第7章

13。Successiveassociationisbynomeansaprocessthatdiffersessentiallyfromthetwoformsofsimultaneousassociation，assimilationandcomplication。Itis，onthecontrary，duetothesamegeneralcausesasthese，anddiffersonlyinthesecondarycharacteristicthattheprocessofcombination，[p。236]whichintheformercasesconsisted，sofarasimmediateintrospectionwasconcerned，ofasingleinstantaneousact，ishereprotractedandmaythereforebereadilydividedtwoacts。Thefirstoftheseactscorrespondstotheappeararofthereproducingelements，thesecondtotheappearancethereproducedelements。Heretoo，thefirstactisoftenintroducedbyanexternalsense-impression，whicharuleimmediatelyunitedwithanassimilation。Otherreproductiveelementswhichmightenterintoanassimilationorcomplicationareheldbackthroughsomeinhibitoryinfluenceorother——as，forexample，throughotherassimilationsthatforcethemselvesearlieronapperception——anddonotbegintoexerciseaninfluenceuntillater。

Inthiswayhaveasecondactofapperceptionclearlydistinctfromfirst，anddifferingfromitinsensationalcontentthemoreessentiallythemorenumerousthenewelementsareaddedthroughtheretardedassimilationandcomplicationandthemorethesenewelementstendtodisplacetheearlierbecauseoftheirdifferentcharacter。

14。Inthegreatmajorityofcasestheassociationformedislimitedtotwosuccessiveideationaloraffectiveprocessesconnected，inthemannerdescribed，throughassimilationsorcomplications。Newsense-impressionsorapperceptivecombinations(§；

17)maythenconnectthemselveswiththesecondmemberoftheassociation。

Lessfrequentlyhappensthatthesameprocesseswhichledtothefirstdivisionofanassimilationorcomplicationintoasuccessiveprocess，mayberepeatedwiththesecondorevenwiththethirdmember，sothatinthiswaywehaveawholeassociationalseries。Still，thistakesplacegenerallyonlyunderexceptionalconditions，especiallywhenthenormalcourseofapperceptionhasbeendisturbed，as，forexample，intheso-called“flightofideas“oftheinsane。Innormalcasessuchasserialassociations，thatis，associationswithmorethantwomembers，hardlyeverappear。

14a。Suchserialassociationsmaybeproducedmosteasilyundertheartificialconditionsofexperimentation，whentheeffortispurposelymadetosuppressnewsensibleimpressionsandapperceptivecombinations。Buttheprocessresultinginsuchcasesdiffersfromthatdescribedaboveinthatthesuccessivemembersoftheseriesdonotconnect，eachwithitsimmediatepredecessor，butallgobacktothefirst，untilanewsense-impressionoranideawithanespeciallystrongaffectivetonefurnishesanewstartingpointforthesucceedingassociations。Theassociations-inthe“flightofideas“oftheinsanegenerallyshowthetypeofreturningtocertainpredominantcentres。a。SensibleRecognitionandCognition。

Thewayinwhichtheordinaryformofassociation，madeupoftwopartialprocesses，maybemostclearlyobserved，isinthesimultaneousassimilationsandcomplicationsofsensiblerecognitionandcognition。Thequalification“sensible“iswhenreferringtotheseassociativeprocesses，toindicate，ontheonehand，thatthefirstmemberofthepro-alwaysasense-impression，and，ontheother，todistinguishthesefromthelogicalprocessesofcognition。

Thepsychologicallysimplestcaseofrecognitionisthatanobjecthasbeenperceived——forexample，seen-onlyonceandisrecognizedasthesamewhenmetasecond。Ifthissecondperceptionfollowsverysoonafterthefirst，orifthefirstwasespeciallyemphaticandexciting，theassociationusuallytakesplaceimmediatelyasasimultaneousassimilation。Thisprocessdiffersfromotherassimilation，whichtakeplaceinconnectionwitheverysense-perception，onlyinthecharacteristicaccompanyingfeeling，offamiliarity。Suchafeelingisneverpresentexceptwhenthereissomedegreeof“consciousness“thatthe[p。238]impressionhasalreadybeenreceivedbefore。Itis，therefore，evidentlyoneofthosefeelingswhichcomesfromtheideasobscurelypresentinconsciousness。

Thepsychologicaldifferencebetweenthisandanordinarysimultaneousassimilationmustbelookedforinthefactthatatthemomentwhen，intheapperceptionoftheimpression，theassimilationtakesplace，thereariseintheobscureregionsofconsciousnesssomecomponentsoftheoriginalideawhichdonotenterintotheassimilation。Theirrelationtotheelementsoftheideathatisapperceivedfindsexpressioninthefeelingoffamiliarity。

Theunassimilatedcomponentsmaybeelementsoftheearlierimpressionthatweresodifferentfromcertainelementsofthenewthattheycouldnotbeassimilated，or，andthisisespeciallyoftenthecase，theymaybecomplicationsthatwereclearbefore，butnowremainunobserved。Thisinfluenceofcomplicationexplainshowitisthatthenameofavisualobject，forexamplethepropernamesofpersons，andoftenotherauditoryqualities，suchasthetoneofvoice，areverygreathelpsintherecognition。

Toserveassuchhelps，however，theyneednotnecessarilybeclearideasinconsciousness。Whenwe，haveheardaman"sname，therecognitionofthemanthenexttimewemeethimmaybeaidedbythenamewithoutourcallingitclearlytomind。

15a。Thisinfluenceofcomplicationsmaybedemonstratedexperimentally。Ifwetakeanumberofdisksthatarealikeinallotherrespects，butdifferincolorfromwhitethroughvariousshadesofgreytoblack，andpresentthemtoviewonce，solongasonlyfive，shadesareused(white，black，andthreeshadesofgrey)eachdiskcanbeeasilyrecognizedagain。Butwhenmoreshadesareused，thisisnolongerpossible。Itisverynaturaltosurmisethatthisfactisrelatedtotheexistenceoffivefamiliarnames，white，lightgrey，grey，darkgreyandblack。Thisviewisconfirmedbythefactthatbypurposelyusingalargernumberofnamesmoreshades(evenasmanyasnine)axerecognized。

In[p。239]suchexperimentsthecomplicationmaybeclearlyobserved，butitisnotnecessarilyso，especiallyforthefiveordinaryshades。

Asarulethenameisherethoughtofaftertheactofrecognitionproperispassed。

16。Theobservationsdiscussedalsoshowwhattheconditionsareunderwhicharecognitionmaypassfromasimultaneoustoasuccessiveassociation。Ifacertainintervalelapsesbeforetheelementsoftheearlierideawhichgraduallyriseinconsciousness，canproduceadistinctfeelingoffamiliarity，thewholeprocessdividesintotwoacts:

intotheperceptionandtherecognition。Thefirstisconnectedwiththeordinarysimultaneousassimilationsonly，whileinthesecondtheobscure，unassimilatedelementsoftheearlierideashowtheirinfluence。

Thedivisionbetweenthepartsis，accordingly，moredistinctthegreaterthedifferencebetweentheearlierimpressionandthenewone。Insuchacase，notonlyisthereusuallyalongperiodofnoticeableinhibitionbetweenperceptionandrecognition，butcertainadditionalapperceptiveprocesses，namelytheprocessesofvoluntaryattentionthattakeplaceinthestateofrecollection，alsocometotheaidoftheassociation。

Asaspecialformofthiskindofprocesswehavethephenomenoncalled“mediaterecognition“。Thisconsistsintherecognitionofanobject，notthroughitsownattributes，butthroughsomeaccompanyingmarkorother，whichstandsinachanceconnectionwithit，as，forexample，whenapersonisrecognizedbecauseofhiscompanion。Betweensuchacaseandacaseofimmediaterecognitionthereisnoessentialpsychologicaldifference。

Foreventhosecharacteristicsthatdonotbelongtotherecognizedobjectinitself，stillbelongtothewholecomplexofideationalelementsthathelpinthepreparationandfinalcarryingoutoftheassociation。Andyet，asweshouldnaturallyexpect，theretardationwhichdividesthewholerecognitionintotwoideationalprocesses，[p。240]andoftenleadstothecooperationofvoluntaryrecollectiongenerallyappearsinitsmostevidentforminmediaterecognitions。

17。Thissimpleprocessofrecognitionwhichtakesplacewhenwemeetagainanobjectthathasbeenperceivedoncebefore，isastartingpointforthedevelopmentofvariousotherassociativeprocesses，boththosewhichlikeitselfstandontheboundarybetweensimultaneousandsuccessiveassociations，andthoseinwhichtheretardationintheformofassimilationsandcomplicationsthatleadstothesuccessprocesses，isstillmoreclearlymarked。Thus，therecognitionofanobjectthathasoftenbeenperceivediseasierand，therefore，asaruleaninstantaneousprocess，whichisalsomoreliketheordinaryassimilationbecausethefeelingoffamiliarityismuchlessintense。Sensiblecognitiondiffers，generallybutlittlefromtherecognitionofsinglefamiliarobjects。Thelogicaldistinctionbetweenthetwoconceptsconsistinthefactthatrecognitionmeanstheestablishmentofindividualidentityofthenewlyperceivedwithaformerlyperceivedobject，whilecognitionisthesubsumptionofobjectunderafamiliarconcept。Still，thereisnoreallogicalsubsumptioninaprocessofsensiblecognitionanymorethereisafullydevelopedclass-conceptunderwhichthesubsumptioncouldbemade。Thepsychologicalequivalentofsuchasubsumptionistobefoundinthiscaseintheprocessofrelatingtheimpressioninquestiontoanindefinitelylargenumberofobjects。

Thispresupposesanearlierperceptionofvariousobjectswhichagreeonlyincertainparticularproperties，sothattheprocessofcognitionapproachestheordinaryassimilationmoreandmoreinitspsychologicalcharacterthemorefamiliartheclasstowhichthe，perceivedobjectbelongs，andthemoreitagreeswiththegeneralcharacteristicsoftheclass。Inequalmeasurethe[p。241]feelingspeculiartotheprocessesofcognitionandrecognitiondecreaseandfinallydisappearentirely，sothatwhenwemeetveryfamiliarobjectswedonotspeakofacognitionatall。Theprocessofcognitionbecomesevidentonlywhentheassimilationishinderedinsomeway，eitherbecausetheperceptionoftheclassofobjectsinquestionhasbecomeunusual，orbecausethesingleobjectshowssomeuniquecharacteristics。Insuchacasethesimultaneousassociationmaybecomesuccessivebytheseparationofperceptionandcognitionintotwosuccessiveprocesses。Justinproportionasthishappens，wehaveaspecificfeelingofcognitionwhichisindeedrelatedtothefeelingoffamiliarity，but，asaresultofthedifferentconditionsfortheriseofthetwo，differsfromit，especiallyinitstemporalcourse。b。Memory-processes。

