothemintherough，sotospeak，toshowthatitisfromthemandfromtheirpassageoneintoanotherthattherehasflowedbyaperfectlynaturallogicandconcatenationthestrangepanoramaofhumanity"sreligiousevolution——itssuperstitionsandmagicandsacrificesanddancingsandritualgenerally，andlateritsincantationsandprophecies，andservicesofspeechandverse，andpaintingsandformsofartandfiguresofthegods。AwonderfulPanoramaindeed，orpoemoftheCenturies，or，ifyoulike，World-symphonywiththreegreatleadingmotives！
AndfirstwehavethestageofSimpleConsciousness。Forhundredsofcenturies(wecannotdoubt)ManpossessedadegreeofconsciousnessnotradicallydifferentfromthatofthehigherAnimals，thoughprobablymorequickandvaried。Hesaw，heheard，hefelt，henoted。Heactedorreacted，quicklyorslowly，inresponsetotheseimpressions。
ButtheconsciousnessofhimSELF，asabeingseparatefromhisimpressions，asseparatefromhissurroundings，hadnotyetarisenortakenholdonhim。Hewasaninstinctivepart，ofNature。AndinthisrespecthewasveryneartotheAnimals。Self-consciousnessintheanimals，inagerminalformisthere，nodoubt，butEMBEDDED，sotospeak，inthegeneralworldconsciousness。Itisonthisaccountthattheanimalshavesuchamarvellouslyacuteperceptionandinstinct，beingembeddedinNature。AndprimitiveManhadthesame。Alsowemust，asIhavesaidbefore，allowthatmaninthatstagemusthavehadthesamesortofgraceandperfectionofformandmovementasweadmireinthe(wild)animalsnow。Itwouldbequiteunreasonabletosupposethathe，thecrowninthesamesenseofcreation，wasfromthebeginningalameandill-madeabortion。Foralongperiodthetribesofmen，likethetribesofthehigheranimals，musthavebeen(onthewhole，andallowingforoccasionalprivationsandsufferingsandconflicts)welladaptedtotheirsurroundingsandharmoniouswiththeearthandwitheachother。TheremusthavebeenaperiodresemblingaGoldenAge——someconditionatanyratewhich，comparedwithsubsequentmiseries，meritedtheepithet"golden。"
ItwasduringthisperiodapparentlythatthesystemofTotemsarose。Thetribesfelttheirrelationshiptotheirwingedandfourfootedmates(includingalsootherobjectsofnature)sodeeplyandintenselythattheyadoptedthelatterastheiremblems。Thepre-civilizationManfairlyworshipped，theanimalsandwasproudtobecalledafterthem。Ofcoursewemodernsfindthisstrange。We，whoseconceptionsofthesebeautifulcreaturesaremostlyderivedfromabroken-downcab-horse，oramelancholymilk-rummagedcowinasootyfield，oradiseasedanddespondentlionoreagleattheZoo，haveneverevenseenorlovedthemandhaveonlywonderedwithourtruecommercialinstinctwhatprofitwecouldextractfromthem。
Butthey，theprimitives，lovedandadmiredtheanimals；
theydomesticatedmanyofthembytheforceofanaturalfriendship，[1]andaccordedthemakindofdivinity。ThiswastheageoftribalsolidarityandofalatentsenseofsolidaritywithNature。Andthepointofitallis(withregardtothesubjectwehaveinhand)thatthiswasalsotheagefromwhichbyanaturalevolutionthesenseofReligioncametomankind。IfReligioninmanisthesenseoftiesbindinghisinnerselftothepowersoftheuniversearoundhim，thenitisevidentIthinkthatprimitivemanasIhavedescribedhimpossessedtheREALITYofthissense——thoughsofarburiedandsubconsciousthathewashardlyawareofit。Itwasonlylater，andwiththecomingoftheSecondStage，thatthissensebegantorisedistinctlyintoconsciousness。
[1]Seech。iv。TylorinhisPrimitiveCulture(vol。i，p。460，edn。1903)says:“Thesenseofanabsolutepsychicaldistinctionbetweenmanandbeast，soprevalentinthecivilizedworld，ishardlytobefoundamongthelowerraces。”
