第15章

Astheprincipleonwhichconstitutionsarenowformedrejectsallhereditarypretensionstogovernment,italsorejectsallthatcatalogueofassumptionsknownbythenameofprerogatives。

Ifthereisanygovernmentwhereprerogativesmightwithapparentsafetybeentrustedtoanyindividual,itisinthefederalgovernmentofAmerica。ThepresidentoftheUnitedStatesofAmericaiselectedonlyforfouryears。Heisnotonlyresponsibleinthegeneralsenseoftheword,butaparticularmodeislaiddownintheconstitutionfortryinghim。Hecannotbeelectedunderthirty—fiveyearsofage;andhemustbeanativeofthecountry。

InacomparisonofthesecaseswiththeGovernmentofEngland,thedifferencewhenappliedtothelatteramountstoanabsurdity。InEnglandthepersonwhoexercisesprerogativeisoftenaforeigner;alwayshalfaforeigner,andalwaysmarriedtoaforeigner。Heisneverinfullnaturalorpoliticalconnectionwiththecountry,isnotresponsibleforanything,andbecomesofageateighteenyears;yetsuchapersonispermittedtoformforeignalliances,withouteventheknowledgeofthenation,andtomakewarandpeacewithoutitsconsent。

Butthisisnotall。Thoughsuchapersoncannotdisposeofthegovernmentinthemannerofatestator,hedictatesthemarriageconnections,which,ineffect,accomplishagreatpartofthesameend。HecannotdirectlybequeathhalfthegovernmenttoPrussia,buthecanformamarriagepartnershipthatwillproducealmostthesamething。Undersuchcircumstances,itishappyforEnglandthatsheisnotsituatedontheContinent,orshemight,likeHolland,fallunderthedictatorshipofPrussia。Holland,bymarriage,isaseffectuallygovernedbyPrussia,asiftheoldtyrannyofbequeathingthegovernmenthadbeenthemeans。

ThepresidencyinAmerica（or,asitissometimescalled,theexecutive）

istheonlyofficefromwhichaforeignerisexcluded,andinEnglanditistheonlyonetowhichheisadmitted。AforeignercannotbeamemberofParliament,buthemaybewhatiscalledaking。Ifthereisanyreasonforexcludingforeigners,itoughttobefromthoseofficeswheremischiefcanmostbeacted,andwhere,byunitingeverybiasofinterestandattachment,thetrustisbestsecured。Butasnationsproceedinthegreatbusinessofformingconstitutions,theywillexaminewithmoreprecisionintothenatureandbusinessofthatdepartmentwhichiscalledtheexecutive。Whatthelegislativeandjudicialdepartmentsareeveryonecansee;butwithrespecttowhat,inEurope,iscalledtheexecutive,asdistinctfromthosetwo,itiseitherapoliticalsuperfluityorachaosofunknownthings。

Somekindofofficialdepartment,towhichreportsshallbemadefromthedifferentpartsofanation,orfromabroad,tobelaidbeforethenationalrepresentatives,isallthatisnecessary;butthereisnoconsistencyincallingthistheexecutive;neithercanitbeconsideredinanyotherlightthanasinferiortothelegislative。

Thesovereignauthorityinanycountryisthepowerofmakinglaws,andeverythingelseisanofficialdepartment。

Nexttothearrangementoftheprinciplesandtheorganizationoftheseveralpartsofaconstitution,istheprovisiontobemadeforthesupportofthepersonstowhomthenationshallconfidetheadministrationoftheconstitutionalpowers。

Anationcanhavenorighttothetimeandservicesofanypersonathisownexpense,whomitmaychoosetoemployorentrustinanydepartmentwhatever;neithercananyreasonbegivenformakingprovisionforthesupportofanyonepartofagovernmentandnotfortheother。

