第8章

OftheProportionbetweenPunishmentsandOffencesI。Wehaveseenthatthegeneralobjectofalllawsistopreventmischief；

thatistosay，whenitisworthwhile；butthat，wheretherearenoothermeansofdoingthisthanpunishment，therearefourcasesinwhichitisnotworthwhile。

II。Whenitisworthwhile，therearefoursubordinatedesignsorobjects，which，inthecourseofhisendeavourstocompass，asfarasmaybe，thatonegeneralobject，alegislator，whoseviewsaregovernedbytheprincipleofutility，comesnaturallytoproposetohimself。

III。1。Hisfirst，mostextensive，andmosteligibleobject，istoprevent，inasfarasitispossible，andworthwhile，allsortsofoffenseswhatsoever:inotherwords，sotomanage，thatnooffensewhatsoevermaybecommitted。

IV。2。Butifamanmustneedscommitanoffenseofsomekindorother，thenextobjectistoinducehimtocommitanoffenselessmischievous，ratherthanonemoremischievous:inotherwords，tochoosealwaystheleastmischievous，oftwooffensesthatwilleitherofthemsuithispurpose。

V。3。Whenamanhasresolveduponaparticularoffense，thenextobjectistodisposehimtodonomoremischiefthanisnecessarytohispurpose:inotherwords，todoaslittlemischiefasisconsistentwiththebenefithehasinview。

VI。4。Thelastobjectis，whateverthemischiefbe，whichitisproposedtoprevent，topreventitatascheaparateaspossible。

VII。Subservienttothesefourobjects，orpurposes，mustbetherulesorcanonsbywhichtheproportionofpunishmentstooffensesistobegoverned。

VIII。Rule1。Thefirstobject，ithasbeenseen，istoprevent，inasfarasitisworthwhile，allsortsofoffenses；therefore，Thevalueofthepunishmentmustnotlessinanycasethanwhatissufficienttooutweighthatoftheprofitoftheoffense。

Ifitbe，theoffence(unlesssomeotherconsiderations，independentofthepunishmentshouldinterveneandoperateefficaciouslyinthecharacteroftutelarymotives)willbesuretobetocommittednotwithstanding:thewholelotofpunishmentwillbethrownaway:itwillbealtogetherinefficacious。

IX。Theaboverulehasbeenoftenobjectedto，onaccountofitsseemingharshness:butthiscanonlyhavehappenedforwantofitsbeingproperlyunderstood。Thestrengthofthetemptation，cæ；terisparibas，isastheprofitoftheoffense:thequantumofthepunishmentmustrisewiththeprofitoftheoffense:cæ；terisparibas，itmustthereforerisewiththestrengthofthetemptation。Thisthereisnodisputing。Trueitis，thatthestrongerthetemptation，thelessconclusiveistheindicationwhichtheactofdelinquencyaffordsofthedepravityoftheoffender"sdisposition。

Sofarthenastheabsenceofanyaggravation，arisingfromextraordinarydepravityofdisposition，mayoperate，orattheutmost，sofarasthepresenceofagroundofextenuation，resultingfromtheinnocenceorbeneficenceoftheoffender"sdisposition，canoperate，thestrengthofthetemptationmayoperateinabatementofthedemandforpunishment。Butitcanneveroperatesofarastoindicatetheproprietyofmakingthepunishmentineffectual，whichitissuretobewhenbroughtbelowtheleveloftheapparentprofitoftheoffense。

Thepartialbenevolencewhichshouldprevailforthereductionofitbelowthislevel，wouldcounteractaswellthosepurposeswhichsuchamotivewouldactuallyhaveinview，asthosemoreextensivepurposeswhichbenevolenceoughttohaveinview:itwouldbecrueltynotonlytothepublic，buttotheverypersonsinwhosebehalfitpleads:initseffects，Imean，howeveroppositeinitsintention。Crueltytothepublic，thatiscrueltytotheinnocent，bysufferingthem，forwantofanadequateprotection，tolieexposedtothemischiefoftheoffense:crueltyeventotheoffenderhimself，bypunishinghimtonopurpose，andwithoutthechanceofcompassingthatbeneficialend，bywhichalonetheintroductionoftheevilofpunishmentistobejustified。

X。Rule2。Butwhetheragivenoffenceshallbepreventedinagivendegreebyagivenquantityofpunishment，isneveranythingbetterthanachance；forthepurchasingofwhich，whateverpunishmentisemployed，issomuchexpendedintoadvance。

However，forthesakeofgivingitthebetterchanceofoutweighingtheprofitoftheoffence，Thegreaterthemischiefoftheoffense，thegreateristheexpensewhichitmaybeworthwhiletobeat，inthewayofpunishment。

XI。Rule3。Thenextobjectis，toinduceamantochoosealwaystheleastmischievousoftwooffenses；therefore，Wheretwooffencescomeincompetition，thepunishmentforthegreateroffencemustbesufficienttoinduceamantoprefertheless。

XII。Rule4。Whenamanhasresolveduponaparticularoffense，thenextobjectis，toinducehimtodonomoremischiefthanwhatisnecessaryforhispurpose:thereforeThepunishmentshouldbeadjustedinsuchmannertoeachparticularoffence，thatforeverypartofthemischieftheremaybeamotivetorestraintheoffenderfrowngivingbirthtoit。

XIII。Rule5。Thelastobjectis，whatevermischiefisguardedagainst，toguardagainstitatascheaparateaspossible:

thereforeThepunishmentoughtinnocasetobemorethanwhatisnecessarytobringitintoconformitywiththerulesheregiven。

XIV。Rule6。Itisfurthertobeobserved，thatowingtothedifferentmannersanddegreesinwhichpersonsunderdifferentcircumstancesareaffectedbythesameexcitingcause，apunishmentwhichisthesameinnamewillnotalwayseitherreallyproduce，orevensomuchasappeartootherstoproduce，intwodifferentpersonsthesamedegreeofpain:thereforeThatthequantityactuallyindictedoneachindividualoffendernaycorrespondtothequantityintendedforsimilaroffendersingeneral，theseveralcircumstancesinfluencingsensibilityoughtalwaystobetakenintoaccount。