18。Essentiallydifferentisthedirectionalongwhichthesimpleprocessofrecognitiondevelops，whenthehindrancestoimmediateassimilationwhichgiverisetothetransitionfromsimultaneoustosuccessiveassociationaregreatenough，sothattheideationalelementswhichdonotagreewiththenewperceptionunite——eitheraftertherecognitionhastakenplaceorevenwhenthereisnosuchrecognitionwhatever——toformaspecialideareferreddirectlytoanearlierimpression。Theprocessthatarisesundersuchcircumstancesisamemory-processandtheideathatisperceivedisamemory-idea，ormemory-image。

18a。Memory-processesweretheonestowhichassociation-psychologygenerallylimitedtheapplicationoftheconceptassociation。But，ashasbeenshown，theseareassociationsthattakeplaceunderespeciallycomplicatedconditions。Anunderstandingofthegenesisofassociationwasthusrenderedimpossiblefrom[p。242]thefirst，anditiseasytoseethatthedoctrineacceptedbytheassociationistsislimitedessentiallytoalogicalratherthanapsychologicalclassificationofthedifferentkindsofassociationthataretobeobservedinmemory-processes。

Aknowledgeofthesemorecomplexprocessesispossible，however，onlythroughastudystartingwiththesimplerassociativeprocesses，fortheordinarysimultaneousassimilationsandsimultaneousandsuccessiverecognitionspresentthemselvesverynaturallyastheantecedentsofmemory-associations。

Butevensimultaneousrecognitionitselfisnothingbutanassimilationaccompaniedbyafeelingwhichcomesfromtheunassimilatedideationalelementsobscurelypresentinconsciousness。Inthesecondprocesstheseunassimilatedelementsservetoretardtheprocess，sothattherecognitiondevelopsintotheprimitiveformofsuccessiveassociation。Theimpressionisatfirstassimilatedintheordinaryway，andthenagaininasecondactwithanaccompanyingfeelingofrecognitionwhichservestoindicatethegreaterinfluenceofcertainreproducedelements。Inthissimpleformofsuccessiveassociationthetwosuccessiveideasarereferredtooneandthesameobject，theonlydifferencebeingthateachtimesomedifferentideationalandaffectiveelementsareapperceived。Withmemory-associationsthecaseisessentiallydifferent。Heretheheterogeneouselementsoftheearlierimpressionspredominate，andthefirstassimilationoftheimpressionisfollowedbytheformationofanideamadeupofelementsoftheimpressionandalsoofthosebelonging，toearlierimpressions，thataresuitablefortheassimilationbecauseofcertainoftheircomponents。

Themoretheheterogeneouselementspredominate，themoreisthesecondideadifferentfromthefirst，or，ontheotherhand，themorethelikeelementspredominate，themorethetwoideaswillbealike。Inanycasethesecondideaisalwaysareproducedideaanddistinctfromthenewimpressionasanindependentcompound。

19。Thegeneralconditionsfortheriseofmemory-imagesmayexhibitshadesanddifferenceswhichrunparalleltotheformsofrecognitionandcognitiondiscussedabove。Variousmodificationsofthememory-processesmay。arisefromthedifferentkindsofordinaryassimilationthatwebecome[p。243]acquaintedwithabove(15，17)，astherecognitionofanobjectperceivedonceandthatofanobjectfamiliarthroughfrequentperceptions，andalsofromthecognitionofasubjectthatisfamiliarinitsgeneralclass-characteristics。

Simplerecognitionbecomesamemory-processwhentheimmediateassimilationoftheimpressionishinderedbyelementsthatbelongnottotheobjectitself，buttocircumstancesthatattendeditsearlierperception。Justbecausetheformerperceptionoccurredonlyonce，oratleastonlyoncesofarasthereproductionisconcerned，theseaccompanyingelementsmayberelativelyclearanddistinctandsharplydistinguishedfromthesurroundingsofthenewimpression。Inthiswaywehavefirstofalltransitionalformsbetweenrecognitionandremembering:

theobjectisrecognized，andatthesametimereferredtoaparticularearliersenseperceptionwhoseaccompanyingcircumstancesaddadefinitespacialandtemporalrelationtothememory-image。Thememory-processisespeciallypredominantinthosecaseswheretheelementofthenewimpressionthatgaverisetotheassimilationisentirelysuppressedbytheothercomponentsoftheimage，sothattheassociativerelationbetweenthememory-ideaandtheimpressionmayremaincompletelyunnoticed19a。Suchcaseshavebeenspokenofas“mediatememories“，or“mediateassociations“。Still，justaswith“mediaterecognitions“weare，heretoo，dealingwithprocessesthatarefundamentallythesameasordinaryassociations。Take，forexample，thecaseofapersonwho，sittinginhisroomatevening，suddenlyrememberswithoutanyapparentreasonalandscapethathepassedthroughmanyyearsbefore；examinationshowsthattherehappenedtobeintheroomafragrantflowerwhichhesawforthefirsttimeinthatlandscape。Thedifferencebetweenthisandanordinarymemory-processinwhichtheconnectionofthenewimpressionwithanearlierexperienceisclearlyrecognized，obviouslyconsistsinthefactthatheretheelementswhichrecalltheidea[p。244]arepushedintotheobscurebackgroundofconsciousnessotherideationalelements。

Thenotinfrequentexperience，commonlyknownasthe“spontaneousrise“

ofideas，inmemory-imagesuddenlyappearsinourmindwithoutanycause，isinallprobabilityreducibleineverycasetosuchlatentassociations。

20。Memory-processesthatdevelopfromrecognitionswhichhavebeenoftenrepeatedandfromcognitions，areinconsequenceofthegreatercomplexityoftheirconditions，differentfromthoseconnectedwiththerecognitionofobjectsperceivedbutonce。

Whenweperceiveanobjectthatisfamiliareitherinitsownindividualcharacteristicsorinthoseofitsclass，therangeofpossibleassociationsisincomparablygreater，andthewayinwhichthememory-processesshallarisefromaparticularimpressiondependlessonthesingleexperiencesthatgiverisetotheassociation，thanitdoesonthegeneraldispositionandmomentarymoodofconsciousnessandespeciallyontheinterferenceofcertainactiveapperceptiveprocessesandtheintellectualfeelingsandemotionsthatareconnectedwiththem。Whentheconditionsaresovarious，itiseasytoseethatasageneralthingitisimpossible，tocalculatebeforehandwhattheassociationwillbe。Assoonastheactofmemoryisended，however，thetracesofitsassociativeoriginseldomescapecarefulexamination，sothatwearejustifiedinregardingassociationastheuniversaland，onlycauseofmemory-processesunderallcircumstances。

21。Inthusderivingmemoryfromassociation，itisnottobeforgottenthateveryconcretememory-processisbynomeansasimpleprocess，butismadeupofalargenumberofelementaryprocesses，asisapparentfromthefactthatitproducedbyapsychologicaldevelopmentofitssimpleantecedents，namely，thesimultaneousassassinations。Themostimportantoftheseelementaryprocessesistheassimilative[p。245]

interactionbetweensomeexternalimpressionandtheelementsofanearlierpsychicalcompound，orbetweenamemory-imagealreadypresentandsuchelements。Connectedwiththistherearetwootherprocessesthatarecharacteristicformemoryprocesses:oneisthehindranceoftheassimilationbyunlikeelements，theothertheassassinationsandcomplicationsconnectedwiththeseelementsandgivingrisetoapsychicalcompoundwhichdiffersfromthefirstimpressionandisreferredmoreorlessdefinitelytosomepreviousexperience，especiallythroughitscomplications。Thisreferencetotheearlierexperienceshowsitselfthroughacharacteristicfeeling，thefeelingofremembering，whichisrelatedtothefeelingoffamiliarity，butisinitstemporalgenesischaracteristicallydifferent，probablyinconsequenceofthegreaternumberofobscurecomplicationsthataccompanytheappearanceofthememory-image。

Ifwetrytofindtheelementaryprocessestowhichbothmemory-processesandallcomplexassociationsarereducible，weshallfindtwokinds，combinationsfromidentityandfromcontiguity。Ingeneralthefirstclassispredominantwhentheprocessismorelikeanordinaryassimilationandrecognition，whilethesecondappearsmoreprominentlythemoretheprocessesapproachmediatememoryincharacter，thatis，themoretheytakeonthesemblanceofspontaneousideas。

21a。Itisobviousthattheusualclassification，whichmakesallmemory-processesassociationsbyeithersimilarityorcontiguity，isentirelyunsuitableifweattempttoapplyittothemodesofpsychologicalgenesisthattheseprocessesmanifest。Ontheotherbland，itistoogeneralandindefiniteifwetrytoclassifytheprocesseslogicallyaccordingtotheirproducts，withoutreferencetotheirgenesis。Inthelattercasethevariousrelationsofsubordination，superordination，andcoordination，ofcauseandend，oftemporalsuccessionandexistence，andthevariouskindsofspacialconnection，findonlyinadequateexpressioninthevery[p。246]generalconcepts“similarity“and“contiguity“。When，ontheotherhand，themanneroforiginisstudied，everymemory-processisfoundtobemadeupofelementaryprocessesthatmaybecalledpartlyassociationsbysimilarity，partlyassociationsbycontiguity。Theassimilationswhichservetointroducetheprocessandalsothosewhichservetobringaboutthereferencetoaparticularearlierexperienceatitsclose，maybecalledassociationsbysimilarity。Buttheterm“similarity“isnotexactlysuitableevenhere，becauseitisidenticalelementaryprocessesthatgiverisetotheassimilation，andwhensuchanidentitydoesnotexist，itisalwaysproducedbythereciprocalassimilation。Infact，theconceptof“associationbysimilarity“isbasedonthepresuppositionthatcompositeideasarepermanentpsychicalobjectsandthatassociationstakeplacebetweenthesefinishedideas。Theconceptitselfmustberejectedwhenoncethispresuppositionisgivenupasentirelycontradictorytopsychicalexperienceandfataltoaproperunderstandingofthesame。Whencertainproductsofassociation，as，forexample，twosuccessivememory-images，aresimilar，thislikenessisalwaysreducibletoprocessesofassimilationmadeupofelementarycombinationsthroughidentityorcontiguity。Theassociationthroughidentitymaytakeplaceeitherbetweencomponentsthatwereoriginallythesame，orbetweenthosethathavegainedthischaracterthroughassimilation。