Butadmittingthatthehonourofbeingentrustedwithanypartofagovernmentistobeconsideredasufficientreward,itoughttobesotoeverypersonalike。Ifthemembersofthelegislatureofanycountryaretoserveattheirownexpensethatwhichiscalledtheexecutive,whethermonarchicalorbyanyothername,oughttoserveinlikemanner。Itisinconsistenttopaytheone,andaccepttheserviceoftheothergratis。

InAmerica,everydepartmentinthegovernmentisdecentlyprovidedfor;butnooneisextravagantlypaid。EverymemberofCongress,andoftheAssemblies,isallowedasufficiencyforhisexpenses。

WhereasinEngland,amostprodigalprovisionismadeforthesupportofonepartoftheGovernment,andnonefortheother,theconsequenceofwhichisthattheoneisfurnishedwiththemeansofcorruptionandtheotherisputintotheconditionofbeingcorrupted。Lessthanafourthpartofsuchexpense,appliedasitisinAmerica,wouldremedyagreatpartofthecorruption。

AnotherreformintheAmericanconstitutionistheexplodingalloathsofpersonality。TheoathofallegianceinAmericaistothenationonly。Theputtinganyindividualasafigureforanationisimproper。Thehappinessofanationisthesuperiorobject,andthereforetheintentionofanoathofallegianceoughtnottobeobscuredbybeingfigurativelytaken,to,orinthenameof,anyperson。Theoath,calledthecivicoath,inFrance,viz。,"thenation,thelaw,andtheking,"isimproper。Iftakenatall,itoughttobeasinAmerica,tothenationonly。Thelawmayormaynotbegood;

but,inthisplace,itcanhavenoothermeaning,thanasbeingconducivetothehappinessofanation,andthereforeisincludedinit。Theremainderoftheoathisimproper,ontheground,thatallpersonaloathsoughttobeabolished。Theyaretheremainsoftyrannyononepartandslaveryontheother;andthenameoftheCreatoroughtnottobeintroducedtowitnessthedegradationofhiscreation;oriftaken,asisalreadymentioned,asfigurativeofthenation,itisinthisplaceredundant。

Butwhateverapologymaybemadeforoathsatthefirstestablishmentofagovernment,theyoughtnottobepermittedafterwards。

Ifagovernmentrequiresthesupportofoaths,itisasignthatitisnotworthsupporting,andoughtnottobesupported。

Makegovernmentwhatitoughttobe,anditwillsupportitself。

Toconcludethispartofthesubject:—Oneofthegreatestimprovementsthathavebeenmadefortheperpetualsecurityandprogressofconstitutionalliberty,istheprovisionwhichthenewconstitutionsmakeforoccasionallyrevising,altering,andamendingthem。

TheprincipleuponwhichMr。Burkeformedhispoliticalcreed,thatof"bindingandcontrollingposteritytotheendoftime,andofrenouncingandabdicatingtherightsofallposterity,forever,"

isnowbecometoodetestabletobemadeasubjectofdebate;

andtherefore,Ipassitoverwithnoothernoticethanexposingit。

Governmentisbutnowbeginningtobeknown。Hithertoithasbeenthemereexerciseofpower,whichforbadealleffectualenquiryintorights,andgroundeditselfwhollyonpossession。Whiletheenemyoflibertywasitsjudge,theprogressofitsprinciplesmusthavebeensmallindeed。

TheconstitutionsofAmerica,andalsothatofFrance,haveeitheraffixedaperiodfortheirrevision,orlaiddownthemodebywhichimprovementshallbemade。Itisperhapsimpossibletoestablishanythingthatcombinesprincipleswithopinionsandpractice,whichtheprogressofcircumstances,throughalengthofyears,willnotinsomemeasurederange,orrenderinconsistent;and,therefore,topreventinconveniencesaccumulating,tilltheydiscouragereformationsorprovokerevolutions,itisbesttoprovidethemeansofregulatingthemastheyoccur。TheRightsofManaretherightsofallgenerationsofmen,andcannotbemonopolisedbyany。Thatwhichisworthfollowing,willbefollowedforthesakeofitsworth,anditisinthisthatitssecuritylies,andnotinanyconditionswithwhichitmaybeencumbered。