XV。Oftheaboverulesofproportion，thefirstfour，wemayperceiveservetomarkoutlimitsonthesideofdiminution；thelimitsbelowwhichapunishmentoughtnottobediminished:thefifththelimitsonthesideofincrease；thelimitsabovewhichitoughtnottobeincreased。Thefivefirstarecalculatedtoserveasguidestothelegislator:thesixthiscalculatedinsomemeasure，indeed，tothesamepurpose；butprincipallyforguidingthejudgeinhisendeavorstoconform，onbothsides，totheintentionsofthelegislator。

XVI。Letuslookbackalittle。Thefirstrule，inordertorenderitmoreconvenientlyapplicabletopractice，mayneedperhapstobealittlemoreparticularlyunfolded。Itistobeobserved，then，thatforthesakeofaccuracy，itwasnecessary，insteadofthewordquantitytomakeuseofthelessperspicuoustermvalue。Forthewordquantitywillnotproperlyincludeandthecircumstanceseitherofcertaintyorproximity:circumstanceswhich，inestimatingthevalueofalotofpainorpleasure，mustalwaysbetakenintotheaccount。Now，ontheonehand，alotofpunishmentisalotofpain；ontheotherhand，theprofitofanoffenseisalotofpleasure，orwhatisequivalenttoit。Buttheprofitoftheoffenseiscommonlymorecertainthanthepunishment，or，whatcomestothesamething，appearssoatleasttotheoffender。Itisatanyratecommonlymoreimmediate。

Itfollows，therefore，that，inordertomaintainitssuperiorityovertheprofitoftheoffense，thepunishmentmusthaveitsvaluemadeupinsomeotherway，inproportiontothatwherebyitfallsshortinthetwopointsofcertaintyandproximity。Nowthereisnootherwayinwhichitcanreceiveanyadditiontoitsvalue，butbyreceivinganadditioninpointofmagnitude。

Whereverthenthevalueofthepunishmentfallsshort，eitherinpointofcertainty，orofproximity，ofthatoftheprofitoftheoffence，itmustreceiveaproportionableadditioninpointofmagnitude。

XVII。Yetfarther。Tomakesureofgivingthevalueofthepunishmentthesuperiorityoverthatoftheoffence，itmaybeofnecessary，insomecases，totakeintoaccounttheprofitnotonlyoftheindividualoffencetowhichthepunishmentistobeannexed，butalsoofsuchotheroffencesofthesamesortastheoffenderislikelytohavealreadycommittedwithoutdetection。Thisrandommodeofcalculation，severeasitis，itwillbeimpossibletoavoidhavingrecourseto，incertaincases:insuch，towit，inwhichtheprofitispecuniary，thechanceofdetectionverysmall，andtheobnoxiousactofsuchanatureasindicatesahabit:forexample，inthecaseoffraudsagainstthecoin。

Ifitbenotrecurredto，thepracticeofcommittingtheoffencewillbesuretobe，uponthebalanceoftheaccount，againfulpractice。Thatbeingthecase，thelegislatorwillbeabsolutelysureofnotbeingabletosuppressit，andthewholepunishmentthatisbestoweduponitwillbethrownaway。Inaword(tokeeptothesameexpressionswesetoutwith)thatwholequantityofpunishmentwillbeinefficacious。

XVIII。Rule7。Thesethingsbeingconsidered，thethreefollowingrulesmaybelaiddownbywayofsupplementandexplanationtoRule1。

Toenablethevalueofthepunishmenttooutweighthatoftheprofitoftheoffense，itmustbeincreased，inpointofmagnitude，inproportionasitfallsshortinpointofcertainty。

XIX。Rule8。Punishmentmustbefurtherincreasedinpointofmagnitude，inproportionasitfallsshortinpointofproximity。

XX。Rule9。Wheretheactisconclusivelyindicativeofahabit，suchanincreasemustbegiventothepunishmentasmayenableittooutweightheprofitnotonlyoftheindividualoffence，butofsuchotherlikeoffensesasarelikelytohavebeencommittedwithimpunitybythesameoffender。

XXI。Theremaybeafewothercircumstancesorconsiderationswhichmayinfluence，insomesmalldegree，thedemandforpunishment:butastheproprietyoftheseiseithernotsodemonstrable，ornotsoconstant，ortheapplicationofthemnotsodeterminate，asthatoftheforegoing，itmaybedoubtedwhethertheybeworthputtingonalevelwiththeothers。

XXII。Rule10。Whenapunishment，whichinpointofqualityisparticularlywellcalculatedtoansweritsintentioncannotexistinlessthanacertainquantity，itmaysometimesbeofuse，forthesakeofemployingit，tostretchalittlebeyondthatquantitywhich，onotheraccounts，wouldbestrictlynecessary。

XXIII。Rule11。Inparticular，thismaysometimesbethecase，wherethepunishmentproposedisofsuchanatureastobeparticularlywellcalculatedtoanswerthepurposeofamorallesson。

XXIV。Rule12。Thetendencyoftheaboveconsiderationsistodictateanaugmentationinthepunishment:thefollowingruleoperatesinthewayofdiminution。Therearecertaincases(ithasbeenseen)inwhich，bytheinfluenceofaccidentalcircumstances，punishmentmayberenderedunprofitableinthewhole:

inthesamecasesitmaychancetoberenderedunprofitableastoapartonly。Accordingly，Inadjustingthequantumofpunishment，thecircumstances；bywhichallpunishmentmayberenderedunprofitable，oughttobeattendedto。

XXV。Rule13。Itistobeobserved，thatthemorevariousandminuteanysetofprovisionsare，thegreaterthechanceisthatanygivenarticleinthemwillnotbeborneinmind:withoutwhich，nobenefitcanensuefromit。Distinctions，whicharemorecomplexthanwhattheconceptionsofthosewhoseconductitisdesignedtoinfluencecantakein，willevenbeworsethanuseless。Thewholesystemwillpresentaconfusedappearance:andthustheeffect，notonlyoftheproportionsestablishedbythearticlesinquestion，butofwhateverisconnectedwiththem，willbedestroyed。Todrawapreciselineofdirectioninsuchcaseseemsimpossible。However，bywayofmemento，itmaybeofsomeusetosubjointhefollowingrule。

