第7章

Rule2。Theapparentmischievousnessoftheactbeinggiven，aman"sdispositionisthemoredepraved，theslighterthetemptationisbywhichhehasbeenovercome。

Thus，itshowsamoredepravedanddangerousdisposition，ifamankillanotheroutofmeresport，astheEmperorofMorocco，MuleyMahomet，issaidtohavedonegreatnumbers，thanoutofrevenge，asSyllaandMariusdidthousands，orintheviewofself-preservation，asAugustuskilledmany，orevenforlucre，asthesameEmperorissaidtohavekilledsome。Andtheeffectsofsuchadepravity，onthatpartofthepublicwhichisapprisedofit，runinthesameproportion。FromAugustus，somepersonsonlyhadtofear，undersomeparticularcircumstances。

FromMuleyMahomet，everymanhadtofearatalltimes。

Rule3。Theapparentmischievousnessoftheactbeinggiven，theevidencewhichitaffordsofthedepravityofaman"sdispositionisthelessconclusive，thestrongerthetemptationisbywhichhehasbeenovercome。

Thus，ifapoorman，whoisreadytodiewithhunger，stealaloafofbread，itisalessexplicitsignofdepravity，thanifarichmanweretocommitathefttothesameamount。Itwillbeobserved，thatinthisruleallthatissaidis，thattheevidenceofdepravityisinthiscasethelessconclusive:itisnotsaidthatthedepravityispositivelytheless。Forinthiscaseitispossible，foranythingthatappearstothecontrary，thatthetheftmighthavebeencommitted，evenhadthetemptationbeennotsostrong。Inthiscase，thealleviatingcircumstanceisonlyamatterofpresumption；

intheformer，theaggravatingcircumstanceisamatterofcertainty。

Rule4。Wherethemotiveisofthedissocialkind，theapparentmischievousnessoftheact，andthestrengthofthetemptation，beinggiven，thedepravityisasthedegreeofdeliberationwithwhichitisaccompanied。

Forineveryman，behisdispositioneversodepraved，thesocialmotivesarethosewhich，wherevertheself-regardingonesstandneuter，regulateanddeterminethegeneraltenorofhislife。

Ifthedissocialmotivesareputinaction，itisonlyinparticularcircumstances，andonparticularoccasions；thegentlebutconstantforceofthesocialmotivesbeingforawhilesubdued。Thegeneralandstandingbiasofeveryman"snatureis，therefore，towardsthatsidetowhichtheforceofthesocialmotiveswoulddeterminehimtoadhere。Thisbeingthecase，theforceofthesocialmotivestendscontinuallytoputanendtothatofthedissocialones；as，innaturalbodies，theforceoffrictiontendstoputanendtothatwhichisgeneratedbyimpulse。Time，then，whichwearsawaytheforceofthedissocialmotives，addstothatofthesocial。Thelonger，therefore，amancontinues，onagivenoccasion，underthedominionofthedissocialmotives，themoreconvincingistheproofthathasbeengivenofhisinsensibilitytotheforceofthesocialones。

Thus，itshowsaworsedisposition，whereamanlaysadeliberateplanforbeatinghisantagonist，andbeatshimaccordingly，thanifheweretobeathimuponthespot，inconsequenceofasuddenquarrel:andworseagain，if，afterhavinghadhimalongwhiletogetherinhispower，hebeatshimatintervals，andathisleisure。

XLIII。Thedepravityofdisposition，indicatedbyanact，isamaterialconsiderationinseveralrespects。Anymarkofextraordinarydepravity，byaddingtotheterroralreadyinspiredbythecrime，andbyholdinguptheoffenderasapersonfromwhomtheremaybemoremischieftobeapprehendedinfuture，addsinthatwaytothedemandforpunishment。Byindicatingageneralwantofsensibilityonthepartoftheoffender，itmayaddinanotherwayalsotothedemandforpunishment。Thearticleofdispositionisofthemoreimportance，inasmuchas，inmeasuringoutthequantumofpunishment，theprincipleofsympathyandantipathyisapttolookatnothingelse。Amanwhopunishesbecausehehates，andonlybecausehehates，suchaman，whenhedoesnotfindanythingodiousinthedisposition，isnotforpunishingatall；andwhenhedoes，heisnotforcarryingthepunishmentfurtherthanhishatredcarrieshim。Hencetheaversionwefindsofrequentlyexpressedagainstthemaxim，thatthepunishmentmustrisewiththestrengthofthetemptation；amaxim，thecontraryofwhich，asweshallsee，wouldbeascrueltooffendersthemselves，asitwouldbesubversiveofthepurposesofpunishment。

chapter12AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXII

OftheConsequencesofaMischievousAct§；1。Shapesinwhichthemischiefofanactmayshowitself。

I。Hithertowehavebeenspeakingofthevariousarticlesorobjectsonwhichtheconsequencesortendencyofanactmaydepend:ofthebareactitself:ofthecircumstancesitmayhavebeen，ormayhavebeensupposedtobe，accompaniedwith:oftheconsciousnessamanmayhavehadwithrespecttoanysuchcircumstances:

oftheintentionsthatmayhaveprecededtheact:ofthemotivesthatmayhavegivenbirthtothoseintentions:

andofthedispositionthatmayhavebeenindicatedbytheconnexionbetweensuchintentionsandsuchmotives。Wenowcometospeakofconsequencesortendency:anarticlewhichformstheconcludinglinkinallthischainofcausesandeffects，involvinginitthematerialityofthewhole。Now，suchpartofthistendencyasisofamischievousnature，isallthatwehaveanydirectconcernwith；tothat，therefore，weshallhereconfineourselves。

II。Thetendencyofanactismischievouswhentheconsequencesofitaremischievous；thatistosay，eitherthecertainconsequencesortheprobable。Theconsequences，howmanyandwhatsoevertheymaybe，ofanact，ofwhichthetendencyismischievous，may，suchofthemasaremischievous，beconceivedtoconstituteoneaggregatebody，whichmaybetermedthemischiefoftheact。

III。Thismischiefmayfrequentlybedistinguished，asitwere，intotwosharesorparcels:theonecontainingwhatmaybecalledtheprimarymischief；theother，whatmaybecalledthesecondary。