Associationbycontiguityistheformofcombinationbetweenthoseelementsthathindertheassimilation，thusdividingthewholeprocessintoasuccessionoftwoprocesses，andalsocontributingtothememory-imagethosecomponentswhichgiveitthecharacterofanindependentcompounddifferentfromthatoftheimpressionwhichgaverisetoit。

22。Thecharacterofmemory-ideasisintimatelyconnectedwiththecomplexnatureofthememory-processes。Thedescriptionoftheseideasasweaker，butotherwisefaithful，copiesofthedirectsensibleidea，isasfaroutofthewayasitcouldpossiblybe。Memory-imagesanddirectsensibleideasdiffernotonlyinqualityandintensity，butmostemphaticallyinirelementarycomposition。Wemaydiminishtheintensityofasensibleimpressionasmuchas[p。247]welike，butsolongasitisperceptibleatallitisanessentiallydifferentcompoundfromamemory-idea。Theincompletenessofthememory-ideaismuchmorecharacteristicthanthesmallintensityofitssensationalelements。Forexample，whenIrememberanacquaintance，theimageIhaveofhisfaceandfigurearenotmereobscurereproductionsofwhatIhaveinconsciousnesswhenIlookdirectlyathim，butmostofthefeaturesdonotexistatallinthereproducedideas。Connectedwiththefewideationalelementsthatarereallypresentandthatcanbebutlittleincreasedinnumberevenwhentheattentionisintentionallyconcentrateduponthetask，areaseriesofcombinationsthroughcontiguityandofcomplications，suchastheenvironmentsinwhichIsawmyacquaintance，hisname，finallyandmoreespecially，certainaffectiveelementsthatwerepresentatthemeeting。

Theseaccompanyingcomponentsarewhatmaketheimageamemory-image。

23。Therearegreatindividualdifferencesintheeffectivenessoftheseaccompanyingelementsandinthedistinctnessofthesensationalelementsofthememory-image。Somepersonslocatetheirmemory-imagesinspaceandtimemuchmorepreciselythanothersdo；theabilitytoremembercolorsandtonesisalsoexceedinglydifferent。Veryfewpersonsseemtohavedistinctmemoriesforodorsandtastes；inplaceofthesewehave，assubstitutecomplications，accompanyingmotorsensationsofthenoseandtaste-organs。

Thesevariousdifferentfunctionsconnectedwiththeprocessesofrecognitionandrememberingareallincludedunderthename“memory“。Thisconceptdoesnot，ofcourse，refertoanyunitarypsychicalforce，asfaculty-psychologyassumed(p。11)，still，itisausefulsupplementaryconceptinemphasizingthedifferencesbetweendifferentindividuals。Wespeakofafaithful，comprehensive，andeasymemory，orofagood[p。247]spacial，temporal，andverbalmemory，etc。Theseexpressionsservetopointoutthedifferentdirectionsinwhich，accordingtotheoriginaldispositionorhabitoftheperson，theelementaryassimilationsandcomplicationsoccur。

Oneimportantphenomenonamongthevariousdifferencesreferredto，isthegradualweakeningofmemorywitholdage。Thedisturbancesresultingfromdiseasesofthebrainagreeingeneralwiththisphenomenon。Bothareofspecialimportancetopsychologybecausetheyexhibitveryclearlytheinfluenceofcomplicationsonmemory-processes。

Oneofthemoststrikingsymptomsoffailingmemory，inbothnormalandpathologicalcases，istheweakeningofverbalmemory。Itgenerallyappearsasalackofabilitytoremember，first。propernames，thennamesofconcreteobjectsintheordinaryenvironments，stilllaterabstractwords，andfinallyparticlesthatareentirelyabstractincharacter。Thissuccessioncorrespondsexactlytothepossibilityofsubstitutinginconsciousnessforsingleclassesofwordsotherideasthatareregularlyconnectedwiththemthroughcomplication。Thispossibilityitobviouslygreatestforpropernames，andleastforabstractparticles，whichcanberetainedonlythroughtheirverbalsigns。

[1]Theauthor[Wundt]remarksthattheEnglishwordideaashereusedcorrespondstotheGermanVorstellung。Tr。[Judd]ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section17OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)III。INTERCONNECTION

OFPSYCHICALCOMPOUNDS。§；17。APPERCEPTIVECOMBINATIONS。

1。Associationsinalltheirformsandalsothecloselyrelatedprocessesoffusionthatgiverisetopsychicalcompounds，areregardedbyusaspassiveexperiences，becausethefeelingofactivity，whichischaracteristicforallprocessesofvolitionandattention，neverappearsexceptinconnectionwiththeapperceptionofthecompletedproduct，presentedasaresultofthecombination(cf。p。217)。Associationsare，accordingly，processesthatcanarousevolitions，[p。249]butarenotthemselvesdirectlyinfluencedbyvolitions。

Thisis，however，thecriterionofapassiveprocess。

Thecaseisessentiallydifferentwiththesecondkindofcombinationsthatareformedbetweendifferentpsychicalcompoundsandtheirelements，theapperceptivecombinations。Herethefeelingofactivitywithitsaccompanyingvariablesensationsoftensiondoesnotmerelyfollowthecombinationsasanafter-effectproducedbythem，butitprecedesthemsothatthecombinationsthemselvesareimmediatelyrecognizedasformedwiththeaidoftheattention。Inthissensetheyarecalledactiveexperiences。

2。Apperceptivecombinationsincludealargenumberofpsychicalprocessesthataredistinguishedinpopularparlanceunderthegeneraltermsthinking，reflection，imagination，understanding，etc。Theseareallregardedashigherpsychicalprocessesthansense-perceptionsorpurememory-processes，still，theyaxealllookeduponasdifferentfromoneanother。Especiallyisthistrueoftheso-calledfunctionsofimaginationandunderstanding。Incontrastwiththislooseviewofpopularpsychologyandofthefaculty-theory，whichfollowedinitstracks，association-psychologysoughttofindaunitaryprinciplebysubsumingtheapperceptivecombinationsofideasalsounderthegeneralconceptofassociation，atthesametimelimitingtheconcept，asnotedabove(p。224)，tosuccessiveassociation。

Thisreductiontoassociationwaseffectedeitherbyneglectingtheessentialsubjectiveandobjectivedistinguishingmarksofapperceptivecombinations，orbyattemptingtoavoidthedifficultiesofanexplanation，throughtheintroductionofcertainsupplementaryconceptstakenfrompopularpsychology。

Thus，“interest“or“intelligence“wascreditedwithaninfluenceonassociations。

Veryoftenthisviewwasbasedontheerroneousnotionthattherecognitionofcertaindistinguishingfeaturesinapperceptivecombinations[p。250]

andassociationsmeanttheassertionofanabsoluteindependenceoftheformerfromthelatter。Ofcourse，thisisnottrue。Allpsychicalprocessesareconnectedwithassociationsasmuchaswiththeoriginalsense-perceptions。

Yet，justmassociationsalwaysformapartofeverysense-perceptionandinspiteofthatappearinmemory-processesasrelativelyindependentprocesses，soapperceptivecombinationsarebased，entirelyonassociations，buttheiressentialattributesarenottraceabletotheseassociations。

3。Ifwetrytoaccountfortheessentialattributesofapperceptivecombinations，wemayfirstofalldividethepsychicalprocessesthatbelongtothisclassintosimpleandcomplexapperceptivefunctions。Thesimplefunctionsarethoseofrelatingandcomparing，thecomplexthoseofsynthesisandanalysis。A。SIMPLEAPPERCEPTIVEFUNCTIONS。(RelatingandComparing。)

4。Themostelementaryapperceptivefunctionistherelatingoftwopsychicalcontentstoeachother。Thegroundsforsuchrelatingisalwaysgiveninthesinglepsychicalcompoundsandtheirassociations，buttheactualcarryingoutoftheprocessitselfisaapperceptiveactivitythrough，whichtherelationitselfassumesaspecialconsciouscontentdistinctfromthecontentswhicharerelated，thoughindeedinseparablyconnectedwiththem。Forexample，whenwerecognizetheidentityofanobjectwithoneperceivedbefore，orwhenweareconsciousofadefiniterelationbetweenarememberedeventandapresentimpression，thereisinbothcasesarelatingapperceptiveactivityconnectedwiththeassociations。

Solongastherecognitionremainsapureassociation，theprocessofrelatingislimitedtothefeelingoffamiliaritythat[p。251]followstheassimilationofthenewimpressioneitherimmediatelyorafterashortinterval。When，onthecontrary，apperceptionisaddedtoassociation，thisfeelingissuppliedwithaclearlyrecognizedideationalsubstratum。Theearlierperceptionandthenewimpressionareseparatedintimeandthenbroughtintoarelationofidentityonthebasisoftheiressentialattributes。Thecaseissimilarwhenweareconsciousofthemotivesofamemory-act。Thisalsopresupposesthatacomparisonofthememory-imagewiththeimpressionthatoccasionedit，beaddedtothemerelyassociativeprocesswhichgaverisetotheimage。This，again，isaprocessthatcanbebroughtaboutonlythroughactiveattention。

5。Thus，therelatingfunctionisbroughtintoactivitythroughassociations，wherevertheythemselvesortheirproductsaremadetheobjectsofvoluntaryobservation。Thisfunctionisalwaysconnected，astheexamplesmentionedshow，withthefunctionofcomparing，sothatthetwomustberegardedasinterdependentpartialfunctions。Everyactofrelatingincludesacomparisonoftherelatedpsychicalcontents，andacomparisonis，inturn，possibleonlythroughtherelatingofthecontentscomparedwithoneanother。Theonlydifferenceisthatinmanycasesthecomparisoniscompletelysubordinatedtotheendofreciprocallyrelatingthecontents，whileinothersitisinitselftheend。Wespeakofaprocessofrelatinginthestrictsenseinthefirstcase，andofaprocessofcomparinginthesecond。IcallitrelatingwhenIthinkofapresentimpressionasthereasonforrememberinganearlierexperience；Icallitcomparing，ontheotherhand，whenIestablishcertaindefinitepointsofagreementordifferencebetweentheearlierandthepresentevent。