Amongprovisionsdesignedtoperfecttheproportionbetweenpunishmentsandoffences，ifanyoccur，which，bytheirownparticulargoodeffects，wouldnotmakeupfortheharmtheywoulddobyaddingtotheintricacyoftheCode，theyshouldbeomitted。

XXVI。Itmayberemembered，thatthepoliticalsanction，beingthattowhichthesortofpunishmentbelongs，whichinthischapterisallalonginview，isbutoneoffoursanctions，whichmayallofthemcontributetheirsharetowardsproducingthesameeffects。Itmaybeexpected，therefore，thatinadjustingthequantityofpoliticalpunishment，allowanceshouldbemadefortheassistanceitmaymeetwithfromthoseothercontrollingpowers。

Trueitis，thatfromeachoftheseseveralsourcesaverypowerfulassistancemaysometimesbederived。Butthecaseis，that(settingasidethemoralsanction，inthecasewheretheforceofitisexpresslyadoptedintoandmodifiedbythepolitical)

theforceofthoseotherpowersisneverdeterminateenoughtobedependedupon。Itcanneverbereduced，likepoliticalpunishment，intoexactlots，normetedoutinnumber，quantity，andvalue。Thelegislatoristhereforeobligedtoprovidethefullcomplementofpunishment，asifheweresureofnotreceivinganyassistancewhateverfromanyofthosequarters。Ifhedoes，somuchthebetter:butlestheshouldnot，itisnecessaryheshould，atallevents，makethatprovisionwhichdependsuponhimself。

XXVII。Itmaybeofuse，inthisplace，torecapitulatetheseveralcircumstances，which，inestablishingtheproportionbetwixtpunishmentsandoffenses，aretobeattendedto。Theseseemtobeasfollows:

I。Onthepartoftheoffence:

1。Theprofitoftheoffense；

2。Themischiefoftheoffense；

3。Theprofitandmischiefofothergreaterorlesseroffences，ofdifferentsorts，whichtheoffendermayhavetochooseoutof；

4。Theprofitandmischiefofotheroffenses，ofthesamesort，whichthesameoffendermayprobablyhavebeenguiltyofalready。

II。Onthepartofthepunishment:

5。Themagnitudeofthepunishment:composedofitsintensityandduration；

6。Thedeficiencyofthepunishmentinpointofcertainty；

7。Thedeficiencyofthepunishmentinpointofproximity；

8。Thequalityofthepunishment；

9。Theaccidentaladvantageinpointofqualityofapunishment，notstrictlyneededinpointofquantity；

10。Theuseofapunishmentofaparticularquality，inthecharacterofamorallesson。

III。Onthepartoftheoffender:

11。Theresponsibilityoftheclassofpersonsinawaytooffend；

12。Thesensibilityofeachparticularoffender13。Theparticularmeritsorusefulqualitiesofanyparticularoffender，incaseofapunishmentwhichmightdeprivethecommunityofthebenefitofthem；

14。Themultitudeofoffendersonanyparticularoccasion。

IV。Onthepartofthepublic，atanyparticularconjuncture:

15。Theinclinationsofthepeople，fororagainstanyquantityormodeofpunishment；

16。Theinclinationsofforeignpowers。

V。Onthepartofthelaw:thatis，ofthepublicforacontinuance:

17。Thenecessityofmakingsmallsacrifices，inpointofproportionality，forthesakeofsimplicity。

XXVIII。Therearesome，perhaps，who，atfirstsight，maylookuponthenicetyemployedintheadjustmentofsuchrules，assomuchlabourlost:forgrossignorance，theywillsay，never，troublesitselfaboutlaws，andpassiondoesnotcalculate。But，theevilofignoranceadmitsofcure:andastothepropositionthatpassiondoesnotcalculate，this，likemostoftheseverygeneralandoracularpropositions，isnottrue。Whenmattersofsuchimportanceaspainandpleasureareatstake，andtheseinthehighestdegree(theonlymatters，inshort，thatcanbeofimportance)

whoistherethatdoesnotcalculate？Mencalculate，somewithlessexactness，indeed，somewithmore:butallmencalculate。

Iwouldnotsay，thatevenamadmandoesnotcalculate。

Passioncalculates，moreorless，ineveryman:indifferentmen，accordingtothewarmthorcoolnessoftheirdispositions:

accordingtothefirmnessorirritabilityoftheirminds:accordingtothenatureofthemotivesbywhichtheyareactedupon。

Happily，ofallpassions，thatisthemostgiventocalculation，fromtheexcessesofwhich，byreasonofitsstrength，constancy，anduniversality，societyhasmosttoapprehend:Imeanthatwhichcorrespondstothemotiveofpecuniaryinterest:sothattheseniceties，ifsuchtheyaretobecalled，havethebestchanceofbeingefficacious，whereefficacyisofthemostimportance。

chapter15AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXV

OfthePropertiestobeGiventoaLotofPunishmentI。Ithasbeenshownwhattherulesare，whichoughttobeobservedinadjustingtheproportionbetweenthepunishmentsandtheoffense。Thepropertiestobegiventoalotofpunishment，ineveryinstance，willofcoursebesuchasitstandsinneedof，inordertobecapableofbeingapplied，inconformitytothoserules:

thequalitywillberegulatedbythequantity。

II。Thefirstofthoserules，wemayremember，was，thatthequantityofpunishmentmustnotbeless，inanycase，thanwhatissufficienttooutweightheprofitoftheoffence:since，asoftenasitisless，thewholelot(unlessbyaccidentthedeficiencyshouldbesuppliedfromsomeoftheothersanctions)isthrownaway:itisinefficacious。Thefifthwas，thatthepunishmentoughtinnocasetobemorethanwhatisrequiredbytheseveralotherrules:since，ifitbe，allthatisabovethatquantityisneedless。Thefourthwas，thatthepunishmentshouldbeadjustedinsuchmannertoeachindividualoffence，thateverypartofthemischiefofthatoffencemayhaveapenalty(thatis，atutelarymotive)toencounterit:otherwise，withrespecttosomuchoftheoffenseashasnotapenaltytocorrespondtoit，itisasiftherewerenopunishmentinthecase。Nowtononeofthoserulescanalotofpunishmentbeconformable，unless，foreveryvariationinpointofquantity，inthemischiefofthespeciesofoffensetowhichitisannexed，suchlotofpunishmentadmitsofacorrespondentvariation。