Thatsharemaybetermedtheprimary，whichitsustainedbyanassignableindividual，oramultitudeofassignableindividuals。

Thatsharemaybetermedthesecondary，which，takingitsoriginfromtheformer，extendsitselfeitheroverthewholecommunity，oroversomeothermultitudeofunassignableindividuals。

IV。Theprimarymischiefofanactmayagainbedistinguishedintotwobranches:1。Theoriginal:and，2。Thederivative。Bytheoriginalbranch，Imeanthatwhichalightsuponandisconfinedtoanypersonwhoisasuffererinthefirstinstance，andonhisownaccount:theperson，forinstance，whoisbeaten，robbed，ormurdered。Bythederivativebranch，Imeananyshareofmischiefwhichmaybefallanyotherassignablepersonsinconsequenceofhisbeingasufferer，andnootherwise。Thesepersonsmust，ofcourse，bepersonswhoinsomewayorotherareconnectedwithhim。Nowthewaysinwhichonepersonmaybeconnectedwithanother，havebeenalreadyseen:theymaybeconnectedinthewayofinterest(meaningself-regardinginterest)ormerelyinthewayofsympathy。Andagain，personsconnectedwithagivenperson，inthewayofinterest，maybeconnectedwithhimeitherbyaffordingsupporttohim，orbyderivingitfromhim。

V。Thesecondarymischief，again，mayfrequentlybeseentoconsistoftwoothersharesorparcels:thefirstconsistingofpain；

theotherofdanger。Thepainwhichitproducesisapainofapprehension:

apaingroundedontheapprehensionofsufferingsuchmischiefsorinconveniences，whatevertheymaybe，asitisthenatureoftheprimarymischieftoproduce。Itmaybestyled，inoneword，thealarm。Thedangeristhechance，whateveritmaybe，whichthemultitudeitconcernsmayinconsequenceoftheprimarymischiefstandexposedto，ofsufferingsuchmischiefsorinconveniences。Fordangerisnothingbutthechanceofpain，or，whatcomestothesamething，oflossofpleasure。

VI。Anexamplemayservetomakethisclear。Amanattacksyouontheroad，androbsyou。Yousufferapainontheoccasionoflosingsomuchmoney:youalsosufferedapainatthethoughtsofthepersonalill-treatmentyouapprehendedhemightgiveyou，incaseofyournothappeningtosatisfyhisdemands。Thesetogetherconstitutetheoriginalbranchoftheprimarymischief，resultingfromtheactofrobbery。Acreditorofyours，whoexpectedyoutopayhimwithpartofthatmoney，andasonofyours，whoexpectedyoutohavegivenhimanotherpart，areinconsequencedisappointed。Youareobligedtohaverecoursetothebountyofyourfather，tomakegoodpartofthedeficiency。

Thesemischiefstogethermakeupthederivativebranch。Thereportofthisrobberycirculatesfromhandtohand，andspreadsitselfintheneighbourhood。Itfindsitswayintothenewspapers，andispropagatedoverthewholecountry。Variouspeople，onthisoccasion，calltomindthedangerwhichtheyandtheirfriends，asitappearsfromthisexample，standexposedtointravelling；especiallysuchasmayhaveoccasiontotravelthesameroad。Onthisoccasiontheynaturallyfeelacertaindegreeofpain:slighterorheavier，accordingtothedegreeofill-treatmenttheymayunderstandyoutohavereceived；thefrequencyoftheoccasioneachpersonmayhavetotravelinthatsameroad，oritsneighbourhood；thevicinityofeachpersontothespot；hispersonalcourage；thequantityofmoneyhemayhaveoccasiontocarryaboutwithhim；andavarietyofothercircumstances。

Thisconstitutesthefirstpartofthesecondarymischief，resultingfromtheactofrobbery；viz。thealarm。Butpeopleofonedescriptionorother，notonlyaredisposedtoconceivethemselvestoincurachanceofbeingrobbed，inconsequenceoftherobberycommitteduponyou，but(aswillbeshownpresently)theydoreallyincursuchachance。Anditisthischancewhichconstitutestheremainingpartofthesecondarymischiefoftheactofrobbery；viz。thedanger。

VII。Letusseewhatthischanceamountsto；andwhenceitcomes。Howisit，forinstance，thatonerobberycancontributetoproduceanother？Inthefirstplace，itiscertainthat:itcannotcreateanydirectmotive。Amotivemustbetheprospectofsomepleasure，orotheradvantage，tobeenjoyedinfuture:buttherobberyinquestionispast:norwoulditfurnishanysuchprospectwereittocome:foritisnotonerobberythatwillfurnishpleasuretohimwhomaybeabouttocommitanotherrobbery。Theconsiderationthatistooperateuponaman，asamotiveorinducementtocommitarobbery，mustbetheideaofthepleasureheexpectstoderivefromthefruitsofthatveryrobbery:butthispleasureexistsindependentlyofanyotherrobbery。

VIII。Themeans，then，bywhichonerobberytends，asitshouldseem，toproduceanotherrobbery，aretwo。1。Bysuggestingtoapersonexposedtothetemptation，theideaofcommittingsuchanotherrobbery(accompanied，perhaps，withthebeliefofitsfacility)。Inthiscasetheinfluenceitexertsappliesitself，inthefirstplace，totheunderstanding。2。Byweakeningtheforceofthetutelarymotiveswhichtendtorestrainhimfromsuchanaction，andtherebyaddingtothestrengthofthetemptation。Inthiscasetheinfluenceappliesitselftothewill。Theseforcesare，1。

Themotiveofbenevolence，whichactsasabranchofthephysicalsanction2。Themotiveofself-preservation，asagainstthepunishmentthatmaystandprovidedbythepoliticalsanction。3。Thefearofshame；amotivebelongingtothemoralsanction。

4。Thefearofthedivinedispleasure；amotivebelongingtothereligioussanction。Onthefirstandlastoftheseforcesithas，perhaps，noinfluenceworthinsistingon:butithasontheothertwo。