Whenamanleavespropertytohisheirs,hedoesnotconnectitwithanobligationthattheyshallacceptit。Why,then,shouldwedootherwisewithrespecttoconstitutions？Thebestconstitutionthatcouldnowbedevised,consistentwiththeconditionofthepresentmoment,maybefarshortofthatexcellencewhichafewyearsmayafford。Thereisamorningofreasonrisinguponmanonthesubjectofgovernment,thathasnotappearedbefore。Asthebarbarismofthepresentoldgovernmentsexpires,themoralconditionsofnationswithrespecttoeachotherwillbechanged。Manwillnotbebroughtupwiththesavageideaofconsideringhisspeciesashisenemy,becausetheaccidentofbirthgavetheindividualsexistenceincountriesdistinguishedbydifferentnames;andasconstitutionshavealwayssomerelationtoexternalaswellastodomesticcircumstances,themeansofbenefittingbyeverychange,foreignordomestic,shouldbeapartofeveryconstitution。WealreadyseeanalterationinthenationaldispositionofEnglandandFrancetowardseachother,which,whenwelookbacktoonlyafewyears,isitselfaRevolution。Whocouldhaveforeseen,orwhocouldhavebelieved,thataFrenchNationalAssemblywouldeverhavebeenapopulartoastinEngland,orthatafriendlyallianceofthetwonationsshouldbecomethewishofeither？Itshowsthatman,werehenotcorruptedbygovernments,isnaturallythefriendofman,andthathumannatureisnotofitselfvicious。Thatspiritofjealousyandferocity,whichthegovernmentsofthetwocountriesinspired,andwhichtheyrenderedsubservienttothepurposeoftaxation,isnowyieldingtothedictatesofreason,interest,andhumanity。Thetradeofcourtsisbeginningtobeunderstood,andtheaffectationofmystery,withalltheartificialsorcerybywhichtheyimposeduponmankind,isonthedecline。Ithasreceiveditsdeath—wound;andthoughitmaylinger,itwillexpire。Governmentoughttobeasmuchopentoimprovementasanythingwhichappertainstoman,insteadofwhichithasbeenmonopolisedfromagetoage,bythemostignorantandviciousofthehumanrace。Needweanyotherproofoftheirwretchedmanagement,thantheexcessofdebtsandtaxeswithwhicheverynationgroans,andthequarrelsintowhichtheyhaveprecipitatedtheworld？Justemergingfromsuchabarbarouscondition,itistoosoontodeterminetowhatextentofimprovementgovernmentmayyetbecarried。Forwhatwecanforesee,allEuropemayformbutonegreatRepublic,andmanbefreeofthewhole。

CHAPTERV

WaysAndMeansOfImprovingTheConditionOfEuropeInterspersedWithMiscellaneousObservationsIncontemplatingasubjectthatembraceswithequatorialmagnitudethewholeregionofhumanityitisimpossibletoconfinethepursuitinonesingledirection。Ittakesgroundoneverycharacterandconditionthatappertainstoman,andblendstheindividual,thenation,andtheworld。Fromasmallspark,kindledinAmerica,aflamehasarisennottobeextinguished。

Withoutconsuming,liketheUltimaRatioRegum,itwindsitsprogressfromnationtonation,andconquersbyasilentoperation。Manfindshimselfchanged,hescarcelyperceiveshow。Heacquiresaknowledgeofhisrightsbyattendingjustlytohisinterest,anddiscoversintheeventthatthestrengthandpowersofdespotismconsistwhollyinthefearofresistingit,andthat,inorder"tobefree,itissufficientthathewillsit。"

Havinginalltheprecedingpartsofthisworkendeavouredtoestablishasystemofprinciplesasabasisonwhichgovernmentsoughttobeerected,Ishallproceedinthis,tothewaysandmeansofrenderingthemintopractice。Butinordertointroducethispartofthesubjectwithmorepropriety,andstrongereffect,somepreliminaryobservations,deduciblefrom,orconnectedwith,thoseprinciples,arenecessary。