Toprovethis，lettheprofitoftheoffenceadmitofamultitudeofdegrees。Supposeit，then，atanyoneofthesedegrees:

ifthepunishmentbelessthanwhatissuitabletothatdegree，itwillbeinefficacious；itwillbesomuchthrownaway:ifitbemore，asfarasthedifferenceextends，itwillbeneedless；itwillthereforebethrownawayalsointhatcase。

Thefirstproperty，therefore，thatoughttobegiventoalotofpunishment，isthatofbeingvariableinpointofquantity，inconformitytoeveryvariationwhichcantakeplaceineithertheprofitormischiefoftheoffense。Thispropertymight，perhaps，betermed，inasingleword，variability。

III。Asecondproperty，intimatelyconnectedwiththeformer，maybestyledequability。Itwillavailbutlittle，thatamodeofpunishment(properinallotherrespects)hasbeenestablishedbythelegislator；andthatcapableofbeingscreweduporletdowntoanydegreethatcanberequired；if，afterall，whateverdegreeofitbepitchedupon，thatsamedegreeshallbeliable，accordingtocircumstances，toproduceaveryheavydegreeofpain，oraveryslightone，orevennoneatall。Inthiscase，asintheformer，ifcircumstanceshappenoneway，therewillbeagreatdealofpainproducedwhichwillbeneedless:iftheotherway，therewillbenopainatallapplied，ornonethatwillbeefficacious。

Apunishment，whenliabletothisirregularity，maybestyledanunequableone:whenfreefromit，anequableone。Thequantityofpainproducedbythepunishmentwill，itistrue，dependinaconsiderabledegreeuponcircumstancesdistinctfromthenatureofthepunishmentitself:upontheconditionwhichtheoffenderisin，withrespecttothecircumstancesbywhichaman"ssensibilityisliabletobeinfluenced。Buttheinfluenceoftheseverycircumstanceswillinmanycasesbereciprocallyinfluencedbythenatureofthepunishment:inotherwords，thepainwhichisproducedbyanymodeofpunishment，willbethejointeffectofthepunishmentwhichisappliedtohim，andthecircumstancesinwhichheisexposedtoit。Nowtherearesomepunishments，ofwhichtheeffectmaybeliabletoundergoagreateralterationbytheinfluenceofsuchforeigncircumstances，thantheeffectofotherpunishmentsisliabletoundergo。Sofar，then，asthisisthecase，equabilityorunequabilitymayberegardedaspropertiesbelongingtothepunishmentitself。

IV。Anexampleofamodeofpunishmentwhichisapttobeunequable，isthatofbanishment，whenthelocusaquo(orplacethepartyisbanishedfrom)issomedeterminateplaceappointedbythelaw，whichperhapstheoffendercaresnotwhetherheeverseeorno。Thisisalsothecasewithpecuniary，orquasi-pecuniarypunishment，whenitrespectssomeparticularspeciesofproperty，whichtheoffendermayhavebeenpossessedof，ornot，asitmayhappen。Allthesepunishmentsmaybesplitdownintoparcels，andmeasuredoutwiththeutmostnicety:beingdivisiblebytime，atleast，ifbynothingelse。Theyarenot，therefore，anyofthemdefectiveinpointofvariability:andyet，inmanycases，thisdefectinpointofequabilitymaymakethemasunfitforuseasiftheywere。

V。Thethirdruleofproportionwas，thatwheretwooffensescomeincompetition，thepunishmentforthegreateroffensesmustbesufficienttoinduceamantoprefertheless。Now，tobesufficientforthispurpose，itmustbeevidentlyanduniformlygreater:greater，notintheeyesofsomemenonly，butofallmenwhoareliabletobeinasituationtotaketheirchoicebetweenthetwooffenses；thatis，ineffect，ofallmankind。Inotherwords，thetwopunishmentsmustbeperfectlycommensurable。

Hencearisesathirdproperty，whichmaybetermedcommensurability:

towit，withreferencetootherpunishments。

VI。Butpunishmentsofdifferentkindsareinveryfewinstancesuniformlygreateronethananother；especiallywhenthelowestdegreesofthatwhichisordinarilythegreater，arecomparedwiththehighestdegreesofthatwhichisordinarilytheless:inotherwords，punishmentsofdifferentkindsareinfewinstancesuniformlycommensurable。Theonlycertainanduniversalmeansofmakingtwolotsofpunishmentperfectlycommensurable，isbymakingthelesseraningredientinthecompositionofthegreater。

Thismaybedoneineitheroftwoways。1。Byaddingtothelesserpunishmentanotherquantityofpunishmentofthesamekind。

2。Byaddingtoitanotherquantityofadifferentkind。Thelattermodeisnotlesscertainthantheformer:forthoughonecannotalwaysbeabsolutelysure，thattothesamepersonagivenpunishmentwillappeargreaterthananothergivenpunishment；yetonemaybealwaysabsolutelysure，thatanygivenpunishment，soasitdoesbutcomeintocontemplation，willappeargreaterthannoneatall。

VII。Again:Punishmentcannotactanyfartherthaninasfarastheideaofit，andofitsconnectionwiththeoffense，ispresentinthemind。Theideaofit，ifnotpresent，cannotactatall；andthenthepunishmentitselfmustbeinefficacious。Now，tobepresent，itmustberemembered，andtoberemembereditmusthavebeenlearnt。Butofallpunishmentsthatcanbeimagined，therearenoneofwhichtheconnectionwiththeoffenseiseithersoeasilylearnt，orsoefficaciouslyremembered，asthoseofwhichtheideaisalreadyinpartassociatedwithsomepartoftheideaoftheoffense:whichisthecasewhentheoneandtheotherhavesomecircumstancethatbelongstothemincommon。Whenthisisthecasewithapunishmentandanoffense，thepunishmentissaidtobearananalogyto，ortobecharacteristicof，theoffence。Characteristicalnessis，therefore，afourthproperty，whichonthisaccountoughttobegiven，wheneveritcanconvenientlybegiven，toalotofpunishment。

VIII。Itisobvious，thattheeffectofthiscontrivancewillbethegreater，astheanalogyisthecloser。Theanalogywillbethecloser，themorematerialthatcircumstanceis，whichisincommon。

