第14章

Assoonasninestateshadconcurred（andtherestfollowedintheordertheirconventionswereelected）,theoldfabricofthefederalgovernmentwastakendown,andthenewoneerected,ofwhichGeneralWashingtonispresident。—InthisplaceI

cannothelpremarking,thatthecharacterandservicesofthisgentlemanaresufficienttoputallthosemencalledkingstoshame。Whiletheyarereceivingfromthesweatandlaboursofmankind,aprodigalityofpay,towhichneithertheirabilitiesnortheirservicescanentitlethem,heisrenderingeveryserviceinhispower,andrefusingeverypecuniaryreward。Heacceptednopayascommander—in—chief;heacceptsnoneaspresidentoftheUnitedStates。

Afterthenewfederalconstitutionwasestablished,thestateofPennsylvania,conceivingthatsomepartsofitsownconstitutionrequiredtobealtered,electedaconventionforthatpurpose。Theproposedalterationswerepublished,andthepeopleconcurringtherein,theywereestablished。

Informingthoseconstitutions,orinalteringthem,littleornoinconveniencetookplace。Theordinarycourseofthingswasnotinterrupted,andtheadvantageshavebeenmuch。Itisalwaystheinterestofafargreaternumberofpeopleinanationtohavethingsright,thantoletthemremainwrong;andwhenpublicmattersareopentodebate,andthepublicjudgmentfree,itwillnotdecidewrong,unlessitdecidestoohastily。

Inthetwoinstancesofchangingtheconstitutions,thegovernmentstheninbeingwerenotactorseitherway。Governmenthasnorighttomakeitselfapartyinanydebaterespectingtheprinciplesormodesofforming,orofchanging,constitutions。Itisnotforthebenefitofthosewhoexercisethepowersofgovernmentthatconstitutions,andthegovernmentsissuingfromthem,areestablished。Inallthosematterstherightofjudgingandactingareinthosewhopay,andnotinthosewhoreceive。

Aconstitutionisthepropertyofanation,andnotofthosewhoexercisethegovernment。AlltheconstitutionsofAmericaaredeclaredtobeestablishedontheauthorityofthepeople。InFrance,thewordnationisusedinsteadofthepeople;butinbothcases,aconstitutionisathingantecedenttothegovernment,andalwaysdistincttherefrom。

InEnglanditisnotdifficulttoperceivethateverythinghasaconstitution,exceptthenation。Everysocietyandassociationthatisestablished,firstagreeduponanumberoforiginalarticles,digestedintoform,whichareitsconstitution。Itthenappointeditsofficers,whosepowersandauthoritiesaredescribedinthatconstitution,andthegovernmentofthatsocietythencommenced。

Thoseofficers,bywhatevernametheyarecalled,havenoauthoritytoaddto,alter,orabridgetheoriginalarticles。Itisonlytotheconstitutingpowerthatthisrightbelongs。

Fromthewantofunderstandingthedifferencebetweenaconstitutionandagovernment,Dr。Johnson,andallwritersofhisdescription,havealwaysbewilderedthemselves。Theycouldnotbutperceive,thattheremustnecessarilybeacontrollingpowerexistingsomewhere,andtheyplacedthispowerinthediscretionofthepersonsexercisingthegovernment,insteadofplacingitinaconstitutionformedbythenation。Whenitisinaconstitution,ithasthenationforitssupport,andthenaturalandthepoliticalcontrollingpowersaretogether。Thelawswhichareenactedbygovernments,controlmenonlyasindividuals,butthenation,throughitsconstitution,controlsthewholegovernment,andhasanaturalabilitytodoso。Thefinalcontrollingpower,therefore,andtheoriginalconstitutingpower,areoneandthesamepower。

Dr。Johnsoncouldnothaveadvancedsuchapositioninanycountrywheretherewasaconstitution;andheishimselfanevidencethatnosuchthingasaconstitutionexistsinEngland。Butitmaybeputasaquestion,notimpropertobeinvestigated,thatifaconstitutiondoesnotexist,howcametheideaofitsexistencesogenerallyestablished？

Inordertodecidethisquestion,itisnecessarytoconsideraconstitutioninbothitscases:—First,ascreatingagovernmentandgivingitpowers。Secondly,asregulatingandrestrainingthepowerssogiven。

IfwebeginwithWilliamofNormandy,wefindthatthegovernmentofEnglandwasoriginallyatyranny,foundedonaninvasionandconquestofthecountry。Thisbeingadmitted,itwillthenappear,thattheexertionofthenation,atdifferentperiods,toabatethattyranny,andrenderitlessintolerable,hasbeencreditedforaconstitution。