6。Theprocessofcomparingis，inturn，madeupoftwoelementaryfunctionswhichareasaruleintimatelyinterconnected:oftheperceptionofagreementsontheonehand，[p。252]andofdifferencesontheother。Theerroneousviewstillfrequentacceptancethattheexistenceofpsychicalelementsandcompoundsisthesameastheirapperceptivecomparison。Thetwoaretobeheldcompletelyapart。Ofcourse，theremustbeagreementsanddifferencesinourpsychicalprocessesthemselves，orwecouldnotperceivethem；stillthecomparingactivitybywhichweperceive，isdifferentfromtheagreementsanddifferencesthemselvesandadditionaltothem。

7。Psychicalelements，thesensationsandsimplefeelings，arecomparedinregardtotheiragreementsanddifferencesandthusbroughtintodefinitesystems，eachofwhichcontainsuchelementsasarecloselyrelated。Withinsuchasystem，especiallyasensationalsystem，twokindsofcomparisonarepossible:thatinrespecttoquality，andthatinrespecttointensity。Then，too，acomparisonbetweengradesofclearnessispossiblewhenattentionispaidtothewayinwhichtheelementsappearinconsciousness。Inthesamewaycomparisonisappliedtointensiveandextensivepsychicalcompounds。Everypsychicalelementandeverypsychicalcompound，insofarasitisamemberofaregulargradedsystem，constitutesapsychicalquantity。Adeterminationofthevalueofsuchaquantityispossibleonlythroughitscomparisonwithsomeotherquantityofthesamesystem。Quantityis，accordingly，anoriginalattributeofeverypsychicalelementandcompound。Itisofvariouskinds，asintensity，quality，extensive(spacialandtemporal)

value，and，whenthedifferentstatesofconsciousnessareconsidered，clearness。Butthedeterminationofquantitycanbeeffectedonlythroughtheapperceptivefunctionofcomparison。

8。Psychicalmeasurementdiffersfromphysicalmeasurementinthefactthatthelattermaybecarriedoutinactsofcomparisonseparatedalmostindefinitelyintime，becauseitsobjectsarerelativelyconstant。Forexample，[p。253]wecandeterminetheheightofacertainmountainto-daywithabarometerandthenafteralongtimetheheightofanothermountainandifnosensiblechangesintheconfigurationofthelandhavetakenplaceintheinterval，wecancomparetheresultsofourtwomeasurements。Psychicalcompounds，ontheotherhand，arenotrelativelypermanentobjects，butcontinuallychangingprocesses，sothatwecancomparetwosuchpsychicalquantitiesonlyundertheconditionthattheyaxepresentedinimmediatesuccession。Thisconditionhasasitsimmediatecorollaries:first，thatthereisnoabsolutestandardforthecomparisonofpsychicalquantities，buteverysuchcomparisonstandsbyitselfandisofmerelyrelativevalue；secondly，thatfinercomparisonsarepossibleonlybetweenquantitiesofthesamedimension，sothatatransferanalogoustothatbywhichthemostwidelyseparatephysicalquantities，suchasperiodsoftimeandphysicalforces，arereducedtospacialquantitiesofonedimension，areoutofthequestioninpsychicalcomparisons。

9。Itfollowsthatnoteveryrelationbetweenpsychicalquantitiescanbeestablishedbydirectcomparison，butthisispossibleonlyforcertainparticularlyfavorablerelations。Thesefavorablecasesare1)theequalitybetweentwopsychicalquantities，and2)thejustnoticeabledifferencebetweentwosuchquantities，as，forexample，twosensationalintensitiesoflikequality，ortwoqualitiesoflikeintensitybelongingtothesamedimension。Asasomewhatmorecomplexcasewhichstilllieswithinthelimitsofimmediatecomparisonwehave3)theequalityoftwodifferencesbetweenquantitiesespeciallywhenthesequantitiesbelongtocontiguouspartsofthesamesystem。Itisobviousthatineachofthesethreekindsofpsychicalmeasurementsthetwofundamentalfunctionsinapperceptivecomparison，theperceptionofagreementsandofdifferences，arebothappliedtogether。Inthe[p。

254]firstcasethesecondoftwopsychicalquantitiesAandBisgraduallyvarieduntilitagreesforimmediatecomparisonwithA。InthesecondcaseAandBaretakenequalatfirstandthenBischangeduntilitappearseitherjustnoticeablygreaterorjustnoticeablysmallerthanA。Finally，thethirdcaseisusedtothegreatestadvantagewhenawholelineofpsychicalquantities，as，forexample，ofsensationalintensifies，extendingfromAasalowertoCasanupperlimit，issodividedbyamiddlequantityB，whichhasbeenfoundbygradualvariations，thatthepartialdistanceABisapperceivedasequaltoBC。

10。Themostdirectandmosteasilyutilizableresultsderivedfromthesemethodsofcomparisonaregivenbythesecondmethod，orthemethodofminimaldifferencesasitiscalled。

ThedifferencebetweenthePhysicalstimuliwhichcorrespondstothejustnoticeabledifferencebetweenpsychicalquantitiesiscalledthedifference-thresholdofthestimulus。Thestimulusfromwhichtheresultingpsychicalprocess，forexample，asensation，canbejustapperceived，iscalledthestimulus-threshold。Observationshowsthatthedifference-thresholdofthestimulusincreasesinproportiontothedistancefromthestimulus-threshold，insuchawaythattherelationbetweenthedifference-thresholdandtheabsolutequantityofthestimulus，ortherelativedifferthreshold，remainconstant。If，forexample，acertainsoundwhoseintensityis1mustbeincreased1/3inorderthatthesensationmay，bejustnoticeablygreater，onewhoseintensityis2mustbeincreased2/3，one3，3/3，etc。，toreachthedifference-threshold。ThislawiscalledWeber"slaw，afteritsdiscovererE。H。Weber。Itiseasilyunderstoodwhenwelookuponitasalawofapperceptivecomparison。Fromthispointofviewitmullobviouslybeinterpretedtomeanthatpsychicalquantitiesarecomparedaccordingtotheirrelativevalues。[p。255]

ThisviewthatWeber"slawisanexpressionofthegenerallawoftherelativityofpsychicalquantities，assumesthatthepsychicalquantitiesthatarecompared，themselvesincreaseinproportiontotheirstimuliwithinthelimitsofthevalidityofthelaw。Ithasnotyetbeenpossibletodemonstratethetruthofthisassumptiononitsphysiologicalside，onaccountofthedifficultiesofmeasuringexactlythestimulationofnervesandsense-organs。Still，wehaveevidenceinfavorofitinthepsychologicalexperiencethatincertainspecialcases，wheretheconditionsofobservationleadverynaturallytoacomparisonofabsolutedifferencesinquantity，theabsolutedifferencethreshold，insteadoftherelativethreshold，isfoundtobeconstant。

Wehavesuchacase，forexample，inthecomparison，withinwidelimits，ofminimaldifferencesinpitch。Then，too，inmanycaseswherelargedifferencesinsensationsarecomparedaccordingtothethirdmethoddescribedabove(p。254)，equalabsolutestimuli-differences，notrelativedifferences，areperceivedasequal。Thisshowsthatapperceptivecomparisonfollowstwodifferentprinciplesunderdifferentconditions:aprincipleofrelativecomparisonthatfindsitsexpressioninWeber"slawandmustberegardedasthemoregeneral，andaprincipleofabsolutecomparisonofdifferenceswhichtakestheplaceofthefirstunderspecialconditionswhichfavorsuchaformofapperception。

10a。Weber"slawhasbeenshowntohold，firstofall，fortheintensityofsensationsandthen，withincertainlimits，forthecomparisonofextensivecompounds，especiallytemporalideas，also，tosomeextent，forspacialideasofsightandformotorideas。Ontheotherhand，itdoesnotholdforthespacialideasofexternaltouch，obviouslyonaccountofthecomplexityofthelocalsigns(p。105)；anditcannotbeverifiedforsensationalqualities。Infact，forthecomparisonofpitchestheabsolute，nottherelativedifference-thresholdisconstantwithinwidelimits。Still，thescaleoftonalintervalsisrelative，foreveryintervalcorrespondstoa[p。256]certainratiobetweenthenumberofvibrations(forexample，anoctave1:2，afifth2:3，etc。)。Thisisprobablyduetotherelationshipbetweenclangswhichisduetotherelationofthefundamentaltonetoitsovertones(comp。p。

95sq。)。EvenwhereanabsolutecomparisontakesplaceinsteadofacomparisonaccordingtoWeber"slawofrelativity，wemustnot，ofcourse，confusethiswiththeestablishmentofanabsolutemeasure。Thatwouldpresupposeanabsoluteunit，thatis，thepossibilityoffindingaconstantstandard，which，asnotedabove(p。253)，isinthepsychicalworldimpossible。Absolutecomparisonmusttaketheformofarecognitionoftheequalityofequalabsolutedifference。Thisispossibleinthevarioussinglecaseswithoutaconstantunit。Thus，forexample，wecomparetwosensationallinesAB

andBCaccordingtotheirrelativevalues，whenwethinkinbothcasesoftherelationoftheuppertothelowerextremesensation。InsuchacasewejudgeABandBCtobeequalwhenB/A=C/B(Weber"slaw)。Ontheotherhand，wecompareABandBCaccordingtotheirabsolutevalueswhenthedifferencebetweenCandBinthesinglesensationaldimensioninquestionappearsequaltothatbetweenBandA，thatis，whenC-B=B-A(lawofproportionality)。Weber"slawhassometimesbeenregardedastheexpressionofthefunctionalrelationbetweensensationandstimulus，andithasbeenassumedthatthelawholdsforinfinitelysmallchangesonbothsides。Onthisbasistherehasbeengiventoitthemathematicalformofthelogarithmicfunction:sensationincreasesinproportiontothelogarithmofthestimulus(Fechner"spsycho-physicallaw)。