Nowthemostmaterialcircumstancethatcanbelongtoanoffenseandapunishmentincommon，isthehurtordamagewhichtheyproduce。Theclosestanalogy，therefore，thatcansubsistbetweenanoffenseandthepunishmentannexedtoit，isthatwhichsubsistsbetweenthemwhenthehurtordamagetheyproduceisofthesamenature:inotherwords，thatwhichisconstitutedbythecircumstanceofidentityinpointofdamage。

Accordingly，themodeofpunishment，whichofallothersbearstheclosestanalogytotheoffense，isthatwhichintheproperandexactsenseofthewordistermedretaliation。Retaliation，therefore，inthefewcasesinwhichitispracticable，andnottooexpensive，willhaveonegreatadvantageovereveryothermodeofpunishment。

IX。Again:Itistheideaonlyofthepunishment(or，inotherwords，theapparentpunishment)thatreallyactsuponthemind；

thepunishmentitself(therealpunishment)actsnotanyfartherthanasgivingrisetothatidea。Itistheapparentpunishment，therefore，thatdoesalltheservice，Imeaninthewayofexample，whichistheprincipalobject。Itistherealpunishmentthatdoesallthemischief。Nowtheordinaryandobviouswayofincreasingthemagnitudeoftheapparentpunishment，isbyincreasingthemagnitudeofthereal。Theapparentmagnitude，however，maytoacertaindegreebeincreasedbyotherlessexpensivemeans:whenever，therefore，atthesametimethattheselessexpensivemeanswouldhaveansweredthatpurpose，anadditionalrealpunishmentisemployed，thisadditionalrealpunishmentisneedless。Astotheselessexpensivemeans，theyconsist，1。Inthechoiceofaparticularmodeofpunishment，apunishmentofaparticularquality，independentofthequantity。2。

Inaparticularsetofsolemnitiesdistinctfromthepunishmentitself，andaccompanyingtheexecutionofit。

X。Amodeofpunishment，accordingastheappearanceofitbearsagreaterproportiontothereality，maybesaidtobethemoreexemplary。Nowastowhatconcernsthechoiceofthepunishmentitself，thereisnotanymeansbywhichagivenquantityofpunishmentcanberenderedmoreexemplary，thanbychoosingitofsuchasortasshallbearananalogytotheoffense。Henceanotherreasonforrenderingthepunishmentanalogousto，orinotherwordscharacteristicof，theoffense。

XI。Punishment，itisstilltoberemembered，isinitselfanexpense:

itisinitselfanevil。Accordinglythefifthruleofproportionis，nottoproducemoreofitthanwhatisdemandedbytheotherrules。

Butthisisthecaseasoftenasanyparticleofpainisproduced，whichcontributesnothingtotheeffectproposed。Nowifanymodeofpunishmentismoreaptthananothertoproduceanysuchsuperfluousandneedlesspain，itmaybestyledunfrugal；

ifless，itmaybestyledfrugal。Frugality，therefore，isasixthpropertytobewishedforinamodeofpunishment。

XII。Theperfectionoffrugality，inamodeofpunishment，iswherenotonlynosuperfluouspainisproducedonthepartofthepersonpunished，buteventhatsameoperation，bywhichheissubjectedtopain，ismadetoanswerthepurposeofproducingpleasureonthepartofsomeotherperson。Understandaprofitorstockofpleasureoftheself-regardingkind:forapleasureofthedissocialkindisproducedalmostofcourse，onthepartofallpersonsinwhosebreaststheoffencehasexcitedthesentimentofill-will。Nowthisisthecasewithpecuniarypunishment，asalsowithsuchpunishmentsofthequasi-pecuniarykindasconsistinthesubtractionofsuchaspeciesofpossessionasistransferablefromonepartytoanother。Thepleasure，indeed，producedbysuchanoperation，isnotingeneralequaltothepain:

itmay，however，besoinparticularcircumstances，aswherehe，fromwhomthethingistaken，isveryrich，andhe，towhomitisgiven，verypoor:and，beitwhatitwill，itisalwayssomuchmorethancanbeproducedbyanyothermodeofpunishment。

XIII。Thepropertiesofexemplarityandfrugalityseemtopursuethesameimmediateend，thoughbydifferentcourses。Bothareoccupiedindiminishingtheratiooftherealsufferingtotheapparent:

butexemplaritytendstoincreasetheapparent；frugalitytoreducethereal。

XIV。Thusmuchconcerningthepropertiestobegiventopunishmentsingeneral，towhatsoeveroffensestheyaretobeapplied。Thosewhichfollowareoflessimportance，eitherasreferringonlytocertainoffensesinparticular，ordependingupontheinfluenceoftransitoryandlocalcircumstances。

Inthefirstplace，thefourdistinctendsintowhichthemainandgeneralendofpunishmentisdivisible，maygiverisetosomanydistinctproperties，accordingasanyparticularmodeofpunishmentappeartobemoreparticularlyadaptedtothecompassingofoneorofanotherofthoseends。Tothatofexample，asbeingtheprincipalone，aparticularpropertyhasalreadybeenadapted。Thereremainsthethreeinferioronesofreformation，disablement，andcompensation。

XV。Aseventhproperty，therefore，tobewishedforinamodeofpunishment，isthatofsubserviencytoreformation，orreformingtendency。Nowanypunishmentissubservienttoreformationinproportiontoitsquantity:sincethegreaterthepunishmentamanhasexperienced，thestrongeristhetendencyithastocreateinhimanaversiontowardstheoffensewhichwasthecauseofit:andthatwithrespecttoalloffensesalike。Buttherearecertainpunishmentswhich，withregardtocertainoffenses，haveaparticulartendencytoproducethateffectbyreasonoftheirquality:andwherethisisthecase，thepunishmentsinquestion，asappliedtotheoffensesinquestion，willprotantohavetheadvantageoverallothers。Thisinfluencewilldependuponthenatureofthemotivewhichisthecauseoftheoffence:thepunishmentmostsubservienttoreformationwillbethesortofpunishmentthatisbestcalculatedtoinvalidatetheforceofthatmotive。