IX。Thewayinwhichapastrobberymayweakentheforcewithwhichthepoliticalsanctiontendstopreventafuturerobbery，maybethusconceived。Thewayinwhichthissanctiontendstopreventarobbery，isbydenouncingsomeparticularkindofpunishmentagainstanywhoshallbeguiltyofit:therealvalueofwhichpunishmentwillofcoursebediminishedbytherealuncertainty:asalso，iftherebeanydifference，theapparentvaluebytheapparentuncertainty。Nowthisuncertaintyisproportionablyincreasedbyeveryinstanceinwhichamanisknowntocommittheoffense，withoutundergoingthepunishment。

This，ofcourse，willbethecasewitheveryoffenseforacertaintime；inshort，untilthepunishmentallottedtoittakesplace。Ifpunishmenttakesplaceatlast，thisbranchofthemischiefoftheoffenseisthenatlast，butnottillthen，putastopto。

X。Thewayinwhichapastrobberymayweakentheforcewithwhichthemoralsanctiontendstopreventafuturerobbery，maybethusconceived。Thewayinwhichthemoralsanctiontendstopreventarobbery，isbyholdingforththeindignationofmankindasreadytofalluponhimwhoshallbeguiltyofit。Nowthisindignationwillbethemoreformidable，accordingtothenumberofthosewhojoininit:itwillbethelessso，thefewertheyarewhojoininit。Buttherecannotbeastrongerwayofshowingthatamandoesnotjoininwhateverindignationmaybeentertainedagainstapractice，thantheengaginginithimself。Itshowsnotonlythathehimselffeelsnoindignationagainstit，butthatitseemstohimthereisnosufficientreasonforapprehendingwhatindignationmaybefeltagainstitbyothers。Accordingly，whererobberiesarefrequent，andunpunished，robberiesarecommittedwithoutshame。ItwasthusamongsttheGreciansformerly。ItisthusamongtheArabsstill。

XI。InwhicheverwaythenapastoffensetendstopavethewayforthecommissionofafutureHence，whetherbysuggestingtheideaofcommittingit，orbyaddingtothestrengthofthetemptation，inbothcasesitmaybesaidtooperatebytheforceorinfluenceofexample。

XII。Thetwobranchesofthesecondarymischiefofanact，thealarmandthedanger，mustnotbeconfounded:thoughintimatelyconnected，theyareperfectlydistinct:eithermaysubsistwithouttheother。Theneighbourhoodmaybealarmedwiththereportofarobbery，when，infact，norobberyeitherhasbeencommittedorisinawaytobecommitted:aneighbourhoodmaybeonthepointofbeingdisturbedbyrobberies，withoutknowinganythingofthematter。Accordingly，weshallsoonperceive，thatsomeactsproducealarmwithoutdanger:others，dangerwithoutalarm。

XIII。Aswellthedangerasthealarmmayagainbedivided，eachofthem，intotwobranches:thefirst，consistingofsomuchofthealarmordangerasmaybeapttoresultfromthefuturebehaviourofthesameagent:thesecond，consistingofsomuchasmaybeapttoresultfromthebehaviourofotherpersons:suchothers，towit，asmaycometoengageinactsofthesamesortandtendency。

XIV。Thedistinctionbetweentheprimaryandthesecondaryconsequencesofanactmustbecarefullyattendedto。Itissojust，thatthelattermayoftenbeofadirectlyoppositenaturetobetheformer。Insomecases，wheretheprimaryconsequencesoftheactareattendedwithamischief，thesecondaryconsequencesbemaybebeneficial，andthattosuchadegree，asevengreatlytooutweighthemischiefoftheprimary。Thisisthecase，forinstance，withallactsofpunishment，whenproperlyapplied。Ofthese，theprimarymischiefbeingneverintendedtofallbutuponsuchpersonsasmayhappentohavecommittedsomeactwhichitisexpedienttoprevent，thesecondarymischief，thatis，thealarmandthedanger，extendsnofartherthantosuchpersonsasareundertemptationtocommitit:inwhichcase，inasfarasittendstorestrainthemfromcommittingsuchacts，itisofabeneficialnature。

XV。Thusmuchwithregardtoactsthatproducepositivepain，andthatimmediately。Thiscase，byreasonofitssimplicity，seemedthefittesttotakethelead。Butactsmayproducemischiefinvariousotherways；which，togetherwiththosealreadyspecified，mayallbecomprisedbythefollowingabridgedanalysis。

Mischiefmayadmitofadivisioninanyoneofthreepointsofview。

1。Accordingtoitsownnature。2。Accordingtoitscause。

3。Accordingtotheperson，orotherparty，whoistheobjectofit1。Withregardtoitsnature，itmaybeeithersimpleorcomplex[*]2:whensimple，itmayeitherbepositiveornegative:positive，consistingofactualpain:negative，consistingofthelossofpleasure。Whethersimpleorcomplex，andwhetherpositiveornegative，itmaybeeithercertainorcontingent。Whenitisnegative，itconsistsofthelossofsomebenefitoradvantage:

thisbenefitmaybematerialinbothoreitheroftwoways:1。Byaffordingactualpleasure:or，2。Byavertingpainordanger，whichisthechanceofpain:thatis，byaffordingsecurity。Inasfar，then，asthebenefitwhichamischieftendstoavert，isproductiveofsecurity，thetendencyofsuchmischiefistoproduceinsecurity。2。Withregardtoitscause，mischiefmaybeproducedeitherbyonesingleaction，ornotwithouttheconcurrenceofotheractions:ifnotwithouttheconcurrenceofotheractions，theseothersmaybetheactionseitherofthesameperson，orofotherpersons:ineithercase，theymaybeeitheractsofthesamekindasthatinquestion，orofotherkinds。3。Lastly，withregardtothepartywhoistheobjectofthemischief，or，inotherwords，whoisinawaytobeaffectedbyit，suchpartymaybeeitheranassignableindividual，orassemblageofindividuals，orelseamultitudeofunassignableindividuals。Whentheobjectisanassignableindividual，thisindividualmayeitherbethepersonhimselfwhoistheauthorofthemischief，orsomeotherperson。Whentheindividualswhoaretheobjectsofit，areanunassignablemultitude，thismultitudemaybeeitherthewholepoliticalcommunityorstate，orsomesubordinatedivisionofit。Nowwhentheobjectofthemischiefistheauthorhimself，itmaybestyledself-regarding:whenanyotherpartyistheobject，extra-regarding:

whensuchotherpartyisanindividual，itmaybestyledprivate:whenasubordinatebranchofthecommunity，semi-public:whenthewholecommunity，public。Here，forthepresent，wemuststop。Topursuethesubjectthroughitsinferiordistinctions，willbethebusinessofthechapterwhichexhibitsthedivisionofoffenses。