MagnaCharta,asitwascalled（itisnowlikeanalmanackofthesamedate）,wasnomorethancompellingthegovernmenttorenounceapartofitsassumptions。Itdidnotcreateandgivepowerstogovernmentinamanneraconstitutiondoes;butwas,asfarasitwent,ofthenatureofare—conquest,andnotaconstitution;

forcouldthenationhavetotallyexpelledtheusurpation,asFrancehasdoneitsdespotism,itwouldthenhavehadaconstitutiontoform。

ThehistoryoftheEdwardsandtheHenries,anduptothecommencementoftheStuarts,exhibitsasmanyinstancesoftyrannyascouldbeactedwithinthelimitstowhichthenationhadrestrictedit。TheStuartsendeavouredtopassthoselimits,andtheirfateiswellknown。Inallthoseinstancesweseenothingofaconstitution,butonlyofrestrictionsonassumedpower。

Afterthis,anotherWilliam,descendedfromthesamestock,andclaimingfromthesameorigin,gainedpossession;andofthetwoevils,JamesandWilliam,thenationpreferredwhatitthoughttheleast;since,fromcircumstances,itmusttakeone。Theact,calledtheBillofRights,comeshereintoview。Whatisit,butabargain,whichthepartsofthegovernmentmadewitheachothertodividepowers,profits,andprivileges？Youshallhavesomuch,andIwillhavetherest;andwithrespecttothenation,itsaid,foryourshare,YOUshallhavetherightofpetitioning。Thisbeingthecase,thebillofrightsismoreproperlyabillofwrongs,andofinsult。Astowhatiscalledtheconventionparliament,itwasathingthatmadeitself,andthenmadetheauthoritybywhichitacted。Afewpersonsgottogether,andcalledthemselvesbythatname。Severalofthemhadneverbeenelected,andnoneofthemforthepurpose。

FromthetimeofWilliamaspeciesofgovernmentarose,issuingoutofthiscoalitionbillofrights;andmoreso,sincethecorruptionintroducedattheHanoversuccessionbytheagencyofWalpole;

thatcanbedescribedbynoothernamethanadespoticlegislation。Thoughthepartsmayembarrasseachother,thewholehasnobounds;andtheonlyrightitacknowledgesoutofitself,istherightofpetitioning。Wherethenistheconstitutioneitherthatgivesorrestrainspower？

Itisnotbecauseapartofthegovernmentiselective,thatmakesitlessadespotism,ifthepersonssoelectedpossessafterwards,asaparliament,unlimitedpowers。Election,inthiscase,becomesseparatedfromrepresentation,andthecandidatesarecandidatesfordespotism。

Icannotbelievethatanynation,reasoningonitsownrights,wouldhavethoughtofcallingthesethingsaconstitution,ifthecryofconstitutionhadnotbeensetupbythegovernment。Ithasgotintocirculationlikethewordsboreandquoz[quiz],bybeingchalkedupinthespeechesofparliament,asthosewordswereonwindowshuttersanddoorposts;butwhatevertheconstitutionmaybeinotherrespects,ithasundoubtedlybeenthemostproductivemachineoftaxationthatwaseverinvented。

ThetaxesinFrance,underthenewconstitution,arenotquitethirteenshillingsperhead,*[18]andthetaxesinEngland,underwhatiscalleditspresentconstitution,areforty—eightshillingsandsixpenceperhead—men,women,andchildren—amountingtonearlyseventeenmillionssterling,besidestheexpenseofcollecting,whichisupwardsofamillionmore。

InacountrylikeEngland,wherethewholeofthecivilGovernmentisexecutedbythepeopleofeverytownandcounty,bymeansofparishofficers,magistrates,quarterlysessions,juries,andassize;withoutanytroubletowhatiscalledthegovernmentoranyotherexpensetotherevenuethanthesalaryofthejudges,itisastonishinghowsuchamassoftaxescanbeemployed。

Noteventheinternaldefenceofthecountryispaidoutoftherevenue。

Onalloccasions,whetherrealorcontrived,recourseiscontinuallyhadtonewloansandnewtaxes。Nowonder,then,thatamachineofgovernmentsoadvantageoustotheadvocatesofacourt,shouldbesotriumphantlyextolled！Nowonder,thatSt。