XVI。Thus，inoffensesoriginatingfromthemotiveofill-will，thatpunishmenthasthestrongestreformingtendency，whichisbestcalculatedtoweakentheforceoftheirascibleaffections。Andmoreparticularly，inthatsortofoffensewhichconsistsinanobstinaterefusal，onthepartoftheoffender，todosomethingwhichislawfullyrequiredofhim，andinwhichtheobstinacyisingreatmeasurekeptupbyhisresentmentagainstthosewhohaveaninterestinforcinghimtocompliance，themostefficaciouspunishmentseemstobethatofconfinementtosparediet。

XVII。Thus，also，inoffenseswhichowetheirbirthtothejointinfluenceofindolenceandpecuniaryinterest，thatpunishmentseemstopossessthestrongestreformingtendency，whichisbestcalculatedtoweakentheforceoftheformerofthosedispositions。Andmoreparticularly，inthecasesoftheft，embezzlement，andeveryspeciesofdefraudment，themodeofpunishmentbestadaptedtothispurposeseems，inmostcases，tobethatofpenallabour。

XVIII。Aneighthpropertytobegiventoalotofpunishmentincertaincases，isthatofefficacywithrespecttodisablement，or，asitmightbestyledmorebriefly，disablingefficacy。Thisisapropertywhichmaybegiveninperfectiontoalotofpunishment；andthatwithmuchgreatercertaintythanthepropertyofsubserviencytoreformation。Theinconvenienceis，thatthispropertyisapt，ingeneral，toruncountertothatoffrugality:

therebeing，inmostcases，nocertainwayofdisablingamanfromdoingmischief，without，atthesametime，disablinghim，inagreatmeasure，fromdoinggood，eithertohimselforothers。

Themischiefthereforeoftheoffensemustbesogreatastodemandaveryconsiderablelotofpunishment，forthepurposeofexample，beforeitcanwarranttheapplicationofapunishmentequaltothatwhichisnecessaryforthepurposeofdisablement。

XIX。Thepunishment，ofwhichtheefficacyinthiswayisthegreatest，isevidentlythatofdeath。Inthiscasetheefficacyofitiscertain。Thisaccordinglyisthepunishmentpeculiarlyadaptedtothosecasesinwhichthenameoftheoffender，solongashelives，maybesufficienttokeepawholenationinaflame。Thiswillnowandthenbethecasewithcompetitorsforthesovereignty，andleadersofthefactionsincivilwars:though，whenappliedtooffensesofsoquestionableanature，inwhichthequestionconcerningcriminalityturnsmoreuponsuccessthananythingelse；aninflictionofthissortmayseemmoretosavourofhostilitythanpunishment。Atthesametimethispunishment，itisevident，isinaneminentdegreeunfrugal；whichformsoneamongthemanyobjectionsthereareagainsttheuseofit，inanybutveryextraordinarycases。

XX。Inordinarycasesthepurposemaybesufficientlyansweredbyoneorotherofthevariouskindsofconfinementandbanishment:ofwhich，imprisonmentisthemoststrictandefficacious。

Forwhenanoffenseissocircumstancedthatitcannotbecommittedbutinacertainplace，asisthecase，forthemostpart，withoffensesagainsttheperson，allthelawhastodo，inordertodisabletheoffenderfromcommittingit，istopreventhisbeinginthatplace。Inanyoftheoffenseswhichconsistinthebreachortheabuseofanykindoftrust，thepurposemaybecompassedatastillcheaperrate，merelybyforfeitureofthetrust:

andingeneral，inanyofthoseoffenseswhichcanonlybecommittedunderfavourofsomerelationinwhichtheoffenderstandswithreferencetoanyperson，orsetsofpersons，merelybyforfeitureofthatrelation:thatis，oftherightofcontinuingtoreaptheadvantagesbelongingtoit。Thisisthecase，forinstance，withanyofthoseoffenceswhichconsistinanabuseoftheprivilegesofmarriage，orofthelibertyofcarryingonanylucrativeorotheroccupation。

XXI。Theninthpropertyisthatofsubserviencytocompensation。Thispropertyofpunishment，ifitbevindictivecompensationthatisinview，will，withlittlevariation，beinproportiontothequantity:iflucrative，itisthepeculiarandcharacteristicpropertyofpecuniarypunishment。

XXII。Intherearofallthesepropertiesmaybeintroducedthatofpopularity；averyfleetingandindeterminatekindofproperty，whichmaybelongtoalotofpunishmentonemoment，andbelostbyitthenext。Bypopularityismeantthepropertyofbeingacceptable，orrathernotunacceptable，tothebulkofthepeople，amongwhomitisproposedtobeestablished。Instrictnessofspeech，itshouldratherbecalledabsenceofunpopularity:

foritcannotbeexpected，inregardtosuchamatteraspunishment，thatanyspeciesorlotofitshouldbepositivelyacceptableandgratefultothepeople:itissufficient，forthemostpart，iftheyhavenodecidedaversiontothethoughtsofit。Nowthepropertyofcharacteristicalness，abovenoticed，seemstogoasfartowardsconciliatingtheapprobationofthepeopletoamodeofpunishment，asany；insomuchthatpopularitymayberegardedasakindofsecondaryquality，dependinguponthatofcharacteristicalness。

Theuseofinsertingthispropertyinthecatalogue，ischieflytomakeitservebywayofmementotothelegislatornottointroduce，withoutacogentnecessity，anymodeorlotofpunishment，towardswhichhehappenstoperceiveanyviolentaversionentertainedbythebodyofthepeople。

XXIII。Theeffectsofunpopularityinamodeofpunishmentareanalogoustothoseofunfrugality。Theunnecessarypainwhichdenominatesapunishmentunfrugal，ismostapttobethatwhichisproducedonthepartoftheoffender。Aportionofsuperfluouspainisinlikemannerproducedwhenthepunishmentisunpopular:butinthiscaseitisproducedonthepartofpersonsaltogetherinnocent，thepeopleatlarge。Thisisalreadyonemischief；andanotheris，theweaknesswhichitisapttointroduceintothelaw。Whenthepeoplearesatisfiedwiththelaw，theyvoluntarilylendtheirassistanceintheexecution:whentheyaredissatisfied，theywillnaturallywithholdthatassistance；

itiswelliftheydonottakeapositivepartinraisingimpediments。Thiscontributesgreatlytotheuncertaintyofthepunishment；

bywhich，inthefirstinstance，thefrequencyoftheoffensereceivesanincrease。Inprocessoftimethatdeficiency，asusual，isapttodrawonanincreaseinmagnitude:anadditionofacertainquantitywhichotherwisewouldbeneedless。