LetuspassthentotheSecondStage。Thereisamomentintheevolutionofachild——somewhereperhapsabouttheageofthree[1]——whenthesimplealmostanimal-likeconsciousnessofthebabeistroubledbyanewelement——SELF-consciousness。Thechangeissomarked，sodefinite，that(inthedepthoftheinfant"seyes)youcanalmostSEEittakeplace。Sointheevolutionofthehumanracetherehasbeenaperiod——alsomarkedanddefinite，thoughextendingintermittentoveravastintervaloftime——whenonmeningeneraltheredawnedtheconsciousnessofTHEMSELVES，oftheirownthoughtsandactions。TheoldsimpleacceptanceofsensationsandexperiencesgaveplacetoREFLECTION。
Thequestionarose:“HowdothesesensationsandexperiencesaffectME?Whatcan_I_dotomodifythem，toencouragethepleasurable，toavoidorinhibitthepainful，andsoon?“Fromthatmomentanewmotivewasaddedtolife。Themindrevolvedroundanewcentre。Itbegantospinlikealittleeddyrounditsownaxis。ItstudiedITSELFfirstandbecamedeeplyconcernedaboutitsownpleasuresandpains，losingtouchthewhilewiththelargerlifewhichoncedominatedit——thelifeofNature，thelifeoftheTribe。Theoldunityofthespirit，theoldsolidarity，werebrokenup。
[1]SeeBucke"sCosmicConsciousness(Philadelphia，1901)，pp。1
and39；alsoW。McDougall"sSocialPsychology(1908)，p。146——
wherethesameageistentativelysuggested。
Ihavetouchedonthissubjectbefore，butitissoimportantthatthereadermustexcuserepetition。Therecameaninevitableseverance，aninevitableperiodofstrife。Themagicmirrorofthesoul，reflectingnatureasheretoforeincalmandsimplegrace，wassuddenlycrackedacross。
Thenewself-consciousman(notallatoncebutgradually)
becamealienatedfromhistribe。Helapsedintostrifewithhisfellows。Ambition，vanity，greed，theloveofdomination，thedesireforpropertyandpossessions，setin。
Theinfluencesoffellowshipandsolidaritygrewfeebler。
HebecamealienatedfromhisgreatMother。Hisinstinctswerelessandlesssure——andthatinproportionasbrain-
activityandself-regardingcalculationtooktheirplace。
Loveandmutualhelpwerelesscompellinginproportionasthedemandsofself-interestgrewlouderandmoreinsistent。
Ultimatelythecrisiscame。Cainmurderedhisbrotherandbecameanoutcast。TheGardenofEdenandtheGoldenAgeclosedtheirgatesbehindhim。Heentereduponaperiodofsuffering——aperiodoflaborandtoilandsorrowsuchashehadneverbeforeknown，andsuchastheanimalscertainlyhaveneverknown。Andinthatdistressfulstate，inthatdolefulvalleyofhislongpilgrimage，hestillremainsto-day。
Thushasthecankerofself-consciousnessdoneitswork。
Itwouldbefoolishanduselesstorailagainsttheprocess，ortoblameanyoneforit。Ithadtobe。Throughthisdismalvaleofself-seekingmankindhadtopass——ifonlyinorderatlasttofindtheTrueSelfwhichwas(andstillremains)itsgoal。Thepilgrimagewillnotlastforever。
IndeedtherearesignsthattherecentGreatWarandthefollowingEventsmarkthelowestpointofdescentandthebeginningofthehumansoul"sreturntosanityandascenttowardstheheavenlyKingdom。NodoubtManwillarriveagainSOMEdayatthegrace，composureandleisurelybeautyoflifewhichtheanimalsrealizedlongago，thoughheseemsapreciouslongtimeaboutit；andwhenallthisnightmareofGreedandVanityandSelf-conceitandCrueltyandLustofoppressionanddomination，whichmarksthepresentperiod，ispast——anditWILLpass——thenHumanitywillcomeagaintoitsGoldenAgeandtothatParadiseofredemptionandpeacewhichhasforsolongbeenprophesied。
ButwearedealingwiththeoriginsofReligion；andwhatIwantthereadertoseeisthatitwasjustthisbreakingupoftheoldpsychologicunityandcontinuityofmanwithhissurroundingswhichledtothewholepanoramaoftheritualsandcreeds。Man，centeringroundhimself，necessarilybecameanexilefromthegreatWhole。Hecommittedthesin(ifitwasasin)ofSeparation。AnyhowNemesiswasswift。Thesenseoflonelinessandthesenseofguiltcameonhim。TherealizationofhimselfasaseparateconsciousbeingnecessarilyledtohisattributingasimilarconsciousnessofsomekindtothegreatLifearoundhim。Actionandreactionareequalandopposite。Whateverhemayhavefeltbefore，itbecamecleartohimnowthatbeingsmoreorlesslikehimself——thoughdoubtlessvasterandmorepowerful——movedbehindtheveilofthevisibleworld。