Whatevertheformorconstitutionofgovernmentmaybe,itoughttohavenootherobjectthanthegeneralhappiness。When,insteadofthis,itoperatestocreateandincreasewretchednessinanyofthepartsofsociety,itisonawrongsystem,andreformationisnecessary。Customarylanguagehasclassedtheconditionofmanunderthetwodescriptionsofcivilisedanduncivilisedlife。Totheoneithasascribedfelicityandaffluence;

totheotherhardshipandwant。But,howeverourimaginationmaybeimpressedbypaintingandcomparison,itisneverthelesstrue,thatagreatportionofmankind,inwhatarecalledcivilisedcountries,areinastateofpovertyandwretchedness,farbelowtheconditionofanIndian。Ispeaknotofonecountry,butofall。ItissoinEngland,itissoalloverEurope。Letusenquireintothecause。

Itliesnotinanynaturaldefectintheprinciplesofcivilisation,butinpreventingthoseprincipleshavingauniversaloperation;theconsequenceofwhichis,aperpetualsystemofwarandexpense,thatdrainsthecountry,anddefeatsthegeneralfelicityofwhichcivilisationiscapable。AlltheEuropeangovernments（Francenowexcepted）areconstructednotontheprincipleofuniversalcivilisation,butonthereverseofit。Sofarasthosegovernmentsrelatetoeachother,theyareinthesameconditionasweconceiveofsavageuncivilisedlife;theyputthemselvesbeyondthelawaswellofGODasofman,andare,withrespecttoprincipleandreciprocalconduct,likesomanyindividualsinastateofnature。Theinhabitantsofeverycountry,underthecivilisationoflaws,easilycivilisetogether,butgovernmentsbeingyetinanuncivilisedstate,andalmostcontinuallyatwar,theyperverttheabundancewhichcivilisedlifeproducestocarryontheuncivilisedparttoagreaterextent。Bythusengraftingthebarbarismofgovernmentupontheinternalcivilisationofacountry,itdrawsfromthelatter,andmoreespeciallyfromthepoor,agreatportionofthoseearnings,whichshouldbeappliedtotheirownsubsistenceandcomfort。Apartfromallreflectionsofmoralityandphilosophy,itisamelancholyfactthatmorethanone—fourthofthelabourofmankindisannuallyconsumedbythisbarbaroussystem。Whathasservedtocontinuethisevil,isthepecuniaryadvantagewhichallthegovernmentsofEuropehavefoundinkeepingupthisstateofuncivilisation。Itaffordstothempretencesforpower,andrevenue,forwhichtherewouldbeneitheroccasionnorapology,ifthecircleofcivilisationwererenderedcomplete。Civilgovernmentalone,orthegovernmentoflaws,isnotproductiveofpretencesformanytaxes;itoperatesathome,directlyundertheeyeofthecountry,andprecludesthepossibilityofmuchimposition。Butwhenthesceneislaidintheuncivilisedcontentionofgovernments,thefieldofpretencesisenlarged,andthecountry,beingnolongerajudge,isopentoeveryimposition,whichgovernmentspleasetoact。Notathirtieth,scarcelyafortieth,partofthetaxeswhichareraisedinEnglandareeitheroccasionedby,orappliedto,thepurposeofcivilgovernment。Itisnotdifficulttosee,thatthewholewhichtheactualgovernmentdoesinthisrespect,istoenactlaws,andthatthecountryadministersandexecutesthem,atitsownexpense,bymeansofmagistrates,juries,sessions,andassize,overandabovethetaxeswhichitpays。Inthisviewofthecase,wehavetwodistinctcharactersofgovernment;theonethecivilgovernment,orthegovernmentoflaws,whichoperatesathome,theotherthecourtorcabinetgovernment,whichoperatesabroad,ontherudeplanofuncivilisedlife;theoneattendedwithlittlecharge,theotherwithboundlessextravagance;andsodistinctarethetwo,thatifthelatterweretosink,asitwere,byasuddenopeningoftheearth,andtotallydisappear,theformerwouldnotbederanged。Itwouldstillproceed,becauseitisthecommoninterestofthenationthatitshould,andallthemeansareinpractice。Revolutions,then,havefortheirobjectachangeinthemoralconditionofgovernments,andwiththischangetheburthenofpublictaxeswilllessen,andcivilisationwillbelefttotheenjoymentofthatabundance,ofwhichitisnowdeprived。