XXIV。Thisproperty，itistobeobserved，necessarilysupposes，onthepartofthepeople，someprejudiceorother，whichitisthebusinessofthelegislatortoendeavourtocorrect。Foriftheaversiontothepunishmentinquestionweregroundedon，theprincipleofutility，thepunishmentwouldbesuchas，onotheraccounts，oughtnottobeemployed:inwhichcaseitspopularityorunpopularitywouldneverbeworthdrawingintoquestion。Itisproperlythereforeapropertynotsomuchofthepunishmentasofthepeople:adispositiontoentertainanunreasonabledislikeagainstanobjectwhichmeritstheirapprobation。Itisthesignalsoofanotherproperty，towit。indolenceorweakness，onthepartofthelegislator:insufferingthepeopleforthewantofsomeinstruction，whichoughttobeandmightbegiventhem，toquarrelwiththeirowninterest。Bethisasitmay，solongasanysuchdissatisfactionsubsists，itbehovesthelegislatortohaveaneyetoit，asmuchasifitwereeversowellgrounded。Everynationisliabletohaveitsprejudicesanditscapriceswhichitisthebusinessofthelegislatortolookoutfor，tostudy，andtocure。

XXV。Theeleventhandlastofallthepropertiesthatseemtoberequisiteinalotofpunishment，isthatofremissibility。Thegeneralpresumptionis，thatwhenpunishmentisapplied，punishmentisneedful:thatitoughttobeapplied，andthereforecannotwanttoberemitted。Butinveryparticular，andthosealwaysverydeplorablecases，itmaybyaccidenthappenotherwise。Itmayhappenthatpunishmentshallhavebeeninflicted，where，accordingtotheintentionofthelawitself，itoughtnottohavebeeninflicted:thatis，wherethesuffererisinnocentoftheoffense。

Atthetimeofthesentencepassedheappearedguilty:butsincethen，accidenthasbroughthisinnocencetolight。Thisbeingthecase，somuchofthedestinedpunishmentashehassufferedalready，thereisnohelpfor。Thebusinessisthentofreehimfromasmuchasisyettocome。Butisthereanyyettocome？Thereisverylittlechanceoftherebeingany，unlessitbesomuchasconsistsofchronicalpunishment:suchasimprisonment，banishment，penallabour，andthelike。Somuchasconsistsofacutepunishment，towitwherethepenalprocessitselfisoverpresently，howeverpermanentthepunishmentmaybeinitseffects，maybeconsideredasirremissible。Thisisthecase，forexample，withwhipping，branding，mutilation，andcapitalpunishment。Themostperfectlyirremissibleofanyiscapitalpunishment。Forthoughotherpunishmentscannot，whentheyareover，beremitted，theymaybecompensatedfor；andalthoughtheunfortunatevictimcannotbeputintothesamecondition，yetpossiblymeansmaybefoundofputtinghimintoasgoodacondition，ashewouldhavebeeninifhehadneversuffered。

Thismayingeneralbedoneveryeffectuallywherethepunishmenthasbeennootherthanpecuniary。

Thereisanothercaseinwhichthepropertyofremissibilitymayappeartobeofuse:thisis，where，althoughtheoffenderhasbeenjustlypunished，yetonaccountofsomegoodbehaviourofhis，displayedatatimesubsequenttothatofthecommencementofthepunishment，itmayseemexpedienttoremitapartofit。Butthisitcanscarcelybe，iftheproportionofthepunishmentis，inotherrespects，whatitoughttobe。Thepurposeofexampleisthemoreimportantobject，incomparisonofthatofreformation。Itisnotverylikely，thatlesspunishmentshouldberequiredfortheformerpurposethanforthelatter。

Foritmustberatheranextraordinarycase，ifapunishment，whichissufficienttodeteramanwhohasonlythoughtofitforafewmoments，shouldnotbesufficienttodeteramanwhohasbeenfeelingitallthetime。Whatever，then，isrequiredforthepurposeofexample，mustabideatallevents:itisnotanyreformationonthepartoftheoffender，thatcanwarranttheremittingofanypartofit:ifitcould，amanwouldhavenothingtodobuttoreformimmediately，andsofreehimselffromthegreatestpartofthatpunishmentwhichwasdeemednecessary。Inorder，then，towarranttheremittingofanypartofapunishmentuponthisground，itmustfirstbesupposedthatthepunishmentatfirstappointedwasmorethanwasnecessaryforthepurposeofexample，andconsequentlythatapartofitwasneedlessuponthewhole。

This，indeed，isaptenoughtobethecase，undertheimperfectsystemsthatareasyetonfoot:andtherefore，duringthecontinuanceofthosesystems，thepropertyofremissibilitymay，onthissecondgroundlikewise，aswellasontheformer，bedeemedausefulone。Butthiswouldnotbethecaseinanynew-constructedsystem，inwhichtherulesofproportionabovelaiddownshouldbeobserved。Insuchasystem，therefore，theutilityofthispropertywouldrestsolelyontheformerground。

XXVI。Upontakingasurveyofthevariouspossiblemodesofpunishment，itwillappearevidently，thatthereisnotanyoneofthemthatpossessesalltheabovepropertiesinperfection。Todothebestthatcanbedoneinthewayofpunishment，itwillthereforebenecessary，uponmostoccasions，tocompoundthem，andmakethemintocomplexlots，eachconsistingofanumberofdifferentmodesofpunishmentputtogether:thenatureandproportionsoftheconstituentpartsofeachlotbeingdifferent，accordingtothenatureoftheoffencewhichitisdesignedtocombat。

XXVII。Itmaynotbeamisstobringtogether，andexhibitinoneview，theelevenpropertiesaboveestablished。Theyareasfollows:

Twoofthemareconcernedinestablishingaproperproportionbetweenasingleoffenseanditspunishment；viz。

1。Variability。

2。Equability。

One，inestablishingaproportion，betweenmoreoffencesthanone，andmorepunishmentsthanone；viz。