James"sorSt。Stephen"sshouldechowiththecontinualcryofconstitution;nowonder,thattheFrenchrevolutionshouldbereprobated,andtheres—publicatreatedwithreproach！TheredbookofEngland,liketheredbookofFrance,willexplainthereason。*[19]

Iwillnow,bywayofrelaxation,turnathoughtortwotoMr。Burke。

Iaskhispardonforneglectinghimsolong。

"America,"sayshe（inhisspeechontheCanadaConstitutionbill）,"neverdreamedofsuchabsurddoctrineastheRightsofMan。"

Mr。Burkeissuchaboldpresumer,andadvanceshisassertionsandhispremiseswithsuchadeficiencyofjudgment,that,withouttroublingourselvesaboutprinciplesofphilosophyorpolitics,themerelogicalconclusionstheyproduce,areridiculous。

Forinstance,Ifgovernments,asMr。Burkeasserts,arenotfoundedontheRightsofMAN,andarefoundedonanyrightsatall,theyconsequentlymustbefoundedontherightofsomethingthatisnotman。Whatthenisthatsomething？

Generallyspeaking,weknowofnoothercreaturesthatinhabittheearththanmanandbeast;andinallcases,whereonlytwothingsofferthemselves,andonemustbeadmitted,anegationprovedonanyone,amountstoanaffirmativeontheother;andtherefore,Mr。Burke,byprovingagainsttheRightsofMan,provesinbehalfofthebeast;andconsequently,provesthatgovernmentisabeast;andasdifficultthingssometimesexplaineachother,wenowseetheoriginofkeepingwildbeastsintheTower;fortheycertainlycanbeofnootherusethantoshowtheoriginofthegovernment。Theyareintheplaceofaconstitution。OJohnBull,whathonoursthouhastlostbynotbeingawildbeast。Thoumightest,onMr。Burke"ssystem,havebeenintheTowerforlife。

IfMr。Burke"sargumentshavenotweightenoughtokeeponeserious,thefaultislessminethanhis;andasIamwillingtomakeanapologytothereaderforthelibertyIhavetaken,IhopeMr。Burkewillalsomakehisforgivingthecause。

HavingthuspaidMr。Burkethecomplimentofrememberinghim,Ireturntothesubject。

FromthewantofaconstitutioninEnglandtorestrainandregulatethewildimpulseofpower,manyofthelawsareirrationalandtyrannical,andtheadministrationofthemvagueandproblematical。

TheattentionofthegovernmentofEngland（forIratherchoosetocallitbythisnamethantheEnglishgovernment）appears,sinceitspoliticalconnectionwithGermany,tohavebeensocompletelyengrossedandabsorbedbyforeignaffairs,andthemeansofraisingtaxes,thatitseemstoexistfornootherpurposes。

Domesticconcernsareneglected;andwithrespecttoregularlaw,thereisscarcelysuchathing。

Almosteverycasemustnowbedeterminedbysomeprecedent,bethatprecedentgoodorbad,orwhetheritproperlyappliesornot;andthepracticeisbecomesogeneralastosuggestasuspicion,thatitproceedsfromadeeperpolicythanatfirstsightappears。

SincetherevolutionofAmerica,andmoresosincethatofFrance,thispreachingupthedoctrinesofprecedents,drawnfromtimesandcircumstancesantecedenttothoseevents,hasbeenthestudiedpracticeoftheEnglishgovernment。Thegeneralityofthoseprecedentsarefoundedonprinciplesandopinions,thereverseofwhattheyought;andthegreaterdistanceoftimetheyaredrawnfrom,themoretheyaretobesuspected。Butbyassociatingthoseprecedentswithasuperstitiousreverenceforancientthings,asmonksshowrelicsandcallthemholy,thegeneralityofmankindaredeceivedintothedesign。Governmentsnowactasiftheywereafraidtoawakenasinglereflectioninman。

Theyaresoftlyleadinghimtothesepulchreofprecedents,todeadenhisfacultiesandcallattentionfromthesceneofrevolutions。

Theyfeelthatheisarrivingatknowledgefasterthantheywish,andtheirpolicyofprecedentsisthebarometeroftheirfears。

Thispoliticalpopery,liketheecclesiasticalpoperyofold,hashaditsday,andishasteningtoitsexit。Theraggedrelicandtheantiquatedprecedent,themonkandthemonarch,willmouldertogether。

Governmentbyprecedent,withoutanyregardtotheprincipleoftheprecedent,isoneofthevilestsystemsthatcanbesetup。