FromthatmomentthebeliefinMagicandDemonsandGodsaroseorslowlydevelopeditself；andinthemidstofthisturmoilofperilousandconflictingpowers，heperceivedhimselfanalienandanexile，strickenwithFear，strickenwiththesenseofSin。Ifbefore，hehadexperiencedfear——inthekindofautomaticwayofself-preservationinwhichtheanimalsfeelit——henow，withfeveredself-
regardandexcitedimagination，experienceditindoubleortrebledegree。Andif，before，hehadbeenawarethatfortuneandchancewerenotalwaysfriendlyandpropitioustohisdesigns，henowperceivedorthoughtheperceivedineveryadversehappeningthedeliberatepersecutionofthepowers，andanaccusationofguiltdirectedagainsthimforsomeneglectordeficiencyinhisrelationtothem。
Hencebyaperfectlylogicalandnaturalsequencetherearosethebeliefinother-worldorsupernaturalpowers，whetherpurelyfortuitousandmagicalormoredistinctlyrationalandpersonal；therearosethesenseofSin，orofoffenceagainstthesepowers；therearoseacomplexritualofExpiation——whetherbypersonalsacrificeandsufferingorbythesacrificeofvictims。Therearosetooawholecatalogueofceremonies——ceremoniesofInitiation，bywhichthenoviceshouldlearntokeepwithinthegoodgraceofthePowers，andundertheblessingofhisTribeandtheprotectionofitsTotem；ceremoniesofEucharisticmealswhichshouldrestorethelostsanctityofthecommonlifeandremovethesenseofguiltandisolation；ceremoniesofMarriageandrulesandritesofsex-connection，fittedtocurbtheterrificanddemonicviolenceofpassionswhichelseindeedmighteasilyrendthecommunityasunder。
Andsoon。Itiseasytoseethatgrantedanearlystageofsimpleunreflectingnature-consciousness，andgrantingthisbrokenintoand，afteratime，shatteredbythearrivalofSELF-consciousnesstherewouldnecessarilyfollowinspontaneousyetlogicalorderawholeseriesofreligiousinstitutionsandbeliefs，whichphantasmalandunrealastheymayappeartous，werebynomeansunrealtoourancestors。Itiseasyalsotoseethatasthepsychologicalprocesswasnecessarilyofsimilargeneralcharacterineverybranchofthehumanraceandallovertheworld，sothereligiousevolutions——thecreedsandrituals——tookonmuchthesamecomplexioneverywhere；and，thoughtheydifferedindetailsaccordingtoclimateandotherinfluences，ranonsuchremarkablyparallellinesaswehavenoted。
Finally，tomakethewholematterclear，letmerepeatthatthisevent，theinbreakofSelf-consciousness，tookplace，orBEGANtotakeplace，anenormoustimeago，perhapsinthebeginningoftheNeolithicAge。Idwellontheword“began“becauseIthinkitisprobablethatinitsbeginnings，andforalongperiodafter，thisnewbornconsciousnesshadaninfantileandveryinnocentcharacter，quitedifferentfromitslaterandmoreaggressiveforms——justasweseeself-consciousnessinalittlechildhasacharmandagracewhichitloseslaterinaboastfulorgraspingboyhoodandmanhood。Sowemayunderstandthatthoughself-consciousnessmayhavebeguntoappearinthehumanraceatthisveryearlytime(andmoreorlesscontemporaneouslywiththeinventionofveryrudetoolsandunformedlanguage)，thereprobablydidelapseaverylongperiod——
perhapsthewholeoftheNeolithicAge——beforetheevilsofthissecondstageofhumanevolutioncametoahead。
MaxMullerhaspointedoutthatamongthewordswhicharecommontothevariousbranchesofAryanlanguage，andwhichthereforebelongtotheveryearlyperiodbeforetheseparationofthesebranches，therearenotfoundthewordsdenotingwarandconflictandtheweaponsandinstrumentsofstrife——afactwhichsuggestsalongcontinuanceofpeacefulhabitamongmankindAFTERthefirstformationanduseoflanguage。