Thecaseswhichhavebeenalreadyillustrated，arethoseinwhichtheprimarymischiefisnotnecessarilyotherwisethanasimpleone，andthatpositive:present，andthereforecertain:produciblebyasingleaction，withoutanynecessityoftheconcurrenceofanyotheraction，eitheronthepartofthesameagent，orofothers；

andhavingforitsobjectanassignableindividual，or，byaccidentanassemblageofassignableindividuals:extra-regardingtherefore，andprivate。Thisprimarymischiefisaccompaniedbyasecondary:thefirstbranchofwhichissometimescontingentandsometimescertain，theotherneverotherwisethancontingent:bothextra-regardingandsemi-public:inotherrespects，prettymuchuponaparwiththeprimarymischief:exceptthatthefirstbranch，viz。thealarm，thoughinferiorinmagnitudetotheprimary，is，inpointofextent，andtherefore，uponthewhole，inpointofmagnitude，muchsuperior。

XVI。Twoinstancesmorewillbesufficienttoillustratethemostmaterialofthemodificationsaboveexhibited。

Amandrinksacertainquantityofliquor，andintoxicateshimself。

Theintoxicationinthisparticularinstancedoeshimnosortofharm:or，whatcomestothesamething，nonethatisperceptible。Butitisprobable，andindeednexttocertain，thatagivennumberofactsofthesamekindwoulddohimaveryconsiderabledegreeofharm:moreorlessaccordingtohisconstitutionandothercircumstances:forthisisnomorethanwhatexperiencemanifestseveryday。Itisalsocertain，thatoneactofthissort，byonemeansorother，tendsconsiderablytoincreasethedispositionamanmaybeintopractiseotheractsofthesamesort:forthisalsoisverifiedbyexperience。This，therefore，isoneinstancewherethemischiefproduciblebytheactiscontingentinotherwords，inwhichthetendencyoftheactisnootherwisemischievousthaninvirtueofitsproducingachanceofmischief。Thischancedependsupontheconcurrenceofotheractsofthesamekind；andthosesuchasmustbepracticedbythesameperson。Theobjectofthemischiefisthatverypersonhimselfwhoistheauthorofit，andheonly，unlessbyaccident。

Themischiefisthereforeprivateandself-regarding。

Astoitssecondarymischief，alarm，itproducesnone:itproducesindeedacertainquantityofdangerbytheinfluenceofexample:butitisnotoftenthatthisdangerwillamounttoaquantityworthregarding。

XVII。Again。Amanomitspayinghissharetoapublictax。Thisweseeisanactofthenegativekind。Isthisthentobeplaceduponthelistofmischievousacts？Yes，certainly。Uponwhatgrounds？

Uponthefollowing。Todefendthecommunityagainstitsexternalaswellasitsinternaladversariesaretasks，nottomentionothersofalessindispensablenaturewhichcannotbefulfilledbutataconsiderableexpense。Butwhenceisthemoneyfordefrayingthisexpensetocome？Itcanbeobtainedinnoothermannerthanbycontributionstobecollectedfromindividuals；

inaword，bytaxes。Theproducethenofthesetaxesistobelookeduponasakindofbenefitwhichitisnecessarythegoverningpartofthecommunityshouldreceivefortheuseofthewhole。Thisproduce，beforeitcanbeappliedtoitsdestination，requiresthatthereshouldbecertainpersonscommissionedtoreceiveandtoapplyit。Nowifthesepersons，hadtheyreceivedit，wouldhaveappliedittoitsproperdestination，itwouldhavebeenabenefit:thenotputtingtheminawaytoreceiveit，isthenamischief。Butitispossible，thatifreceived，itmightnothavebeenappliedtoitsproperdestination；orthattheservices，inconsiderationofwhichitwasbestowed，mightnothavebeenperformed。Itispossible，thattheunder-officer，whocollectedtheproduceofthetax，mightnothavepaiditovertohisprincipal:itispossiblethattheprincipalmightnothaveforwardeditonaccordingtoitsfartherdestination；tothejudge，forinstance，whoistoprotectthecommunityagainstitsclandestineenemiesfromwithin，orthesoldier，whoistoprotectitagainstitsopenenemiesfromwithout:itispossiblethatthejudge，orthesoldier，hadtheyreceivedit，wouldnothoweverhavebeeninducedbyittofulfiltheirrespectiveduties:itispossible，thatthejudgewouldnothavesatforthepunishmentofcriminals，andthedecisionofcontroversies:itispossiblethatthesoldierwouldnothavedrawnhisswordinthedefenseofthecommunity。

These，togetherwithaninfinityofotherintermediateacts，whichforthesakeofbrevityIpassover，formaconnectedchainofduties，thedischargeofwhichisnecessarytothepreservationofthecommunity。Theymusteveryoneofthembedischarged，erethebenefittowhichtheyarecontributorycanbeproduced。Iftheyarealldischarged，inthatcasethebenefitsubsists，andanyact，bytendingtointerceptthatbenefit，mayproduceamischief。

Butifanyofthemarenot，thebenefitfails:itfailsofitself:

itwouldnothavesubsisted，althoughtheactinquestion(theactofnon-payment)hadnotbeencommitted。Thebenefitisthereforecontingent；and，accordingly，uponacertainsupposition，theactwhichconsistsintheavertingofitisnotamischievousone。Butthissupposition，inanytolerably-orderedgovernment，willrarelyindeedbeverified。Intheveryworstorderedgovernmentthatexists，thegreatestpartofthedutiesthatareleviedarepaidoveraccordingtotheirdestination:and，withregardtoanyparticularsum，thatisattemptedtobelevieduponanyparticularpersonuponanyparticularoccasion，itisthereforemanifest，that，unlessitbecertainthatitwillnotbesodisposedof，theactofwithholdingitisamischievousone。