Innumerousinstances,theprecedentoughttooperateasawarning,andnotasanexample,andrequirestobeshunnedinsteadofimitated;butinsteadofthis,precedentsaretakeninthelump,andputatonceforconstitutionandforlaw。

Eitherthedoctrineofprecedentsispolicytokeepamaninastateofignorance,oritisapracticalconfessionthatwisdomdegeneratesingovernmentsasgovernmentsincreaseinage,andcanonlyhobblealongbythestiltsandcrutchesofprecedents。

Howisitthatthesamepersonswhowouldproudlybethoughtwiserthantheirpredecessors,appearatthesametimeonlyastheghostsofdepartedwisdom？Howstrangelyisantiquitytreated！

Tosomepurposesitisspokenofasthetimesofdarknessandignorance,andtoanswerothers,itisputforthelightoftheworld。

Ifthedoctrineofprecedentsistobefollowed,theexpensesofgovernmentneednotcontinuethesame。Whypaymenextravagantly,whohavebutlittletodo？Ifeverythingthatcanhappenisalreadyinprecedent,legislationisatanend,andprecedent,likeadictionary,determineseverycase。Either,therefore,governmenthasarrivedatitsdotage,andrequirestoberenovated,oralltheoccasionsforexercisingitswisdomhaveoccurred。

WenowseealloverEurope,andparticularlyinEngland,thecuriousphenomenonofanationlookingoneway,andthegovernmenttheother—theoneforwardandtheotherbackward。Ifgovernmentsaretogoonbyprecedent,whilenationsgoonbyimprovement,theymustatlastcometoafinalseparation;andthesooner,andthemorecivillytheydeterminethispoint,thebetter。*[20]

Havingthusspokenofconstitutionsgenerally,asthingsdistinctfromactualgovernments,letusproceedtoconsiderthepartsofwhichaconstitutioniscomposed。

Opinionsdiffermoreonthissubjectthanwithrespecttothewhole。

Thatanationoughttohaveaconstitution,asarulefortheconductofitsgovernment,isasimplequestioninwhichallmen,notdirectlycourtiers,willagree。Itisonlyonthecomponentpartsthatquestionsandopinionsmultiply。

Butthisdifficulty,likeeveryother,willdiminishwhenputintoatrainofbeingrightlyunderstood。

Thefirstthingis,thatanationhasarighttoestablishaconstitution。

Whetheritexercisesthisrightinthemostjudiciousmanneratfirstisquiteanothercase。Itexercisesitagreeablytothejudgmentitpossesses;andbycontinuingtodoso,allerrorswillatlastbeexploded。

Whenthisrightisestablishedinanation,thereisnofearthatitwillbeemployedtoitsowninjury。Anationcanhavenointerestinbeingwrong。

ThoughalltheconstitutionsofAmericaareononegeneralprinciple,yetnotwoofthemareexactlyalikeintheircomponentparts,orinthedistributionofthepowerswhichtheygivetotheactualgovernments。Somearemore,andotherslesscomplex。

Informingaconstitution,itisfirstnecessarytoconsiderwhataretheendsforwhichgovernmentisnecessary？Secondly,whatarethebestmeans,andtheleastexpensive,foraccomplishingthoseends？

Governmentisnothingmorethananationalassociation;andtheobjectofthisassociationisthegoodofall,aswellindividuallyascollectively。Everymanwishestopursuehisoccupation,andtoenjoythefruitsofhislaboursandtheproduceofhispropertyinpeaceandsafety,andwiththeleastpossibleexpense。

Whenthesethingsareaccomplished,alltheobjectsforwhichgovernmentoughttobeestablishedareanswered。

Ithasbeencustomarytoconsidergovernmentunderthreedistinctgeneralheads。Thelegislative,theexecutive,andthejudicial。

Butifwepermitourjudgmenttoactunincumberedbythehabitofmultipliedterms,wecanperceivenomorethantwodivisionsofpower,ofwhichcivilgovernmentiscomposed,namely,thatoflegislatingorenactinglaws,andthatofexecutingoradministeringthem。Everything,therefore,appertainingtocivilgovernment,classesitselfunderoneorotherofthesetwodivisions。

Sofarasregardstheexecutionofthelaws,thatwhichiscalledthejudicialpower,isstrictlyandproperlytheexecutivepowerofeverycountry。Itisthatpowertowhicheveryindividualhasappeal,andwhichcausesthelawstobeexecuted;neitherhaveweanyotherclearideawithrespecttotheofficialexecutionofthelaws。InEngland,andalsoinAmericaandFrance,thispowerbeginswiththemagistrate,andproceedsupthroughallthecourtsofjudicature。