Thatthebirthoflanguageandthebirthofself-consciousnesswereAPPROXIMATELYsimultaneousisaprobabletheory，andonefavoredbymanythinkers；[1]buttheslowbeginningsofbothmusthavebeensoveryprotractedthatitisperhapsuselesstoattemptanyveryexactdetermination。LateresearchesseemtoshowthatlanguagebeganinwhatmightbecalledTRIBALexpressionsofmoodandfeeling(holophraseslike“go-hunting-kill-bear“)withoutreferencetoindividualpersonalitiesandrelationships；
andthatitwasonlyatalaterstagethatwordslike“I“
and“Thou“cameintouse，andtheholophrasesbrokeupinto“partsofspeech“andtookonadefinitegrammaticalstructure。[2]Iftrue，thesefactspointclearlytoalongforegroundofrudecommunallanguage，somethinglikethoughgreatlysuperiortothatoftheanimals，precedingorpreparingtheevolutionofSelf-consciousnessproper，intheformsof“I“and“Thou“andthegrammarofpersonalactionsandrelations。“Theyshowthatthepluralandallotherformsofnumberingrammararisenotbymultiplicationofanoriginal"I，"butbyselectionandgradualEXCLUSIONfromanoriginalcollective"we。"“[3]Accordingtothisviewthebirthofself-consciousnessinthehumanfamily，orinanyparticularraceorsectionofthehumanfamily，musthavebeenequallyslowandhesitating；anditwouldbeeasytoimagine，asjustsaid，thattheremayhavebeenaverylongand"golden"periodatitsbeginning，beforethenewconsciousnesstookonitsmaturerandharsherforms。
[1]Dr。Bucke(CosmicConsciousness)insistsontheirsimultaneity，butplacesbotheventsexcessivelyfarback，asweshouldthink，i。e。200，000or300，000yearsago。Possiblyhedoesnotdifferentiatesufficientlybetweentherudelanguageoftheholophraseandthemuchlatergrowthofformedandgrammaticalspeech。
[2]SeeA。E。Crawley"sIdeaoftheSoul，ch。ii；JaneHarrison"sThemis，pp。473-5；andE。J。Payne"sHistoryoftheNewWorldcalledAmerica，vol。ii，pp。115sq。，wherethebeginningofself-consciousnessisassociatedwiththebreak-upoftheholophrase。
[3]Themis，p。471。
AllestimatesoftheTimeinvolvedintheseevolutionsofearlymanarenotoriouslymostdivergentandmostdifficulttobesureof；butifwetake500，000yearsagoforthefirstappearanceofveritableMan(homoprimigenius)，[2]
and(followingProfessorW。J。Sollas)[3]30，000or40，000yearsagoforthefirsttool-usingmen(homosapiens)oftheChelleanAge(palaeolithic)，15，000fortherock-paintingsandinscriptionsoftheAurignacianandMagdalenianpeoples，and5，000yearsagoforthefirstactualhistoricalrecordsthathavecomedowntous，wemayperhapsgetsomethinglikeaproportionbetweenthedifferentperiods。Thatistosay，halfamillionyearsforthepurelyanimalmaninhisdifferentformsandgradesofevolution。ThensomewheretowardstheendofpalaeolithicorcommencementofneolithictimesSelf-consciousnessdimlybeginningand，aftersome10，000yearsofslowgerminationandpre-historicculture，culminatingintheactualhistoricperiodandthedawnofcivilization40or50centuriesago，andto-day(wehope)，reachingtheclimaxwhichprecedesorforetellsitsabatementandtransformation。
[2]ThoughDr。ArthurKeith，AncientTypesofMan(1911)，pp。93
and102，putsthefigureatmorelikeamillion。
[3]SeeAncientHunters(1915)；alsoHastings"sEncycl。art。
“Ethnology“；andHavelockEllis，“TheOriginofWar，“inThePhilosophyofConflictandotherEssays。
NodoubtmanygeologistsandanthropologistswouldfavorperiodsgreatlyLONGERthanthoseherementioned；butpossiblytherewouldbesomeagreementastotheRATIO
toeachotherofthetimesconcerned:thatis，thesaidauthoritieswouldprobablyallowforaVERYlonganimal-man[1]-