Theactofpayment，whenreferabletoanyparticularsum，especiallyifitbeasmallone，mightalsohavefailedofprovingbeneficialonanotherground:and，consequently，theactofnonpayment，ofprovingmischievous。Itispossiblethatthesameservices，precisely，mighthavebeenrenderedwithoutthemoneyaswithit。If，then，speakingofanysmalllimitedsum，suchasthegreatestwhichanyonepersoniscalledupontopayatatime，amanweretosay，thatthenon-paymentofitwouldbeattendedwithmischievousconsequences；thiswouldbefarfromcertain:

butwhatcomestothesamethingasifitwere，itisperfectlycertainwhenappliedtothewhole。Itiscertain，thatifallofasuddenthepaymentofalltaxeswastocease，therewouldnolongerbeanythingeffectualdone，eitherforthemaintenanceofjustice，orforthedefenceofthecommunityagainstitsforeignadversaries:thatthereforetheweakwouldpresentlybeoppressedandinjuredinallmannerofways，bythestrongathome，andbothtogetheroverwhelmedbyoppressorsabroad。Uponthewhole，therefore，itismanifest，thatinthiscase，thoughthemischiefisremoteandcontingent，thoughinitsfirstappearanceitconsistsofnothingmorethantheinterceptionofabenefit，andthoughtheindividuals，inwhosefavourthatbenefitwouldhavebeenreducedintotheexplicitformofpleasureorsecurity，arealtogetherunassignable，yetthemischievoustendencyoftheactisnotonalltheseaccountsthelessindisputable。

Themischief，inpointofintensityandduration，isindeedunknown:

itisuncertain:itisremote。Butinpointofextentitisimmense；andinpointoffecundity，pregnanttoadegreethatbafflescalculation。

XVIII。Itmaynowbetimetoobserve，thatitisonlyinthecasewherethemischiefisextra-regarding，andhasanassignablepersonorpersonsforitsobject，thatsomuchofthesecondarybranchofitasconsistsinalarmcanhaveplace。Whentheindividualsitaffectsareuncertain，andaltogetheroutofsight，noalarmcanbeproduced:asthereisnobodywhosesufferingsyoucansee，thereisnobodywhosesufferingsyoucanbealarmedat。

Noalarm，forinstance，isproducedbynonpaymenttoatax。Ifatanydistantanduncertainperiodoftimesuchoffenceshouldchancetobeproductiveofanykindofalarm，itwouldappeartoproceed，asindeedimmediatelyitwouldproceed，fromaverydifferentcause。Itmightbeimmediatelyreferable，forexample，totheactofalegislator，whoshoulddeemitnecessarytolayonanewtax，inordertomakeupforthedeficiencyoccasionedintheproduceoftheoldone。Oritmightbereferabletotheactofanenemy，who，underfavourofadeficiencythuscreatedinthefundallottedfordefense，mightinvadethecountry，andexactfromitmuchheaviercontributionsthanthosewhichhadbeenthuswithholdenfromthesovereign。

Astoanyalarmwhichsuchanoffencemightraiseamongthefewwhomightchancetoregardthematterwiththeeyesofstatesmen，itisoftooslightanduncertainanaturetobeworthtakingintotheaccount。{Tertiaryeffects}

2。Howintentionality，&；c。mayinfluencethemischiefofanact。

XIX。Wehaveseenthenatureofthesecondarymischief，whichisapttobereflected，asitwere，fromtheprimary，inthecaseswheretheindividualswhoaretheobjectsofthemischiefareassignable。

Itisnowtimetoexamineintothecircumstancesuponwhichtheproductionofsuchsecondarymischiefdepends。Thesecircumstancesarenoothersthanthefourarticleswhichhaveformedthesubjectsofthefourlastprecedingchapters:viz。1。Theintentionality，2。Theconsciousness。3。Themotive。4。Thedisposition。Itistobeobservedallalong，thatitisonlythedangerthatisimmediatelygovernedbytherealstateofthemindinrespecttothosearticles:itisbytheapparentstateofitthatthealarmisgoverned。Itisgovernedbytherealonlyinasfarastheapparenthappens，asinmostcasesitmaybeexpectedtodo，toquadratewiththereal。Thedifferentinfluencesofthearticlesofintentionalityandconsciousnessmayberepresentedintheseveralcasesfollowing。

XX。Case1。Wheretheactissocompletelyunintentional，astobealtogetherinvoluntary。Inthiscaseitisattendedwithnosecondarymischiefatall。

Abricklayerisatworkuponahouse:apassengeriswalkinginthestreetbelow。Afellow-workmancomesandgivesthebricklayeraviolentpush，inconsequenceofwhichhefallsuponthepassenger，andhurtshim。Itisplainthereisnothinginthiseventthatcangiveotherpeople，whomayhappentobeinthestreet，theleastreasontoapprehendanythinginfutureonthepartofthemanwhofell，whatevertheremaybewithregardtothemanwhopushedhim。

XXI。Case2。Wheretheact，thoughnotunintentional，isunadvised，insomuchthatthemischievouspartoftheconsequencesisunintentional，buttheunadvisednessisattendedwithheedlessness。

Inthiscasetheactisattendedwithsomesmalldegreeofsecondarymischief，inproportiontothedegreeofheedlessness。

Agroombeingonhorseback，andridingthroughafrequentedstreet，turnsacorneratafullpace，andridesoverapassenger，whohappenstobegoingby。Itisplain，bythisbehaviourofthegroom，somedegreeofalarmmaybeproduced，lessorgreater，accordingtothedegreeofheedlessnessbetrayedbyhim:accordingtothequicknessofhispace，thefullnessofthestreet，andsoforth。Hehasdonemischief，itmaybesaid，byhiscarelessness，already:whoknowsbutthatonotheroccasionsthelikecausemayproducethelikeeffect。