ThemethodsforthedemonstrationofWeber"slaw，ofrelationsbetweenpsychicalquantities，whetherelementarycompound，areusuallycalledpsycho-physicalmethods。isunsuitable，however，becausethefactthatphysicalhereemployedisnotunique，butholdsforalltheexperimentalpsychology。Theycouldbetterbecapable，forthemeasurementofpsychicalquantities“。Withthesemethodsitispossibletofollowoneoftwocoursesinrelationsmentionedasfavorableforjudgment。Adirectmodeofprocedureisasfollows:oneoftwopsychicalquantitiesAandB，as，forexample，Aiskeptconstant，andBis[p。257]graduallyvarieduntilitstandsinoneoftherelationsmentioned，thatis，eitherequalsAorisjustnoticeablygreaterorsmaller，etc。Thesearetheadjustment-methods。Amongthesewehaveasthemethodmostfrequentlyappliedandthatwhichleadsmostdirectlytoconclusions，the“methodofminimalchanges“，andthenasakindofmodificationofthisforthecaseofadjustmentuntilequalityisreached，the“methodofaverageerror“。Thesecondmodeofprocedureistocompareinalargenumberofcasesanytwostimuli，AandB，whichareverylittledifferent，andtoreckonfromthenumberofcasesinwhichthejudgmentsareA=B，A>B，A

TherearetwootherinterpretationsofWeber"slawstillmetwithbesidesthepsychologicalinterpretationgivenabove；theymaybecalledthephysiologicalandthepsycho-physicaltheories。Thefirstderivesthelawfromhypotheticallyassumedrelationsintheconductionofexcitationsinthecentralnervoussystem。Thesecondregardsthelawasaspecificlawofthe“interactionbetweenbodyandmind“。Thephysiologicalinterpretationisentirelyhypotheticalandincertaincases，as，forexample，fortemporalandspacialideas，entirelyinapplicable。Thepsycho-physicalinterpretationisbaseduponaviewoftherelationofmindwhichmustberejectedbythepsychologyofto-day(cf。§；22，8)。

11。AsspecialcasesintheclassofapperceptivecomparisonsgenerallyfallingunderWeber"slawwehavethecomparisonofquantitiesthataretherelativelygreatestsensationaldifferencesor，whendealingwithfeelings，opposites。Thephenomenathatappearinsuchcasesareusuallygatheredupintheclass-namecontrasts。Inthedepartmentwherecontrastshavebeenmostthoroughlyinvestigated，inresidualsensations，thereisgenerallyanutterlackofdiscrimination[p。258]betweentwophenomenawhichareobviouslyentirelyinorigin，thoughtheresultsaretoacertainextentrelated。Wemaydistinguishtheseaphysiologicalandpsychological，contrasts。Physiologicalcontrastsarecloselyconnectedwith。thephenomenaofafter-images，perhapstheyarethesame(p。68sq。)。Psychologicalcontrastsareessentiallydifferent；theyareusuallypushedintothebackgroundbythestrongerphysiologicalcontrastswhentheimpressionsaremoreintense。Theyaredistinguishedfromthephysiologicalbytwoimportantcharacteristics。

First，theydonotreachtheirgreatestintensity，whenthebrightnessandsaturationaregreatest，butwhentheyareatthemediumstages，wheretheeyeismostsensitivetochangesinbrightnessandsaturation。Secondly，theycanberemovedbycomparisonwithanindependentobject。Especiallythelattercharacteristicshowsthesecontraststobeunqualifiedlytheproductsofcomparisons。Thus，forexample，whenagreysquareislaidonablackgroundandclosebyasimilargreysquareislaidonawhitegroundandalliscoveredwithtransparentpaper，thetwosquaresappearentirelydifferent；theoneontheblackgroundlooksbrightnearlywhite，thatonthewhitegroundlooksdark，nearly，black。Nowafter-imagesandirradiationsareveryweakwhen，thebrightnessoftheobjectsissmall，sothatitmayassumedthatthephenomenondescribedisa，psychologicalcontrast。If，again，astripofblackcardboardwhichiscoveredwiththetransparentpiper。，andthereforeexactlythesamegreyasthetwosquares，isheldinwaythatitconnectsthetwosquaresthecontrastisremovedentirely，or，atleast，verymuchdiminished。Ifinthisexperimentacoloredgroundisusedinsteadoftheachromatic，thegreysquarewillappearveryclearlyintheappropriatecomplementarycolor。Buthere，too，thecontrastcanbemadetodisappearthroughcomparisonwithanindependentgreyobject。

[p。259]

12。Psychicalcontrastsappearalsoinotherspheresofsensationsofarastheconditionsfortheirdemonstrationarefavorable。Theyarealsoespeciallymarkedinthecaseoffeelingsandmayariseunderproperconditionsinthecaseofspacialandtemporalideas。Sensationsofpitcharerelativelymostfree，formostpersonshaveawelldevelopedabilitytorecognizeabsolutepitchandthistendstoovercomecontrast。Inthecaseoffeelingstheeffectofcontrastisintimatelyconnectedwiththeirgeneralattributeofdevelopingtowardcertainopposites。Pleasurablefeelingsespeciallyareintensifiedbyunpleasantfeelingsimmediatelypreceding，andthesameholdsformanyfeelingsofrelaxationfollowingfeelingsofstrain，as，forexample，afeelingoffulfilmentafterexpectation。Theeffectofcontrastinthecaseofspacialandtemporalideasismostobviouswhenthesamespacialortemporalintervaliscomparedalternatelywithalongerandwithashorterinterval。Inthetwocasestheintervalappearsdifferent，incomparisonwiththeshorteritappearsgreatestincomparisonwiththelonger，smaller。Heretoothecontrastbetweenspacialideascanberemovedbybringinganobjectbetweenthecontrastedfiguresinsuchawaythatitispossibleeasilytorelatethembothtoit。

13。Wemayregardthephenomenathatresultfromtheapperceptionofimpressionswhoserealcharacterdiffersfromthatexpected，asspecialmodificationsofpsychicalcontrast。Forexample，wearepreparedtoliftaheavyweight，butintheactualliftingoftheweightitprovestobelighter，orthereversetakesplaceandweliftaheavyweightinsteadofalightoneasweexpected:theresultisthatinthefirstcaseweunderestimate，inthesecondoverestimatetherealweight。Ifaseriesofexactlyequalweightsofdifferentsizesaremadesothattheylooklikeasetofweightsvaryingregularlyfromalightertoaheavier，theywillappeartobedifferentin[p。260]weightwhenraised。Thesmallestwillseemtobetheheaviestandthelargesttobethelightest。Thefamiliarassociationthat。thegreatervolumeisconnectedwiththegreatermassaidsthecontrast。Thevaryingestimationsoftheweight，however，istheresultofthecontrastbetweentherealandtheexpectedsensation。B。COMPLEXAPPERCEPTIVEFUNCTIONS。(SynthesisandAnalysis。)

14。Whenthesimpleprocessesofrelatingandcomparingarerepeatedandcombinedseveraltimes，thecomplexpsychicalfunctionsofsynthesisandanalysisarise。Synthesisisprimarilytheproductoftherelatingactivityofapperception，analysisofthecomparingactivity。

Asacombiningfunctionapperceptivesynthesisisbaseduponfusionsandassociations。Itdiffersfromthelatterinthefactthatsomeoftheideationalandaffectiveelementsthatarebroughtforwardbytheassociationarevoluntarilyemphasizedandothersarepushedintothebackground。Themotivesofthechoicecanbeexplainedonlyfromthewholepreviousdevelopmentoftheindividualconsciousness。

Asaresultofthisvoluntaryactivitytheproductofthissynthesisisacomplexwholewhosecomponentsallcomefromformersense-perceptionsandassociations，butinwhichthecombinationofthesecomponentsusuallyvariesmoreorlessfromtheactualimpressionsandthecombinationsoftheseimpressionsthat，areimmediatelypresentedinexperience。

Theideationalelementsofacompoundthusresulting，fromapperceptivesynthesismayberegardedasthesubstratumfortherestofitscontents，andsowecallsuchacompoundingeneralanaggregateidea。Whenthecombinationoftheelementsispeculiar，thatis，markedlydifferentfromtheproductsofthefusionandassociations，theaggregateideaandeachofitsrelativelyindependentideationalcomponents[p。261]iscalledanideaofimaginationorimageofimagination。Sincethevoluntarysynthesisofelementsmayvarymoreorless，accordingtothecharacterofthemotivesthatgaverisetoit，fromthecombinationspresentedinsense-perceptionandassociation，itisobviousthatpracticallynosharplineofdemarcationcanbedrawnbetweenimagesofimaginationandthoseofmemory。Butwehaveamoreessentialmarkoftheapperceptiveprocessinthepositivecharacteristicofavoluntarysynthesisthaninthenegativefactthatthecombinationdoesnotcorrespondincharactertoanyparticularsense-perception。Thispositivecharacteristicgivesalsothemoststrikingexternaldifferencebetweenimagesofimaginationandthoseofmemory。Itconsistsinthefactthatthesensationalelementsofanapperceptivecompoundaremuchmorelikethoseofanimmediatesense-perceptioninclearnessanddistinctness，andgenerallyincompletenessandintensity。

Thisiseasilyexplainedbythefactthatthereciprocallyinhibitoryinfluenceswhichtheuncontrolledassociationsexerciseononeanother，andwhichpreventtheformationoffixedmemory-images，arediminishedorremovedbythevoluntaryemphasizingofcertainparticularideationalcompounds。

Itispossibletomistakeimagesofimaginationforrealexperiences。Withmemory-imagesthisispossibleonlywhentheybecomeimagesofimagination，thatis，whenthememoriesarenolongerallowedtoarisepassively，butareto-someextentproducedbythewill。Generally，too，therearevoluntarymodificationsinthemoramixingofrealwithimaginedelements。Allourmemoriesarethereforemadeupof“fancyandtruth“[1]。

Memory-imageschangeundertheinfluenceofourfeelingsandvolitiontoimagesofimagination，andwegenerallydeceiveourselveswiththeirresemblancetorealexperiences。[p。262]

15。Fromtheaggregateideasthusresultingfromapperceptivesynthesistherearisetwoformsofapperceptiveactivityintheoppositedirectionofanalysis。Theoneisknowninpopularparlanceasactivityoftheimagination，thesecondasactivityoftheunderstanding。Thetwoarebynomeansdifferent，asmightbesurmisedfromthesenames，butcloselyrelatedandalmostalwaysconnectedwitheachother。Theirfundamentaldeterminingmotivesarewhatdistinguishthemfirstofallandconditionalltheirsecondarydifferencesaswellasthereactionthattheyexerciseonthesyntheticfunction。