Ileavetocourtierstoexplainwhatismeantbycallingmonarchytheexecutivepower。Itismerelyanameinwhichactsofgovernmentaredone;andanyother,ornoneatall,wouldanswerthesamepurpose。Lawshaveneithermorenorlessauthorityonthisaccount。Itmustbefromthejustnessoftheirprinciples,andtheinterestwhichanationfeelstherein,thattheyderivesupport;iftheyrequireanyotherthanthis,itisasignthatsomethinginthesystemofgovernmentisimperfect。Lawsdifficulttobeexecutedcannotbegenerallygood。

Withrespecttotheorganizationofthelegislativepower,differentmodeshavebeenadoptedindifferentcountries。InAmericaitisgenerallycomposedoftwohouses。InFranceitconsistsbutofone,butinbothcountries,itiswhollybyrepresentation。

Thecaseis,thatmankind（fromthelongtyrannyofassumedpower）havehadsofewopportunitiesofmakingthenecessarytrialsonmodesandprinciplesofgovernment,inordertodiscoverthebest,thatgovernmentisbutnowbeginningtobeknown,andexperienceisyetwantingtodeterminemanyparticulars。

Theobjectionsagainsttwohousesare,first,thatthereisaninconsistencyinanypartofawholelegislature,comingtoafinaldeterminationbyvoteonanymatter,whilstthatmatter,withrespecttothatwhole,isyetonlyinatrainofdeliberation,andconsequentlyopentonewillustrations。

Secondly,Thatbytakingthevoteoneach,asaseparatebody,italwaysadmitsofthepossibility,andisoftenthecaseinpractice,thattheminoritygovernsthemajority,andthat,insomeinstances,toadegreeofgreatinconsistency。

Thirdly,Thattwohousesarbitrarilycheckingorcontrollingeachotherisinconsistent;becauseitcannotbeprovedontheprinciplesofjustrepresentation,thateithershouldbewiserorbetterthantheother。Theymaycheckinthewrongaswellasintheright—thereforetogivethepowerwherewecannotgivethewisdomtouseit,norbeassuredofitsbeingrightlyused,rendersthehazardatleastequaltotheprecaution。*[21]

Theobjectionagainstasinglehouseis,thatitisalwaysinaconditionofcommittingitselftoosoon。—Butitshouldatthesametimeberemembered,thatwhenthereisaconstitutionwhichdefinesthepower,andestablishestheprincipleswithinwhichalegislatureshallact,thereisalreadyamoreeffectualcheckprovided,andmorepowerfullyoperating,thananyothercheckcanbe。Forexample,WereaBilltobebroughtintoanyoftheAmericanlegislaturessimilartothatwhichwaspassedintoanactbytheEnglishparliament,atthecommencementofGeorgetheFirst,toextendthedurationoftheassembliestoalongerperiodthantheynowsit,thecheckisintheconstitution,whichineffectsays,Thusfarshaltthougoandnofurther。

Butinordertoremovetheobjectionagainstasinglehouse（thatofactingwithtooquickanimpulse）,andatthesametimetoavoidtheinconsistencies,insomecasesabsurdities,arisingfromtwohouses,thefollowingmethodhasbeenproposedasanimprovementuponboth。

First,Tohavebutonerepresentation。

Secondly,Todividethatrepresentation,bylot,intotwoorthreeparts。

Thirdly,Thateveryproposedbillshallbefirstdebatedinthosepartsbysuccession,thattheymaybecomethehearersofeachother,butwithouttakinganyvote。Afterwhichthewholerepresentationtoassembleforageneraldebateanddeterminationbyvote。

Tothisproposedimprovementhasbeenaddedanother,forthepurposeofkeepingtherepresentationinthestateofconstantrenovation;whichis,thatone—thirdoftherepresentationofeachcounty,shallgooutattheexpirationofoneyear,andthenumberbereplacedbynewelections。Anotherthirdattheexpirationofthesecondyearreplacedinlikemanner,andeverythirdyeartobeageneralelection。*[22]

Butinwhatevermannertheseparatepartsofaconstitutionmaybearranged,thereisonegeneralprinciplethatdistinguishesfreedomfromslavery,whichis,thatallhereditarygovernmentoverapeopleistothemaspeciesofslavery,andrepresentativegovernmentisfreedom。