XXII。Case3。Wheretheactismisadvisedwithrespecttoacircumstance，which，haditexisted，wouldfullyhaveexcludedor(whatcomestothesamething)outweighedtheprimarymischief:

andthereisnorashnessinthecase。Inthiscasetheactattendedwithnosecondarymischiefatall。

Itisneedlesstomultiplyexamplesanyfarther。

XXIII。Case4。Wheretheactismisadvisedwithrespecttoacircumstancewhichwouldhaveexcludedorcounterbalancedtheprimarymischiefinpart，butnotentirely:andstillthereisnorashness。

Inthiscasethesetisattendedwithsomedegreeofsecondarymischief，inproportiontothatpartoftheprimarywhichremainsunexcludedoruncounterbalanced。

XXIV。Case5。Wheretheactismisadvisedwithrespecttoacircumstance，which，haditexisted，wouldhaveexcludedorcounterbalancedtheprimarymischiefentirely，orinpart:andthereisadegreeofrashnessinthesupposal。Inthiscase，theactisalsoattendedwithafartherdegreeofsecondarymischief，inproportiontothedegreeofrashness。

XXV。Case6。Wheretheconsequencesarecompletelyintentional，andthereisnomis-supposalinthecase。Inthiscasethesecondarymischiefisatthehighest。

XXVI。Thusmuchwithregardtointentionalityandconsciousness。Wenowcometoconsiderinwhatmannerthesecondarymischiefisaffectedbythenatureofthemotive。

Whereanactisperniciousinitsprimaryconsequences，thesecondarymischiefisnotobliteratedbythegoodnessofthemotive；thoughthemotivebeofthebestkind。For，notwithstandingthegoodnessofthemotive，anactofwhichtheprimaryconsequencesarepernicious，isproducedbyitintheinstanceinquestion，bythesupposition。Itmay，therefore，inotherinstances:althoughthisisnotsolikelytohappenfromagoodmotiveasfromabadone。

XXVII。Anact，which，thoughperniciousinitsprimaryconsequences，isrenderedinotherrespectsbeneficialuponthewhole，byvirtueofitssecondaryconsequences，isnotchangedbackagain，andrenderedperniciousuponthewholebythebadnessofthemotive:althoughthemotivebeoftheworstkind。

XXVIII。Butwhennotonlytheprimaryconsequencesofanactarepernicious，but，inotherrespects，thesecondarylikewise，thesecondarymischiefmaybeaggravatedbythenatureofthemotive:

somuchofthatmischief，towit，asrespectsthefuturebehaviourofthesameperson。

XXIX。Itisnotfromtheworstkindofmotive，however，thatthesecondarymischiefofanactreceivesitsgreatestaggravation。

XXX。Theaggravationwhichthesecondarymischiefofanact，inasfarasitrespectsthefuturebehaviourofthesameperson，receivesfromthenatureofamotiveinanindividualcase，isasthetendencyofthemotivetoproduce，onthepartofthesameperson，actsofthelikebadtendencywiththatoftheactinquestion。

XXXI。Thetendencyofamotivetoproduceactsofthelikekind，onthepartofanygivenperson，isasthestrengthandconstancyofitsinfluenceonthatperson，asappliedtotheproductionofsucheffects。

XXXII。Thetendencyofaspeciesofmotivetogivebirthtoactsofanykind，amongpersonsingeneral，isasthestrength，constancy，andextensivenessofitsinfluence，asappliedtotheproductionofsucheffects。

XXXIII。Nowthemotives，whereoftheinfluenceisatoncemostpowerful，mostconstant，andmostextensive，arethemotivesofphysicaldesire，theloveofwealth，theloveofease，theloveoflife，andthefearofpain:allofthemself-regardingmotives。

Themotiveofdispleasure，whateveritmaybeinpointofstrengthandextensiveness，isnotnearsoconstantinitsinfluence(thecaseofmereantipathyexcepted)asanyoftheotherthree。Aperniciousact，therefore，whencommittedthroughvengeance。orotherwisethroughdispleasure，isnotnearsomischievousasthesameperniciousact，whencommittedbyforceofanyoneofthoseothermotives。

XXXIV。Astothemotiveofreligion，whateveritmaysometimesprovetobeinpointofstrengthandconstancy，itisnotinpointofextentsouniversal，especiallyinitsapplicationtoactsofamischievousnature，asanyofthethreeprecedingmotives。Itmay，however，beasuniversalinaparticularstate，orinaparticulardistrictofaparticularstate。Itisliableindeedtobeveryirregularinitsoperations。Itisapt，however，tobefrequentlyaspowerfulasthemotiveofvengeance，orindeedanyothermotivewhatsoever。Itwillsometimesevenbemorepowerfulthananyothermotive。Itis，atanyrate，muchmoreconstant。A

perniciousact，therefore，whencommittedthroughthemotiveofreligion，ismoremischievousthanwhencommittedthroughthemotiveofill-will。

XXXV。Lastly，Thesecondarymischief，towit，somuchofitashathrespecttothefuturebehaviourofthesameperson，isaggravatedorlessenedbytheapparentdepravityorbeneficenceofhisdisposition:andthatintheproportionofsuchapparentdepravityorbeneficence。

XXXVI。Theconsequenceswehavehithertobeenspeakingof，arethenaturalconsequences，ofwhichtheact，andtheotherarticleswehavebeenconsidering，arethecauses:consequencesthatresultfromthebehaviouroftheindividual，whoistheoffendingagent，withouttheinterferenceofpoliticalauthority。Wenowcometospeakofpunishment:which，inthesenseinwhichitishereconsidered，isanartificialconsequence，annexedbypoliticalauthoritytoanoffensiveact，inoneinstance，intheviewofputtingastoptotheproductionofeventssimilartotheobnoxiouspartofitsnaturalconsequences，inotherinstances。

chapter13AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXIII

CasesUnmeetforPunishment§；1。Generalviewofcasesunmeetforpunishment。

I。Thegeneralobjectwhichalllawshave，oroughttohave，incommon，istoaugmentthetotalhappinessofthecommunity；

andtherefore，inthefirstplace，toexclude，asfarasmaybe，everythingthattendstosubtractfromthathappiness:inotherwords，toexcludemischief。