Inthecaseoftheactivityof“imagination“themotiveisthereproductionofrealexperiencesorofthoseanalogoustoreality。Thisistheearlierformofapperceptiveanalysisandrisesdirectlyfromassociations。Itbeginswithamoreorlesscomprehensiveaggregateideamadeupofavarietyofideationalandaffectiveelementsandembracingthegeneralcontentofacomplexexperienceinwhichthesinglecomponentsareonlyindefinitelydistinguished。Theaggregateideaisthendividedinaseriesofsuccessiveactsintoanumberofmoredefinite，connectedcompoundspartlyspacial，partlytemporalincharacter。Theprimaryvoluntarysynthesisisthusfollowedbyanalyticactswhichmayinturngiverisetothemotivesforanewsynthesisandthustoarepetitionofthewholeprocesswithapartiallymodifiedormorelimitedaggregateidea。

Theactivityofimaginationshowstwostagesofdevelopment。Thefirstismorepassiveandarisesdirectlyfromtheordinarymemory-function。Itappearscontinuallyinthetrainofthought，especiallyintheformofananticipationofthefuture，andplaysanimportantpartinpsychicaldevelopmentasanantecedentofvolitions。Itmay，however，inananalogousway，appearasarepresentationinthoughtofimaginarysituationsorofsuccessionsofexternalphenomena。

Thesecond，oractive，stageofdevelopmentisundertheinfluenceofafixedidea[p。263]ofsomeend，andthereforepresupposesahighdegreeofvoluntarycontrolovertheimagesofimagination，andastronginterference，partlyinhibitory，partlyselective，withthememory-imagesthattendtopushthemselvesintoconsciousnesswithoutvoluntaryaction。

Eventhefirstsynthesisoftheaggregateideaismoresystematic。Anaggregateidea，whenonceformed，isheldmorefirmlyandsubjectedtoa，morecompleteanalysisintoitsparts。Veryoftenthesepartsthemselvesaresubordinateaggregateideastowhichthesameprocessofanalysisisagainapplied。

Inthiswaytheprincipleoforganicdivisionaccordingtotheendinviewgovernsalltheproductsandprocessesofactiveimagination。Theproductionsofartshowthismostclearly。Still，thereare，intheordinaryplayofimagination，themostvariousintermediatestagesbetweenpassiveimagination，orthatwhicharisesdirectlyfrommemory，andactiveimagination，orthatwhichisdirectedbyfixedends。

16。Incontrastwiththisreproductionofrealexperiencesorofsuchasmaybethoughtofasreal，whichconstitutesthecontentoftheapperceptivefunctionsthatweincludeundertheconcept“imagination“，thefundamentalmotiveofthe“understanding“istheperceptionofagreementsanddifferencesandotherderivedlogicalrelationsbetweenconsentofexperience。Understandingalsostartswithaggregateideasinwhichanumberofexperiencesthatarerealormayheideatedasreal，arevoluntarilysetinrelationtooneanotherandcombinedtoaunitarywhole。Theanalysisthattakesplaceinthiscase，however，isturnedbyitsfundamentalmotiveinadifferentdirection。

Itconsistsnotmerelyinaclearergraspofthesinglecomponentsoftheaggregateidea，butintheestablishmentofthemanifoldrelationsinwhichthesecomponentsstandtoeachotherandwhichwemaydiscoverthroughcomparison。Assoonassuchanalyseshavebeenmade[p。264]severaltimes，resultsoftherelatingandcomparingprocesse~sgainedelsewherecanbeemployedinanyparticularcase。

Asaresultofitsmorestrictapplicationoftheelementaryrelatingandcomparingfunctions，theactivityofunderstandingfollowsdefiniteruleseveninitsexternalform，especiallywhenitishighlydeveloped。Theprinciplethatholdsingeneralforimaginationandevenformereremembering，thattherelationsofdifferentpsychicalcontentswhichareapperceivedarepresented，notsimultaneously，butsuccessively，sothatineverycasewepassonfromonerelationtoasucceeding——thisprinciplebecomesfortheactivityofunderstanding，aruleofdiscursivedivisionofaggregateideas。Itisexpressedinthelawofthedualityofthelogicalformsofthought，accordingtowhichanalysisresultingfromrelatingcomparisondividesthecontentoftheaggregateideaintotwoparts，subjectandpredicate，andmaythenseparateeachofthesepartsagainonceorseveraltimes。Theseseconddivisionsgiverisetogrammaticalformsthatstandinalogicalrelationanalogoustothatofsubjectandpredicate，suchasnounandattributive，verbandobject，verbandadverb。Inthiswaytheprocessofapperceptiveanalysisresultsinjudgment。

Forthepsychologicalexplanationofjudgmentitisoffundamentalimportancethatitberegarded，notasasynthetic，butasananalyticfunction。Theoriginalaggregateideasthataredividedbyjudgmentintotheirreciprocallyrelatedcomponents，areexactlylikeideasofimagination。Theproductsofanalysisthatresultare，ontheotherhand，notatinthecaseofimagination，imagesofmorelimitedextentgreaterclearness，butconceptualideas，thatisideaswhichstand，withregardtootherpartialideasofthesamewhole，insomeoneofthoserelationswhicharediscoveredthroughthegeneralrelatingandcomparingfunctions。Ifwecallthe[p。265]aggregateideawhichissubjectedtosucharelatinganalysisathought，thenajudgmentisadivisionofthisthoughtintoitscomponents，andaconceptistheproductofsuchadivision。

17。Conceptsfoundinthiswayarearrangedincertaingeneralclassesaccordingtothecharacteroftheanalysesthattookplace。Theseclassesaretheconceptsofobjects，attributes，andstates。Judgment，asadivisionoftheaggregateidea，setsanobjectinrelationtoitsattributesorstates，orvariousobjectsinrelationtooneanother。Sinceasingleconceptcannever，strictlyspeaking，bethoughtofbyitself，butisalwaysconnectedinthewholeideawithoneormoreotherconcepts，theconceptualideasarestrikinglydifferentfromtheideasofimaginationbecauseoftheindefinitenessandvariablenessoftheformer。Thisindefinitenessisessentiallyincreasedbythefactthatasingleconceptmayexistinanunlimitedvarietyofmodifications，sinceconceptswhichresultfromdifferentcasesoflikejudgment，mayformcomponentsofmanyideasthatdifferintheirconcretecharacters。Suchgeneralconceptsconstitute，onaccountofthewideapplicationofrelatinganalysistodifferentcontentsofjudgment，thegreatmajorityofallconcepts；

andtheyhaveagreatnumberofcorrespondingsingleideationalcontents。

Itbecomesnecessary，accordingly，tochooseasingleideaasarepresentativeoftheconcept。Thisgivestheconceptualideaagreaterdefiniteness。

Atthesametimethereisalwaysconnectedwiththisideatheconsciousnessthatitismerelyarepresentative。Thisconsciousnessgenerallytakestheformofacharacteristicfeeling。Thisconceptualfeelingmaybetracedtothefactthatobscureideas，whichhavetheattributesthatmakethemsuitabletoserveasrepresentationsoftheconcept，tendtoforcethemselvesintoconsciousnessintheformofvariablememoryimages。

Asevidenceofthiswehavethefactthatthefeelingisveryintenseso[p。266]longasanyconcreteimageoftheconceptischosenasitsrepresentative，as，forexample，whenaparticularindividualstandsfortheconceptman，whileitdisappearsalmostentirelysosoonastherepresentativeideadiffersentirelyincontentfromtheobjectsincludedundertheconcept。Word-ideasfulfilthisconditionandthatiswhatgivesthemtheirimportanceasuniversalaidstothought。Theseaidsarefurnishedtotheindividualconsciousnessinafinishedsothatwemustleavetosocialpsychologythequestionofthepsychologicaldevelopmentoftheprocessesofthoughtactiveintheformationoflanguage(comp。§；21，A)。

18。Fromallthathasbeensaiditappearsthattheactivitiesofimaginationandunderstandingarenotspecificallydifferent，butinterrelated。inseparableintheirriseandmanifestations，andbasedatbottomonthesamefundamentalfunctionsofapperceptivesynthesisandanalysis。Whatwastrueoftheconcept“memory“holdsalsooftheconcepts“understanding“and“imagination“:theyarenames，notofunitaryforcesorfaculties，butofcomplexphenomenamadeupofelementarypsychicalprocessesoftheusual，notofaspecific，distinctkind。Justasmemoryisageneralconceptforcertainassociativeprocesses，imaginationandunderstandingaregeneralconceptsforparticularformsofapperceptiveactivity。Theyhaveacertainpracticalvalueasreadymeansfortheclassificationofanendlessvarietyofdifferencesinthecapacityofvariouspersonsforintellectualactivity。Eachclassthusfoundmayinturncontainanendlessvarietyofgradationsandshades。

Thus，neglectingthegeneraldifferencesingrade，wehaveasthechiefformsofindividualimaginationtheperceptiveandthecombiningforms；asthechiefformofunderstanding，theinductiveanddeductiveforms，thefirstbeingmainlyconcernedwiththesinglelogicalrelationsandtheircombinations，thesecondmorewithgeneralcon-[p。267]ceptsandtheiranalysis。Aperson"stalentishistotalcapacityrelatingfromthespecialtendenciesofbothhisimaginationandunderstanding。

[1]“DichtungundWahrheit“ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section18OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)III。INTERCONNECTION

OFPSYCHICALCOMPOUNDS。§；18。PSYCHICALSTATES。

1。Thenormalstateofconsciousnessuponwhichthediscussionoftheforegoingparagraphshasbeenbasedmayundergosuchavarietyofchangesthatgeneralpsychologymustgiveuptheattempttodiscussthemindetail。Then，too，themoreimportantofthesechanges，namely，thosewhichareobservedinthevariousformsofnervousdiseases，braindiseases，andinsanity，belongtospecialbranchesofpathologywhichborderuponpsychologyandaremoreorlessdependentuponit。Allthatpsychologycandoistoindicatethemainpsychicalconditionsforsuchabnormalstatesofconsciousness。Wemaydistinguishingeneral，inaccordancewithwhathasbeensaidabouttheattributesofpsychicalprocessesandtheirinterconnectioninconsciousnessthreekindsofsuchconditions。