Consideringgovernmentintheonlylightinwhichitshouldbeconsidered,thatofaNationalAssociation,itoughttobesoconstructedasnottobedisorderedbyanyaccidenthappeningamongtheparts;and,therefore,noextraordinarypower,capableofproducingsuchaneffect,shouldbelodgedinthehandsofanyindividual。Thedeath,sickness,absenceordefection,ofanyoneindividualinagovernment,oughttobeamatterofnomoreconsequence,withrespecttothenation,thanifthesamecircumstancehadtakenplaceinamemberoftheEnglishParliament,ortheFrenchNationalAssembly。

Scarcelyanythingpresentsamoredegradingcharacterofnationalgreatness,thanitsbeingthrownintoconfusion,byanythinghappeningtooractedbyanyindividual;andtheridiculousnessofthesceneisoftenincreasedbythenaturalinsignificanceofthepersonbywhomitisoccasioned。Wereagovernmentsoconstructed,thatitcouldnotgoonunlessagooseoraganderwerepresentinthesenate,thedifficultieswouldbejustasgreatandasreal,ontheflightorsicknessofthegoose,orthegander,asifitwerecalledaKing。Welaughatindividualsforthesillydifficultiestheymaketothemselves,withoutperceivingthatthegreatestofallridiculousthingsareactedingovernments。*[23]

AlltheconstitutionsofAmericaareonaplanthatexcludesthechildishembarrassmentswhichoccurinmonarchicalcountries。

Nosuspensionofgovernmentcantheretakeplaceforamoment,fromanycircumstanceswhatever。Thesystemofrepresentationprovidesforeverything,andistheonlysysteminwhichnationsandgovernmentscanalwaysappearintheirpropercharacter。

Asextraordinarypoweroughtnottobelodgedinthehandsofanyindividual,sooughttheretobenoappropriationsofpublicmoneytoanyperson,beyondwhathisservicesinastatemaybeworth。

Itsignifiesnotwhetheramanbecalledapresident,aking,anemperor,asenator,orbyanyothernamewhichproprietyorfollymaydeviseorarroganceassume;itisonlyacertainservicehecanperforminthestate;andtheserviceofanysuchindividualintheroutineofoffice,whethersuchofficebecalledmonarchical,presidential,senatorial,orbyanyothernameortitle,canneverexceedthevalueoftenthousandpoundsayear。

Allthegreatservicesthataredoneintheworldareperformedbyvolunteercharacters,whoacceptnothingforthem;buttheroutineofofficeisalwaysregulatedtosuchageneralstandardofabilitiesastobewithinthecompassofnumbersineverycountrytoperform,andthereforecannotmeritveryextraordinaryrecompense。

Government,saysSwift,isaPlainthing,andfittedtothecapacityofmanyheads。

Itisinhumantotalkofamillionsterlingayear,paidoutofthepublictaxesofanycountry,forthesupportofanyindividual,whilstthousandswhoareforcedtocontributethereto,arepiningwithwant,andstrugglingwithmisery。Governmentdoesnotconsistinacontrastbetweenprisonsandpalaces,betweenpovertyandpomp;itisnotinstitutedtorobtheneedyofhismite,andincreasethewretchednessofthewretched。—ButonthispartofthesubjectIshallspeakhereafter,andconfinemyselfatpresenttopoliticalobservations。

Whenextraordinarypowerandextraordinarypayareallottedtoanyindividualinagovernment,hebecomesthecenter,roundwhicheverykindofcorruptiongeneratesandforms。Givetoanymanamillionayear,andaddtheretothepowerofcreatinganddisposingofplaces,attheexpenseofacountry,andthelibertiesofthatcountryarenolongersecure。Whatiscalledthesplendourofathroneisnootherthanthecorruptionofthestate。

Itismadeupofabandofparasites,livinginluxuriousindolence,outofthepublictaxes。

Whenoncesuchavicioussystemisestablisheditbecomestheguardandprotectionofallinferiorabuses。Themanwhoisinthereceiptofamillionayearisthelastpersontopromoteaspiritofreform,lest,intheevent,itshouldreachtohimself。Itisalwayshisinteresttodefendinferiorabuses,assomanyoutworkstoprotectthecitadel;andonthisspeciesofpoliticalfortification,allthepartshavesuchacommondependencethatitisnevertobeexpectedtheywillattackeachother。*[24]

Monarchywouldnothavecontinuedsomanyagesintheworld,haditnotbeenfortheabusesitprotects。Itisthemaster—fraud,whichsheltersallothers。Byadmittingaparticipationofthespoil,itmakesitselffriends;andwhenitceasestodothisitwillceasetobetheidolofcourtiers。