II。Butallpunishmentismischief:allpunishmentinitselfisevil。

Upontheprincipleofutility，ifitoughtatalltobeadmitted，itoughtonlytobeadmittedinasfarasitpromisestoexcludesomegreaterevil。

III。Itisplain，therefore，thatinthefollowingcasespunishmentoughtnottobeinflicted。

1。Whereitisgroundless:wherethereisnomischiefforittoprevent；theactnotbeingmischievousuponthewhole。

2。Whereitmustbeinefficacious:whereitcannotactsoastopreventthemischief。

3。Whereitisunprofitable，ortooexpensive:wherethemischiefitwouldproducewouldbegreaterthanwhatitprevented。

4。Whereitisneedless:wherethemischiefmaybeprevented，orceaseofitself，withoutit:thatis，atacheaperrate。

2。Casesinwhichpunishmentisgroundless。

Theseare，IV。I。Wheretherehasneverbeenanymischief:wherenomischiefhasbeenproducedtoanybodybytheactinquestion。Ofthisnumberarethoseinwhichtheactwassuchasmight，onasomeoccasions，bemischievousordisagreeable，butthepersonwhoseinterestitconcernsgavehisconsenttotheperformanceofit。

Thisconsent，provideditbefree，andfairlyobtained，isthebestproofthatcanbeproduced，that，tothepersonwhogivesit，nomischief，atleastnoimmediatemischief，uponthewhole，isdone。Fornomancanbesogoodajudgeasthemanhimself，whatitisgiveshimpleasureordispleasure。

V。2。Wherethemischiefwasoutweighed:althoughamischiefwasproducedbythatact，yetthesameactwasnecessarytotheproductionofabenefitwhichwasofgreatervaluethanthemischief。

Thismaybethecasewithanythingthatisdoneinthewayofprecautionagainstinstantcalamity，asalsowithanythingthatisdoneintheexerciseoftheseveralsortsofpowersnecessarytobeestablishedineverycommunity，towit，domestic，judicial，military，andsupreme。

VI。3。Wherethereisacertaintyofanadequatecompensation:andthatinallcaseswheretheoffensecanbecommitted。Thissupposestwothings:1。Thattheoffenceissuchasadmitsofanadequatecompensation:2。Thatsuchacompensationissuretobeforthcoming。Ofthesesuppositions，thelatterwillbefoundtobeamerelyidealone:asuppositionthatcannot，intheuniversalityheregiventoit，beverifiedbyfact。Itcannot，therefore，inpractice，benumberedamongstthegroundsofabsoluteimpunity。Itmay，however，beadmittedasagroundforanabatementofthatpunishment，whichotherconsiderations，standingbythemselves，wouldseemtodictate。

3。CasesinwhichpunishmentmustbeinefficaciousTheseare，VII。1。Wherethepenalprovisionisnotestablisheduntilaftertheactisdone。Sucharethecases，1。Ofanex-post-factolaw；

wherethelegislatorhimselfappointsnotapunishmenttillaftertheactisdone。2。Ofasentencebeyondthelaw；wherethejudge，ofhisownauthority，appointsapunishmentwhichthelegislatorhadnotappointed。

VIII。2。Wherethepenalprovision，thoughestablished，isnotconveyedtothenoticeofthepersononwhomitseemsintendedthatitshouldoperate。Suchisthecasewherethelawhasomittedtoemployanyoftheexpedientswhicharenecessary，tomakesurethateverypersonwhatsoever，whoiswithinthereachofthelaw，beapprisedofallthecaseswhatsoever，inwhich(beinginthestationoflifeheisin)hecanbesubjectedtothepenaltiesofthelaw。

IX。3。Wherethepenalprovision，thoughitwereconveyedtoaman"snotice，couldproducenoeffectonhim，withrespecttothepreventinghimfromengaginginanyactofthesortinquestion。

Suchisthecase，1。Inextremeinfancy；whereamanhasnotyetattainedthatstateordispositionofmindinwhichtheprospectofevilssodistantasthosewhichareheldforthbythelaw，hastheeffectofinfluencinghisconduct。2。Ininsanity；wheretheperson，ifhehasattainedtothatdisposition，hassincebeendeprivedofitthroughtheinfluenceofsomepermanentthoughunseencause。3。Inintoxication；wherehehasbeenadeprivedofitbythetransientinfluenceofavisiblecause:suchastheuseofwine，oropium，orotherdrugs，thatactinthismanneronthenervoussystem:whichconditionisindeedneithermorenorlessthanatemporaryinsanityproducedbyanassignablecause。[*]

X。4。Wherethepenalprovision(although，beingconveyedtotheparty"snotice，itmightverywellpreventhisengaginginactsofthesortinquestion，providedheknewthatitrelatedtothoseacts)couldnothavethiseffect，withregardtotheindividualactheisabouttoengagein:towit，becauseheknowsnotthatitisofthenumberofthosetowhichthepenalprovisionrelates。

Thismayhappen，1。Inthecaseofunintentionality；whereheintendsnottoengage，andtherebyknowsnotthatheisabouttoengage，intheactinwhicheventuallyheisabouttoengage>2。

Inthecaseofunconsciousness；where，althoughhemayknowthatheisabouttoengageintheactitself，yet，fromnotknowingallthematerialcircumstancesattendingit，heknowsnotofthetendencyithastoproducethatmischief，incontemplationofwhichithasbeenmadepenalinmostinstances3。Inthecaseofmissupposal；where，althoughhemayknowofthetendencytheacthastoproducethatdegreeofmischief，hesupposesit，thoughmistakenly，tobeattendedwithsomecircumstance，orsetofcircumstances，which，ifithadbeenattendedwith，itwouldeithernothavebeenproductiveofthatmischief，orhavebeenproductiveofsuchagreaterdegreeofgood，ashasdeterminedthelegislatorinsuchacasenottomakeitpenal[*]。