Theymayconsist1)intheabnormalcharacterofthepsychicalelements，2)inthewaypsychicalcompoundsareconstituted，and3)inthewaypsychicalcompoundsarecombinedinconsciousness。Asaresultoftheintimateinterconnectionofthesedifferentfactorsitscarcelyeverhappensthatoneofthesethreeconditions，eachofwhichmayappearinthemostvariousconcreteforms，isoperativealone；buttheyusuallyunite。Theabnormalcharacteroftheelementsresultsintheabnormityofthecompounds，andthisinturnbringsaboutchangesinthegeneralinterconnectionofconsciousprocesses。

2。Thepsychicalelements，sensations，andsimplefeelings，showonlysuchchangesasresultfromsomedisturbanceinthenormalrelationbetweenthem。andtheirpsycho-physicalconditions。

Forsensationssuchchangesmaybereducedto[p。268]anincreaseordecreaseofthesensitivityforstimuli(byhyper-aesthesia，andanaesthesia)resultingespeciallyfromtheofcertainphysiologicalinfluencesinthesensorycentres。Themostimportantpsychologicalsymptominthiscaseistheincreasedexcitabilitywhichisoneofthemostcommoncomponentsofcomplexpsychicaldisturbances。Insimilarfashion，。changesinthesimplefeelingsbetraythemselvesinstatesofdepressionorexaltationasadecreaseorincreaseintheaffectiveexcitability。

Thesedifferentstatesmayberecognizedfromthewayinwhichtheemotionsandvolitionalprocessoccur。Thus，changesinthepsychicalelementscanbedemonstratedonlybytheinfluencethattheyexerciseonthecharacterofthevariouspsychicalcompounds。

3。Thedefectsinideationalcompoundsarisingfromperipheralorcentralanaesthesiaaregenerallyoflimitedimportance。Theyhavenofar-reachingeffectontheinterconnectionofpsychicalprocesses。Itisessentiallydifferentwiththerelativeincreaseintheintensityofsensationsresultingfromcentralhyperaesthesia。Itseffectisespeciallyimportantbecauseundersuchcircumstancesreproducedsensationalelementsmaybecomeasintenseasexternalsense-impressions。

Theresultmaybethatapurememory-imageisobjectifiedasasense-perception。

Thisisanhallucination。Or，whenelementsaxeunitedwhicharepartlyfromdirectexternal:stimulation，partlyfromreproduction，thesense-impressionmaybeessentiallymodifiedthroughtheintensityofthereproducedelements。Theresultisthenanillusionoffancy。[1][p。269]

Thetwoarenotalwaysdistinguishable。

Inmanycases，tobesure，particularideascanbeshowntobeillusionsoffancy，butthepresenceofpurehallucinationsisalmostalwaysdoubtfulbecauseitissoeasytooverlooksomedirectsensationalelements。Infact，itisbynomeansimprobablethatthegreatmajorityofso-calledhallucinationsareillusions。Theseillusionsareintheirpsychologicalcharacternothingbutassimilations(p。228sq。)。Theymaybedefinedasassimilationsinwhichthereproducedelementspredominate。Justasnormalassimilationsarecloselyconnectedwithsuccessiveassociations，soforthesamereasontheillusionsoffancyarecloselyrelatedtothechangesintheassociativeideationalprocessestobediscussedlater(5)。

4。Inthecaseofcomplexaffectiveandvolitionalprocessestheabnormalstatesofdepressionandexaltationareclearlydistinguishablefromthenormalcondition。Thestateofdepressionisduetothepredominanceofinhibitory，asthenicemotions，thatofexaltationtoapredominanceofexciting，asthenicemotions，whileatthesametimeweobserve，inthefirstcasearetardationorcompletecheckingofresolution，inthesecondanexceedinglyrapid，impulsiveactivityofthemotive。Inthissphereitisgenerallymoredifficulttodrawthelinebetweennormalandabnormalconditionsthaninthatofideationalcompounds，becauseeveninnormalmentallifetheaffectivestatesarecontinuallychanging。Inpathologicalcasesthechangebetweenstatesofdepressionandexaltation，whichareoftenverystriking，appearmerelyasanintensifiedoscillationofthefeelingsandemotionsaboutanindifference-condition(pp。34，80)。Statesofdepressionandexaltationareespeciallycharacteristicsymptomsofgeneralpsychicaldisturbances；theirdetaileddiscussionmustthereforebelefttopsychicalpathology。Generalpsychicaldisturbancesarealwayssymptomsofdiseasesofthebrain，so[p。270]thattheseabnormitiesinaffectiveandvolitionalprocessesaredoubtlessaccompanied，likethoseofthesensationsandideas，byphysiologicalchanges。Thenatureofthesechangesis，however，stillunknown。Wecanonlysurmise，inaccordancewiththemorecomplexcharacterofaffectiveprocesses，either。thattheyaremoreextensivethanthechangesincentral，excitabilityaccompanyinghallucinationsandillusions，orthattheyeffectthecentralcorticalregionsdirectlyconcernedinapperceptiveprocesses。

5。Connectedwiththesechangesinthesensoryexcitabilityandwithstatesofdepressionandexaltation，thereareregularlysimultaneouschangesintheinterconnectionandcourseofpsychicalprocesses。Usingtheconceptconsciousnessthatweemploytoexpressthisinterconnection(p。203)，wemaycallthesechangesabnormalchangesofconsciousness。Solongastheabnormityislimitedtothesinglepsychicalcompounds，ideas，emotions，andvolitions，consciousnessisofcoursechangedbecauseofthechangesinitscomponents，butwedonospeakofanabnormalityofconsciousnessitselfuntilnotmerelythesinglecompounds，buttheircombinationsalsoexhibitsomenoticeableabnormities。

Thesealwaysarise，tobesure，whentheelementarydisturbancesbecomegreater，sincethecombinationofelementstocompoundsandofcompoundswithoneanotherareprocessesthatpasscontinuouslyintoeachother。

Correspondingtothedifferentkindsofcombinationthatmakeuptheinterconnectionofconsciousness(p。223)，theremaybedistinguishedingeneralthreekindsofabnormitiesofconsciousness:

1)changesintheassociations，2)changesintheapperceptivecombinations，and3)changesintherelationofthetwoformsofcombinationtoeachother。

6。Changesinassociationsarethefirsttoresultdirectlyfromtheelementarydisturbances。Theincreaseofsensory[p。271]excitabilitychangesnormalassimilationsintoillusionsoffancy，andthisresultsinanessentialdisturbanceintheassociativeprocessesofrecognition(p。237):sometimesthatwhichisknownappearstobeunknown，andthenagainwhatisunknownappearsfamiliar，accordingasthereproducedelementsareconnectedwithdefiniteearlierideas，orarederivedfromperceptionsthathaveonlyaremoterelationtooneanother。

Then，too，theincreasedsensoryexcitabilitytendstoacceleratetheassociation，sothatthemostsuperficialconnections，occasionedbyaccidentalimpressionsorbyhabit，aretheonesthatpredominate。Thestatesofdepressionandexaltation，ontheotherhand，determinemainlythequalityanddirectionoftheassociation。

Insimilarmannertheelementaryideationalandaffectivechangeinfluenceapperceptivecombinations，eitherretardingoracceleratingthem，orelsedeterminingtheirdirection。Still，inthesecasesallmarkedabnormitiesinideationaloraffectiveprocessesresultinanincrease，toagreaterorlessdegree，ofthedifficultyofcarryingouttheprocessesconnectedwithactiveattention，sothatoftenonlythesimplerapperceptivecombinationsarepossible，sometimesevenonlythosewhichthroughpracticehavebecomesimpleassociations。Connectedwiththelastfactmentionedarethechangesthattakeplaceintherelationbetweenapperceptiveandassociativecombinations。Theinfluencesdiscussedsofarareinthemainfavorabletoassociations，butunfavorabletoapperceptivecombinations，andoneofthemostfrequentsymptomsofafar-reachingpsychicalabnormityisagreatpreponderanceofassociations。Thisismostobviouswhenthedisturbanceofconsciousnessisacontinuallyincreasingprocess，asitisinmanycasesofinsanity。Itisthenobservedthatthefunctionsofapperceptionuponwhichso-calledimaginationandunderstandingarebased，aremoreandmoresupplanted[p。272]byassociations，untilfinallythelatterareallthatremainsofthedisturbanceprogressesstillfurther，theassociationsgraduallybecomemorelimitedandconfinedtocertainhabitualcombinations(fixedideas)。Finallythisstategivesplacetooneofcompletementalparalysis。

7。Apartfrommentaldiseasesinthestrictsenseofthetermtheirregularitiesofconsciousnessjustdiscussedaretobefoundintwoconditionsthatappearinthecourseofnormallife:

indreamsandhypnosis。

Theideasofdreamscome，atleasttoagreatextent，fromsensations，especiallyfromthoseofthegeneralsense，andarethereforemostlyillusionsoffancy，probablyonly，seldompurememory-ideasthathavebecomehallucinations。Thedecreaseofapperceptivecombinationsincomparisonwithassociationsisalsostriking，andgoestoexplainthefrequentmodificationsandexchangesofself-consciousness，theconfusionofthejudgment，etc。Thecharacteristicofdreamsthatdistinguishesthemfromothersimilarpsychicalstates，istobefound，notsomuchinthese。positive，asintheirnegativeattributes。Theincreaseofexcitabilitywhichisattestedbythehallucinations，islimitedentirelytothesensoryfunctions，whileinordinarysleepanddreamstheexternalvolitionalactivityiscompletelyinhibited。

Whenthefancifulideasofdreamsareconnectedwithcorrespondingvolitionalacts，wehavetheveryinfrequentphenomenaofsleep-walking，whicharerelatedtocertainformsofhypnosis。

Motorconcomitantsaregenerallylimitedtoarticulations，andappearastalkingindreams。

8。Hypnosisisthenameappliedtocertainstatesrelatedtosleepanddreamsandproducedbymeansofcertaindefinitepsychicalagencies。Consciousnessisheregenerallyinaconditionhalfwaybetweenwakingandsleeping。Themaincauseofhypnosisissuggestion，thatis，thecommuni-[p。273]cationofanideastronginaffectivetone。Thisgenerallycomesintheformofacommandfromsomeotherperson(outwardsuggestion)，butmaysometimesbeproducedbythesubjecthimself，whenitiscalledautosuggestion。Thecommandorresolutiontosleep，tomakecertainmovements，toseeobjectsnotpresentornottoseeobjectsthatarepresent，etc。，——thesearethemostfrequentsuggestions。Monotonousstimuli，especiallytactualstimuliarehelpfulauxiliaries。Then，too，thereisacertaindispositionofthenervoussystemofstillunknowncharacter，whichisnecessaryfortheriseofthehypnoticstateandisincreasedwhenthestateisrepeatedlyproduced。