periodcorrespondingtothefirststage；foramuchshorteraggressively"selfconscious"period，correspondingtotheSecondStage——perhapslastingonlyonethirtiethorfiftiethofthetimeofthefirstperiod；andthen——iftheylookedforwardatalltoathirdstage——wouldbeinclinedforobviousreasonstoattributetothatagainaveryextendedduration。
[1]Iusethephrase"animal-man"here，notwithanyflavorofcontemptorreprobation，asthedearVictorianswouldhaveusedit，butwithasenseofgenuinerespectandadmirationsuchasonefeelstowardstheanimalsthemselves。
However，allthisisveryspeculative。ToreturntothedifficultyaboutLanguageandtheconsiderationofthoseearlytimeswhenwordsadequatetotheexpressionofreligiousormagicalideassimplydidnotexist，itisclearthattheonlyavailable，oratanyratetheCHIEFmeansofexpression，inthosetimes，musthaveconsistedingestures，inattitudes，inceremonialACTIONS——inamoreorlesselaborateritual，infact。[1]SuchideasasAdoration，Thanksgiving，confessionofGuilt，placationofWrath，Expiation，Sacrifice，CelebrationofCommunity，sacramentalAtonement，andascoreofotherscouldatthattimebeexpressedbyappropriaterites——andasamatteroffactareoftensoexpressedevennow——MOREreadilyanddirectlythanbylanguage。
"Dancing"——whenthatwordcametobeinvented——didnotmeanamereflingingaboutofthelimbsinrecreation，butanyexpressivemovementsofthebodywhichmightbeusedtoconveythefeelingsofthedanceroroftheaudiencewhomherepresented。Andsothe"religiousdance"becameamostimportantpartofritual。
[1]Seech。ixandxi。
SomuchforthesecondstageofConsciousness。LetusnowpassontotheThirdStage。Itisevidentthattheprocessofdisruptionanddissolution——disruptionbothofthehumanmind，andofsocietyroundaboutit，duetotheactionoftheSecondStage——couldnotgoonindefinitely。
Therearehundredsofthousandsofpeopleatthepresentmomentwhoaredyingofmentalorbodilydisease——theirnervoussystemsbrokendownbytroublesconnectedwithexcessiveself-consciousness——selfishfearsandworriesandrestlessness。Societyatlargeisperishingbothinindustryandinwarfarethroughthedominationinitsorganismoftheself-motivesofgreedandvanityandambition。Thiscannotgoonforever。Thingsmusteithercontinueinthesamestrain，inwhichcaseitisevidentthatweareapproachingacrisisofutterdissolution，ORanewelementmustenterin，anewinspirationoflife，andwe(asindividuals)
andthesocietyofwhichweformapart，mustmakeafreshstart。Whatisthatnewandnecessaryelementofregeneration?
Itisevidentthatitmustbeanewbirth——theentryintoafurtherstageofconsciousnesswhichmustsupersedethepresentone。Throughsomesuchcrisisaswehavespokenof，throughtheextremeofsuffering，themindofMan，ASATPRESENTCONSTITUTED，hastodie。[1]Self-consciousnesshastodie，andbeburied，andriseagaininanewform。
Probablynothingbuttheextremeofsufferingcanbringthisabout。[2]Andwhatisthisnewforminwhichconsciousnesshastorearise?Obviously，sincethemiseriesoftheworldduringcountlesscenturieshavedatedfromthatfatalattempttomakethelittlepersonalSELFthecentreofeffortandactivity，andsincethatattempthasinevitablyledtodisunityanddiscordanddeath，bothwithintheminditselfandwithinthebodyofsociety，thereisnothingleftbutthereturntoaConsciousnesswhichshallhaveUnityasitsfoundation-principle，andwhichshallproceedfromthedirectSENSEANDPERCEPTIONofsuchanunitythroughoutcreation。ThesimplemindofEarlyManandtheAnimalswasofthatcharacter——aconsciousness，sotospeak，continuousthroughnature，andthoughrunningtopointsofilluminationandfociofspecialactivityinindividuals，yetatnopointessentiallybrokenorimprisonedinseparatecompartments。(AnditisthisCONTINUITYoftheprimitivemindwhichenablesus，asIhavealreadyexplained，tounderstandthemysteriousworkingsofinstinctandintuition。)