Incontemplatingthewholeofthissubject,Iextendmyviewsintothedepartmentofcommerce。Inallmypublications,wherethematterwouldadmit,Ihavebeenanadvocateforcommerce,becauseIamafriendtoitseffects。Itisapacificsystem,operatingtocordialisemankind,byrenderingnations,aswellasindividuals,usefultoeachother。Astothemeretheoreticalreformation,Ihaveneverpreacheditup。Themosteffectualprocessisthatofimprovingtheconditionofmanbymeansofhisinterest;anditisonthisgroundthatItakemystand。Ifcommercewerepermittedtoacttotheuniversalextentitiscapable,itwouldextirpatethesystemofwar,andproducearevolutionintheuncivilisedstateofgovernments。Theinventionofcommercehasarisensincethosegovernmentsbegan,andisthegreatestapproachtowardsuniversalcivilisationthathasyetbeenmadebyanymeansnotimmediatelyflowingfrommoralprinciples。Whateverhasatendencytopromotethecivilintercourseofnationsbyanexchangeofbenefits,isasubjectasworthyofphilosophyasofpolitics。Commerceisnootherthanthetrafficoftwoindividuals,multipliedonascaleofnumbers;andbythesamerulethatnatureintendedfortheintercourseoftwo,sheintendedthatofall。Forthispurposeshehasdistributedthematerialsofmanufacturesandcommerce,invariousanddistantpartsofanationandoftheworld;andastheycannotbeprocuredbywarsocheaplyorsocommodiouslyasbycommerce,shehasrenderedthelatterthemeansofextirpatingtheformer。Asthetwoarenearlytheoppositeofeachother,consequently,theuncivilisedstateoftheEuropeangovernmentsisinjurioustocommerce。

Everykindofdestructionorembarrassmentservestolessenthequantity,anditmattersbutlittleinwhatpartofthecommercialworldthereductionbegins。Likeblood,itcannotbetakenfromanyoftheparts,withoutbeingtakenfromthewholemassincirculation,andallpartakeoftheloss。Whentheabilityinanynationtobuyisdestroyed,itequallyinvolvestheseller。

CouldthegovernmentofEnglanddestroythecommerceofallothernations,shewouldmosteffectuallyruinherown。Itispossiblethatanationmaybethecarrierfortheworld,butshecannotbethemerchant。Shecannotbethesellerandbuyerofherownmerchandise。Theabilitytobuymustresideoutofherself;and,therefore,theprosperityofanycommercialnationisregulatedbytheprosperityoftherest。Iftheyarepoorshecannotberich,andhercondition,bewhatitmay,isanindexoftheheightofthecommercialtideinothernations。Thattheprinciplesofcommerce,anditsuniversaloperationmaybeunderstood,withoutunderstandingthepractice,isapositionthatreasonwillnotdeny;anditisonthisgroundonlythatIarguethesubject。Itisonethinginthecounting—house,intheworlditisanother。Withrespecttoitsoperationitmustnecessarilybecontemplatedasareciprocalthing;thatonlyone—halfitspowersresideswithinthenation,andthatthewholeisaseffectuallydestroyedbythedestroyingthehalfthatresideswithout,asifthedestructionhadbeencommittedonthatwhichiswithin;forneithercanactwithouttheother。Wheninthelast,aswellasinformerwars,thecommerceofEnglandsunk,itwasbecausethequantitywaslessenedeverywhere;anditnowrises,becausecommerceisinarisingstateineverynation。IfEngland,atthisday,importsandexportsmorethanatanyformerperiod,thenationswithwhichshetradesmustnecessarilydothesame;herimportsaretheirexports,andviceversa。Therecanbenosuchthingasanationflourishingaloneincommerce:shecanonlyparticipate;