Thefirstsymptomofhypnosisisthemoreorlesscompleteinhibitionofvolition，connectedwithaconcentrationoftheattentionononething，generallythecommandsofthehypnotizer(automatism)。Thesubjectnotonlysleepsatcommand，butretainsinthisstateanypositionthatisgivenhim，howeverunnatural(hypnoticcatalepsy)。

Ifthesleepbecomesstilldeeperthesubjectcarriesoutmovementsasdirected，toallappearancesautomatically，andshowsthatideassuggestedtohimappearlikerealobjects(somnambulism)。Inthislaststateitispossibletogiveeithermotororsensorysuggestionstogointoeffectwhenthesubjectawakes，orevenatsomelatertime(terminalsuggestions)。

Thephenomenathataccompanysuch“posthypnoticeffects“renderitprobablethatthelatteraredueeithertoapartialpersistenceofthehypnosisor(inthecaseofterminalsuggestions)toarenewalofthehypnoticstate。

9。Itappearsfromallthesephenomenathatsleepandhypnosisarerelatedstates，differingonlyinthattheirmodeoforiginisdifferent。Theyhaveascommoncharacteristicstheinhibitionofvolition，whichpermitsonlypassiveapperception，andadispositiontowardarousedexcitabilityin[p。274]thesensorycentresthatbringsaboutanassimilationofthesense-impressionswhichresultsinhallucinations。

Thecharacteristicsthatdistinguishthemarethecompleteinhibitionofvolitioninsleep，especiallyofthemotorfunctions，andtheconcentrationinhypnosisofthepassiveattentionononething。Thisconcentrationisconditionedbysuggestionandisatthesametimefavorabletothereceptionoffurthersuggestions。Still，thesedifferencesarenotabsolute，forinsleep-walkingthewillisnotcompletelyinhibited，whileontheotherhanditisinhibitedinthefirstlethargicstagesofhypnosisjustasinordinarysleep。

Sleep，dreams，andhypnosisare，accordingly，inallprobability，essentiallythesameintheirpsychophysicalconditions。

Theseconditionsarespeciallymodifieddispositionstosensationalandvolitionalreactions，andcantherefore，likeallsuchdispositions，beexplainedontheirphysiologicalsideonlybyassumingchangesintheactivityofcertaincentralregions。Thesechangeshavenotyetbeeninvestigationdirectly。Still，wemayassumefromthepsychologicalsymptomsthattheyconsistintheinhibitionoftheactivityintheregionsconnectedwithprocessesofvolitionandattention，andintheincreaseintheexcitabilityofsensorycentres。

9a。Itisthen，strictlyspeaking，aphysiologicalproblemtoformulateatheoryofsleep，dreams，andhypnosis。Apartfromthegeneralassumptionbasedonpsychologicalsymptoms，ofaninhibitionofactivityincertainpartsofthecerebralcortex，andincreaseintheactivityofotherparts，wecanapplyonly。onegeneralneurologicalprinciplewithanydegreeofprobability。Thatistheprincipleofcompensationoffunctions，accordingtowhichtheinhibitionoftheactivityofoneregionisalwaysconnectedwithanincreaseintheactivityoftheothersinterrelatedwithit。Thisinterrelationmaybeeitherdirect，neurodynamic，orindirect，vasomotoric。Thefirstisprobablyduetothefactthatenergywhichaccumulatesinoneregionasthe[p。275]resultofinhibition，isdischargedthroughtheconnectingfibresintoothercentralregions。

Thesecondisduetocontractionofthecapillariesasaresultofinhibitionandacompensatingdilationoftheblood-vesselsinotherregions。Theincreasedbloodsupplyduetothisdilationisinturnattendedbyanincreaseintheactivityoftheregioninquestion。

Dreamsandhypnosisareoftenmadethesubjectsofmysticalandfancifulhypotheses，insomecasesevenbypsychologists。

Wehearofincreasedmentalactivityindreamsandofinfluenceofmindonmindsatadistanceindreamsandhypnosis。Especiallyhypnotismhasbeenusedinmoderntimes，inthisway，tosupportsuperstitiousspiritualisticideas。Inconnectionwith“animalmagnetism“，whichmaybecompletelyexplainedbythetheoryofhypnosisandsuggestion，andinconnectionwith“somnambulism“，thereareagreatmanycasesofself-deceptionandintentionalhumbug。

Inrealityallthatcanstandthelightofthoroughexaminationinthesephenomenaisingeneralreadilyexplicableonpsychologicalandphysiologicalgrounds；whatisnotexplicableinthiswayhasalwaysprovedoncloserexaminationtobesuperstitiousself-deceptionorintentionalfraud。

[1]Theexpression“illusionsoffancy“isusedwhenthisclassofillusionsistobedistinguishedfromthesense-illusionsthatappearinthenormalstateofconsciousness，as，forexample，theradiatingforinofthestars，whichisduetotherefractionoflightinthecrystallinelens，orthevaryingapparentsizeofthesunormoonatthehorizonandatthezenith。

ClassicsintheHistoryofPsychology——Wundt(1897)Section19OutlinesofPsychologyWilhelmMaxWundt(1897)TranslatedbyCharlesHubbardJudd(1897)IV。PSYCHICALDEVELOPMENTS。§；19。PSYCHICALATTRIBUTESOF

ANIMALS。

1。Theanimalkingdomexhibitsaseriesofmentaldevelopmentswhichmayberegardedasantecedentstothementaldevelopmentofman。Thementallifeofanimalsshowsitselftobeinitselementsandinthegenerallawsoftheircombinationeverywherethesameasthatofman。

Eventhelowestanimals(protozoaandcoelenterata)

manifestvitalphenomenathatallowustoinferideationalandvolitionalprocesses。Theyseizetheirfoodtoallappearancesspontaneously；theyfleefrompursuingenemies，etc。Therearealsotobefoundintheloweststagesofanimallifetracesofassociationsandreproductionsandespeciallyprocessesofsensiblecognitionandrecognition(p。237)。Theyreachamoreadvancedstageofdevelopmentinhigheranimalsonlythroughtheincreaseinthevarietyofideasandinthelengthoftimethroughwhichthememory-processesextend。Fromthelikestructureanddevelopmentofthesense-organswemustdrawtheconclusionthatthecharacterofthesense-ideasareingeneralthesame，theonlydifferencebeingthatinthelowestformsoflifethesensoryfunctionsarelimitedtothegeneralsenseoftouch，justasinthecaseofthehigherorganismsinthefirststagesoftheirindividualdevelopment(p。39)。

Incontrastwhith[sic]thisuniformityofpsychicalelementsandtheirsimplercombinationstherearegreatdifferencesin[p。277]alltheprocessesconnectedwiththedevelopmentofapperception。

Passiveapperceptionisneverabsentasthebasisforthesimpleimpulsiveactsthatarefoundeverywhere，butactiveapperceptionintheformofvoluntaryattentiontocertainimpressionsandachoicebetweendifferentmotivesprobablyneverexistsexceptinthehigheranimals。Evenhereitislimitedtotheideasandassociationsarousedbyimmediatesensibleimpressions，sothatwecanatmost，ifatall，onlyfindthefirstbeginningsofintellectualprocessesinthepropersenseoftheword，thatisactivitiesofimaginationandunderstanding，evenintheanimalswiththehighestmentaldevelopment。Connectedwiththisfactistheotherthathigheranimalshavenodevelopedlanguage，thoughtheyareabletogiveexpressiontotheiremotionsandeventheirideas，whentheseareconnectedwithemotions，throughvariousexpressivemovementsoftenrelatedtothoseofman。

2。Thoughthedevelopmentofanimalsisingeneralfarbehindthatofmaninspiteofthequalitativelikenessofthefundamentalpsychicalprocesses，still，intwowaysitisoftensuperior。First，animalsreachpsychicalmaturitymuchmorerapidly，andsecondly，certainsinglefunctionsparticularlyfavoredbythespecialconditionsunderwhichthespecieslives，aremorehighlydeveloped。

Thefactofmorerapidmaturityisshownbytheearlyageatwhichmanyanimals，someimmediatelyafterbirth，areabletoreceiverelativelyclearsense-impressionsandtoexecutepurposivemovements。Tobesure，thereareverygreatdifferencesamonghigheranimalsinthisrespect。Forexample，thechickjustoutoftheshellbeginstopickupgrain，whilethepupisblindatbirth，andforalongtimeafterclumsyinhismovements。Yet，thedevelopmentofthechildseemstobetheslowestandthemostdependentonhelpandcarefromothers。

3。Thespecialone-sideddevelopmentofsinglefunctions[p。278]insomeanimalsisstillmorestriking。

Thesefunctionsshowthemselvesincertainimpulsiveactsregularlyconnectedwiththesatisfactionofcertainneeds，eitherofalimentation，reproduction，orprotection，andinthedevelopmentofthesense-perceptionsandassociationsthatformthemotivesforsuchacts。Suchspeciallydevelopedimpulsesarecalledinstincts。Theassumptionthatinstinctsbelongonlytoanimalandnottohumanconsciousnessis，ofcourse，entirelyunpsychological，andcontradictorytoexperience。Thedispositiontomanifestthegeneralanimalimpulses，namelythealimentiveandsexualimpulses，isjustasmuchaconnateattributeofmanasoftheanimals。Theonlythingthatischaracteristicisthespecialhighlydevelopedformofthepurposiveactsbywhichmanyanimalsreachtheendsaimedat。Differentanimals，however，areverydifferentinthisrespect。Therearenumerouslowerandhigheranimalswhoseactsresultingfromconnateinstinctsshowasfewstrikingcharacteristicsasthoseofmen。Itisalsoremarkablethatdomesticationgenerallytendstodoawaywiththeinstinctsthatanimalshadintheirwildstate，andtodevelopnewonesthatmaygenerallyberegardedasmodificationsofthewildinstincts，as，forexample，thoseofcertainhuntingdogs，especiallythoseofbird-dogsandpointers。Therelativelyhighdevelopmentofcertainspecialinstinctsinanimalsascomparedwithmen，issimplyamanifestationofthegeneralunsymmetricaldevelopmentoftheformer。

Thewholepsychicallifeofanimalsconsistsalmostentirelyoftheprocessesthatareconnectedwiththepredominatinginstinct。