3。Commensurability。

Afourthcontributestoplacethepunishmentinthatsituationinwhichaloneitcanbeefficacious；andatthesametimetobebestowingonitthetwofartherpropertiesofexemplarityandpopularity；

viz。

4。Characteristicalness。

Twoothersareconcernedinexcludingalluselesspunishment；theoneindirectly，byheighteningtheefficacyofwhatisuseful；

theotherinadirectway；viz。

5。Exemplarity。

6。Frugality。

Threeotherscontributeseverallytothethreeinferiorendsofpunishment；

viz。

7。Subserviencytoreformation。

8。Efficacyindisabling。

9。Subserviencytocompensation。

Anotherpropertytendstoexcludeacollateralmischief，whichaparticularmodeofpunishmentisliableaccidentallytoproduce；viz。

10。Popularity。

Theremainingpropertytendstopalliateamischief，whichallpunishment，assuchisliableaccidentallytoproduce；viz。

11。Remissibility。

Thepropertiesofcommensurability，characteristicalness，exemplarity，subserviencytoreformation，andefficacyindisabling，aremoreparticularlycalculatedtoaugmenttheprofitwhichistobemadebypunishment:frugality，subserviencytocompensation，popularity，andremissibility，todiminishtheexpense:

variabilityandequabilityarealikesubservienttoboththosepurposes。

XXVIII。Wenowcometotakeageneralsurveyofthesystemofoffences:

thatis，ofsuchactstowhich，onaccountofthemischievousconsequencestheyhaveanaturaltendencytoproduce，andintheviewofputtingastoptothoseconsequences，itmaybepropertoannexacertainartificialconsequence，consistingofpunishment，tobeinflictedontheauthorsofsuchactsaccordingtotheprinciplesjustestablished。

chapter16AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXVI

DivisionofOffenses1。ClassesofOffences。

I。Itisnecessary，attheoutset，tomakeadistinctionbetweensuchactsasareormaybe，andsuchasoughttobeoffences。

Anyactmaybeanoffence，whichtheywhomthecommunityofareinthehabitofobeyingshallbepleasedtomakeone:thattois，anyactwhichtheyshallbepleasedtoprohibitortopunish。

But，upontheprincipleofutility，suchactsaloneoughttobemadeoffences，asthegoodofthecommunityrequiresshouldbemadeso。

II。Thegoodofthecommunitycannotrequire，thatanyactshouldbemadeanoffence，whichisnotliable。insomewayorother，tobedetrimetaltothecommunity。Forinthecaseofsuchanact，allpunishmentisgroundless。

III。Butifthewholeassemblageofanynumberofindividualsbeconsideredasconstitutinganimaginarycompoundbody，acommunityorpoliticalstate；anyactthatisdetrimentaltoanyoneormoreofthosemembersis，astosomuchofitseffects，detrimentaltothestate。

IV。Anactcannotbedetrimentaltoastate，butbybeingdetrimentaltosomeoneormoreoftheindividualsthatcomposeit。

Buttheseindividualsmayeitherbeassignableorunassignable。

V。Whenthereisanyassignableindividualtowhomanoffenceisdetrimental，thatpersonmayeitherbeapersonotherthantheoffender，ortheoffenderhimself。

VI。Offencesthataredetrimental，inthefirstinstance，toassignablepersonsotherthantheoffender，maybetermedbyonecommonname，offencesagainstindividuals。Andofthesemaybecomposedthe1stclassofoffences。Tocontrastthemwithoffencesofthe2ndand4thclasses，itmayalsosometimesbeconvenienttostylethemprivateoffences。Tocontrastthematthesametimewithoffencesofthe3rdclass，theymaybestyledprivateextra-regardingoffences。

VII。Whenitappears，ingeneral，thattherearepersonstowhomtheactinquestionmaybedetrimental，butsuchpersonscannotbeindividuallyassigned，thecirclewithinwhichitappearsthattheymaybefound，iseitheroflessextentthanthatwhichcomprisesthewholecommunity，ornot。Ifofless，thepersonscomprisedwithinthislessercirclemaybeconsideredforthispurposeascomposingabodyofthemselves；comprisedwithin，butdistinguishablefrom，thegreaterbodyofthewholecommunity。Thecircumstancethatconstitutestheunionbetweenthemembersofthislesserbody，maybeeithertheirresidencewithinaparticularplace，or，inshort，anyotherlessexplicitprincipleofunion，whichmayservetodistinguishthemfromtheremainingmembersofthecommunity。Inthefirstcase，theactmaybestyledanoffenceagainstaneighbourhood:inthesecond，anoffenceagainstaparticularclassofpersonsinthecommunity。

Offenses，then，againstaclassorneighbourhood，may，together，constitutethe2ndclassofoffences。Tocontrastthemwithprivateoffencesontheonehand，andpublicontheother，theymayalsobestyledsemi-publicoffences。

VIII。Offences，whichinthefirstinstancearedetrimentaltotheoffenderhimself，andtonooneelse，unlessitbebytheirbeingdetrimentaltohimself，mayservetocomposeathirdclass。Tocontrastthemthebetterwithoffencesofthefirst，second，andfourthclasses，allwhichareofatransitivenature，theymightbestyledintransitiveoffences；butstillbetter，self-regarding。

IX。Thefourthclassmaybecomposedofsuchactsasoughttobemadeoffences，onaccountofthedistantmischiefwhichtheythreatentobringuponanunassignableindefinitemultitudeofthewholenumberofindividuals，ofwhichthecommunityiscomposed:althoughnoparticularindividualshouldappearmorelikelytobeasuffererbythemthananother。Thesemaybecalledpublicoffences，oroffencesagainstthestate。

X。Afifthclass，orappendix，maybecomposedofsuchactsas，accordingtothecircumstancesinwhichtheyarecommitted，orandmoreparticularlyaccordingtothepurposestowhichtheyareapplied，maybedetrimentalinanyoneofthewaysinwhichtheactofonemancanbedetrimentaltoanother。Thesemaytobetermedmultiform，orheterogeneousoffences。

Offencesthatareinthiscasemaybereducedtotwogreatheads:1。

Offencesbyfalsehood:and2。Offensesagainsttrust。

2。Divisionsandsub-divisions。