andthedestructionofitinanypartmustnecessarilyaffectall。When,therefore,governmentsareatwar,theattackismadeuponacommonstockofcommerce,andtheconsequenceisthesameasifeachhadattackedhisown。Thepresentincreaseofcommerceisnottobeattributedtoministers,ortoanypoliticalcontrivances,buttoitsownnaturaloperationinconsequenceofpeace。Theregularmarketshadbeendestroyed,thechannelsoftradebrokenup,thehighroadoftheseasinfestedwithrobbersofeverynation,andtheattentionoftheworldcalledtootherobjects。Thoseinterruptionshaveceased,andpeacehasrestoredthederangedconditionofthingstotheirproperorder。*[25]Itisworthremarkingthateverynationreckonsthebalanceoftradeinitsownfavour;andthereforesomethingmustbeirregularinthecommonideasuponthissubject。Thefact,however,istrue,accordingtowhatiscalledabalance;anditisfromthiscausethatcommerceisuniversallysupported。Everynationfeelstheadvantage,oritwouldabandonthepractice:butthedeceptionliesinthemodeofmakinguptheaccounts,andinattributingwhatarecalledprofitstoawrongcause。Mr。Pitthassometimesamusedhimself,byshowingwhathecalledabalanceoftradefromthecustom—housebooks。Thismodeofcalculatingnotonlyaffordsnorulethatistrue,butonethatisfalse。Inthefirstplace,Everycargothatdepartsfromthecustom—houseappearsonthebooksasanexport;and,accordingtothecustom—housebalance,thelossesatsea,andbyforeignfailures,areallreckonedonthesideofprofitbecausetheyappearasexports。

Secondly,Becausetheimportationbythesmugglingtradedoesnotappearonthecustom—housebooks,toarrangeagainsttheexports。

Nobalance,therefore,asapplyingtosuperioradvantages,canbedrawnfromthesedocuments;andifweexaminethenaturaloperationofcommerce,theideaisfallacious;andiftrue,wouldsoonbeinjurious。Thegreatsupportofcommerceconsistsinthebalancebeingalevelofbenefitsamongallnations。

Twomerchantsofdifferentnationstradingtogether,willbothbecomerich,andeachmakesthebalanceinhisownfavour;

consequently,theydonotgetrichofeachother;anditisthesamewithrespecttothenationsinwhichtheyreside。Thecasemustbe,thateachnationmustgetrichoutofitsownmeans,andincreasesthatrichesbysomethingwhichitprocuresfromanotherinexchange。

IfamerchantinEnglandsendsanarticleofEnglishmanufactureabroadwhichcostshimashillingathome,andimportssomethingwhichsellsfortwo,hemakesabalanceofoneshillinginhisfavour;butthisisnotgainedoutoftheforeignnationortheforeignmerchant,forhealsodoesthesamebythearticleshereceives,andneitherhastheadvantageupontheother。Theoriginalvalueofthetwoarticlesintheirpropercountrieswasbuttwoshillings;butbychangingtheirplaces,theyacquireanewideaofvalue,equaltodoublewhattheyhadfirst,andthatincreasedvalueisequallydivided。

Thereisnootherwiseabalanceonforeignthanondomesticcommerce。

ThemerchantsofLondonandNewcastletradeonthesameprinciples,asiftheyresidedindifferentnations,andmaketheirbalancesinthesamemanner:yetLondondoesnotgetrichoutofNewcastle,anymorethanNewcastleoutofLondon:butcoals,themerchandizeofNewcastle,haveanadditionalvalueatLondon,andLondonmerchandizehasthesameatNewcastle。