XI。5。Where，thoughthepenalclausemightexerciseafullandprevailinginfluence，wereittoactalone，yetbythepredominantinfluenceofsomeoppositecauseuponthewill，itmustnecessarilybeineffectual；becausetheevilwhichhesetshimselfabouttoundergo，inthecaseofhisnotengagingintheact，issogreat，thattheevildenouncedbythepenalclause，incaseofhisengaginginit，cannotappeargreater。Thismayhappen，1。Inthecaseofphysicaldanger；wheretheevilissuchasappearslikelytobebroughtaboutbytheunassistedpowersofnature。

2。Inthecaseofathreatenedmischief；whereitissuchasappearslikelytobebroughtaboutthroughtheintentionalandconsciousagencyofman。[*]

XII。6。Where(thoughthepenalclausemayexertafullandprevailinginfluenceoverthewilloftheparty)yethisphysicalfaculties(owingtothepredominantinfluenceofsomephysicalcause)

arenotinaconditiontofollowthedeterminationofthewill:insomuchthattheactisabsolutelyinvoluntary。Suchisthecaseofphysicalcompulsionorrestraint，bywhatevermeansbroughtabout；wheretheman"shand，forinstance，ispushedagainstsomeobjectwhichhiswilldisposeshimnottotouch；ortieddownfromtouchingsomeobjectwhichhiswilldisposeshimtotouch。

4。Caseswherepunishmentisunprofitable。

Theseare，XIII。1。Where，ontheonehand，thenatureoftheoffense，ontheotherhand，thatofthepunishment，are，intheordinarystateofthings，such，thatwhencomparedtogether，theevilofthelatterwillturnouttobegreaterthanthatoftheformer。

XIV。Nowtheevilofthepunishmentdividesitselfintofourbranches，bywhichsomanydifferentsetsofpersonsareaffected。

1。Theevilofcoercionorrestraint:orthepainwhichitgivesamannottobeabletodotheact，whateveritbe，whichbytheapprehensionofthepunishmentheisdeterredfromdoing。Thisisfeltbythosebywhomthelawisobserved。2。Theevilofapprehension:orthepainwhichaman，whohasexposedhimselftopunishment，feelsatthethoughtsofundergoingit。Thisisfeltbythosebywhomthelawhasbeenbroken，andwhofeelthemselvesindangerofitsbeingexecuteduponthem。3。Theevilofsufferance:orthepainwhichamanfeels，invirtueofthepunishmentitself，fromthetimewhenhebeginstoundergoit。

Thisisfeltbythosebywhomthelawisbroken，anduponwhomitcomesactuallytobeexecuted。4。Thepainofsympathy，andtheotherderivativeevilsresultingtothepersonswhoareinconnectionwiththeseveralclassesoforiginalsufferersjustmentioned。Nowofthesefourlotsofevil，thefirstwillbegreaterorless，accordingtothenatureoftheactfromwhichthepartyisrestrained:thesecondandthirdaccordingtothenatureofthepunishmentwhichstandsannexedtothatoffence。

XV。Ontheotherhand，astotheeviloftheoffense，thiswillalso，ofcourse，begreaterorless，accordingtothenatureofeachoffense。Theproportionbetweentheoneevilandtheotherwillthereforebedifferentinthecaseofeachparticularoffence。Thecases，therefore，wherepunishmentisunprofitableonthisground，canbynoothermeansbediscovered，thanbyanexaminationofeachparticularoffense；whichiswhatwillbethebusinessofthebodyofthework。

XVI。2。Where，althoughintheordinarystateofthings，theevilresultingfromthepunishmentisnotgreaterthanthebenefitwhichislikelytoresultfromtheforcewithwhichitoperates，duringthesamespaceoftime，towardstheexcludingtheeviloftheoffenses，yetitmayhavebeenrenderedsobytheinfluenceofsomeoccasionalcircumstances。Inthenumberofthesecircumstancesmaybe，1。Themultitudeofdelinquentsataparticularjuncture；beingsuchaswouldincrease，beyondtheordinarymeasure，thequantumofthesecondandthirdlots，andtherebyalsoofapartofthefourthlot，intheevilofthepunishment。2。Theextraordinaryvalueoftheservicesofsomeonedelinquent；inthecasewheretheeffectofthepunishmentwouldbetodeprivethecommunityofthebenefitofthoseservices。

3。Thedispleasureofthepeople；thatis，ofanindefinitenumberofthemembersofthesamecommunity，incaseswhere(owingtooftheinfluenceofsomeoccasionalincident)theyhappentoconceive，thattheoffenseortheoffenderoughtnottobepunishedatall，oratleastoughtnottobepunishedinthewayinquestion。4。Thedispleasureofforeignpowers；thatis，ofthegoverningbody，oraconsiderablenumberofthemembersofsomeforeigncommunityorcommunities，withwhichthecommunityinquestionisconnected。

5。Caseswherepunishmentisneedless。

Theseare，XVII。1。Wherethepurposeofputtinganendtothepracticemaybeattainedaseffectuallyatacheaperrate:byinstruction，isforinstance，aswellasbyterror:byinformingtheunderstanding，aswellasbyexercisinganimmediateinfluenceonthewill。

Thisseemstobethecasewithrespecttoallthoseoffenseswhichconsistinthedisseminatingperniciousprinciplesinmattersofduty；ofwhateverkindthedutybe；whetherpolitical，ormoral，orreligious。Andthis，whethersuchprinciplesbedisseminatedunder，orevenwithout；asincerepersuasionoftheirbeingbeneficial。

Isay，evenwithout:forthoughinsuchacaseitisnotinstructionthatcanpreventthewriterfromendeavouringtoinculcatehisprinciples，yetitmaythereadersfromadoptingthem:

withoutwhich，hisendeavouringtoinculcatethemwilldonoharm。

Insuchacase，thesovereignwillcommonlyhavelittleneedtotakeanactivepart:ifitbetheinterestofoneindividualtoinculcateprinciplesthatarepernicious，itwillassurelybetheinterestofotherindividualstoexposethem。Butifthesovereignmustneedstakeapartinthecontroversy，thepenistheproperweapontocombaterrorwith，notthesword。

chapter14AnIntroductiontothePrinciplesofMoralsandLegislationChapterXIV