Thoughtheprincipleofallcommerceisthesame,thedomestic,inanationalview,isthepartthemostbeneficial;becausethewholeoftheadvantages,anbothsides,restswithinthenation;whereas,inforeigncommerce,itisonlyaparticipationofone—half。

Themostunprofitableofallcommerceisthatconnectedwithforeigndominion。Toafewindividualsitmaybebeneficial,merelybecauseitiscommerce;buttothenationitisaloss。Theexpenseofmaintainingdominionmorethanabsorbstheprofitsofanytrade。Itdoesnotincreasethegeneralquantityintheworld,butoperatestolessenit;andasagreatermasswouldbeafloatbyrelinquishingdominion,theparticipationwithouttheexpensewouldbemorevaluablethanagreaterquantitywithit。

Butitisimpossibletoengrosscommercebydominion;andthereforeitisstillmorefallacious。Itcannotexistinconfinedchannels,andnecessarilybreaksoutbyregularorirregularmeans,thatdefeattheattempt:andtosucceedwouldbestillworse。

France,sincetheRevolution,hasbeenmoreindifferentastoforeignpossessions,andothernationswillbecomethesamewhentheyinvestigatethesubjectwithrespecttocommerce。

Totheexpenseofdominionistobeaddedthatofnavies,andwhentheamountsofthetwoaresubtractedfromtheprofitsofcommerce,itwillappear,thatwhatiscalledthebalanceoftrade,evenadmittingittoexist,isnotenjoyedbythenation,butabsorbedbytheGovernment。

Theideaofhavingnaviesfortheprotectionofcommerceisdelusive。

Itisputtingmeansofdestructionforthemeansofprotection。Commerceneedsnootherprotectionthanthereciprocalinterestwhicheverynationfeelsinsupportingit—itiscommonstock—itexistsbyabalanceofadvantagestoall;andtheonlyinterruptionitmeets,isfromthepresentuncivilisedstateofgovernments,andwhichitisitscommoninteresttoreform。*[26]

Quittingthissubject,Inowproceedtoothermatters。—AsitisnecessarytoincludeEnglandintheprospectofageneralreformation,itispropertoinquireintothedefectsofitsgovernment。

Itisonlybyeachnationreformingitsown,thatthewholecanbeimproved,andthefullbenefitofreformationenjoyed。Onlypartialadvantagescanflowfrompartialreforms。

FranceandEnglandaretheonlytwocountriesinEuropewhereareformationingovernmentcouldhavesuccessfullybegun。

Theonesecurebytheocean,andtheotherbytheimmensityofitsinternalstrength,coulddefythemalignancyofforeigndespotism。Butitiswithrevolutionsaswithcommerce,theadvantagesincreasebytheirbecominggeneral,anddoubletoeitherwhateachwouldreceivealone。

Asanewsystemisnowopeningtotheviewoftheworld,theEuropeancourtsareplottingtocounteractit。Alliances,contrarytoallformersystems,areagitating,andacommoninterestofcourtsisformingagainstthecommoninterestofman。ThiscombinationdrawsalinethatrunsthroughoutEurope,andpresentsacausesoentirelynewastoexcludeallcalculationsfromformercircumstances。Whiledespotismwarredwithdespotism,manhadnointerestinthecontest;butinacausethatunitesthesoldierwiththecitizen,andnationwithnation,thedespotismofcourts,thoughitfeelsthedangerandmeditatesrevenge,isafraidtostrike。

Noquestionhasarisenwithintherecordsofhistorythatpressedwiththeimportanceofthepresent。Itisnotwhetherthisorthatpartyshallbeinornot,orWhigorTory,highorlowshallprevail;

butwhethermanshallinherithisrights,anduniversalcivilisationtakeplace？Whetherthefruitsofhislaboursshallbeenjoyedbyhimselforconsumedbytheprofligacyofgovernments？Whetherrobberyshallbebanishedfromcourts,andwretchednessfromcountries？