An Essay on the Distribution of Wealth

第12章

Ibid。p。84。Theirdietisveryscanty；theyhaverarelyanyanimalfood。Evenattheinns，intheinteriorofPoland，whichare

notsituatedinaprettygoodtown，scarcelyanythingistobeprocured。Theirbestthingsaretheirmilkandpoorcheese，

weretheyinsufficientabundance；buttheprincipalarticleoftheirdietistheircoarserye-breadabovementioned，andwhichIhavesometimesattemptedinvaintoswallow。Ibid。p。102。TillthereignofCasimirtheGreat，aboutthemiddleofthefourteenthcentury，thePolishnoblesexercisedover

theirpeasantstheuncontrouledpoweroflifeanddeath。Nomagistrate，noteventheKinghimself，hadauthoritytopunishor

restrainbarbaritieswhichoutragedhumanity。Ifanactofbrutalcrueltywerecommittedbyonegrandeeontheslaveof

another，hewasthenliabletobecalledtoanaccountbythepossessor，astheviolatorofhisproperty，notastheperpetrator

ofcrime。Thisbarbarouspowerinthenoblesovertheconditionandlivesoftheboors，evenCasimirwasforcedtorecognize

intheyear1866。YetCasimirhadasoulwhichfeltfortheirhardlot，andheearnestlyendeavouredtomitigateitsseverity。

Thepeasants，findinghimtheirfriend，wouldoftengotohimwithcomplaintsoftheinjuriestheyreceived。"What!(sayshewithindignationontheseoccasions)haveyouneitherstonesnorbludgeonswithwhichtodefendyourselves？"Casimirwasthefirstwhoventuredtoprescribeafineforthemurderofapeasant。And，asithadbeenthecustom，onthe

deathofapeasant，forthemastertoseizehistriflingeffects，healsoenacted，thatonhisdeceasehisnextheirshouldinherit；

andthatifhismastershouldplunderhim，ordishonourhiswifeordaughter，heshouldbepermittedtoremove

whithersoeverhepleased。Heevendecreed，thatapeasantshouldbeprivilegedtobeararmsasasoldier，andbeconsideredasafreeman。Thesehumaneregulations，however，wereillobservedinthesequel；forofwhatavailarelaws，ifauthoritybewantingto

enforceobedience？ThereisanancientPolishmaxim，"Thatnoslavecancarryonanyprocessagainsthismaster；"andhence

thelawregardingtheinheritanceofpropertywasrenderednugatory。Norcouldthefineformurderbeoftenlevied，by

reasonoftheaccumulationofevidencerequiredfortheconvictionofanoble。Yettheseweretheonlyattemptstobetterthe

conditionoftheboors，tilltheyear1768，whenadecreepassedbywhichthemurderofapeasantwasrenderedacapital

crime。Buteventhisenactmentwasameremockeryofjustice:fortoprovethefactofmurder，aconcurrenceof

circumstanceswasmadenecessary，whichcouldrarelyhavebeenfoundtoco-exist。Themurdererwas

notonlytobetaken

inthefact!butthatfactwasrequiredtobeprovedbythetestimonyoftwogentlemen，orfourpeasants!Theseinsignificant

edicts，renderedinefficientbythepowerofcustom，werenottheonlyobstaclestotheelevationofthepeasantrytotherank

ofmen。Thereexisted，inthePolishlaws，numerousandpositiveordinances，asthoughexpresslydesignedtoperpetuate

slavery。Amongthese，themostoppressiveseemstohavebeenthatwhichempoweredthenoblestoerectsummary

tribunals，subjecttonoappeals，bywhichtheyinflictedwhateverpenaltiestheythoughtproperondelinquents，orthose

whomtheychosetoconsiderasdelinquents。Thepenaltiesforelopementfromtheirvillageswerepeculiarlysevere；whichprovesatoncethegrievousnessoftheiroppression，andtheexistenceoffrequentattemptstoescape。Ibid。p。110。WhoevercastshiseyebutforamomentonthemiserableboorsofPoland，willinstantlyfeel，thatagesmust

elapsebeforetheycanberaisedtotherankofcivilizedbeings。Ifmetinthewinter"ssnow，theyappearlikeherdsofsavage

beastsratherthancompaniesofmen；butwiththemelancholydifferenceofbeingtotallydestituteofthatwildactivitywhich

characterisessavagenature。Theircoarsemantles；theirshrunkandsqualidforms:theirdirty，mattedhair；theirdull，moping

looks，andlifelessmovements；allcombinetoformanimagewhichuickenshumanity，andmakestheheartrecoilevenfromitsownhorridsympathy!Ibid。p。105。Someendeavourshavebeenlikewisemadebyindividualstoabolishtheslaveryoftheboors。Intheyear1760，

theChancellorZamoyskienfranchisedsixvillagesinthepalatinateofMasovia。Thisexperimenthasbeenmuchvauntedby

Mr。Coxeashavingbeenattendedwithallthegoodeffectsdesired；andheassertsthattheChancellorhad，inconsequence，

enfranchisedthepeasantsonallhisestates。Bothoftheseassertionsatefalse。Ienquiredparticularlyoftheson，thepresent

CountZamoyski，respectingthosesixvillages，andwasgrievedtolearn，thattheexperimenthadcompletelyfailed。The

Countsaid，thatwithinafewyearshehadsoldtheestate，asitwassituatedinthePrussiandivision，withwhichhehadnow

noconcern。Headded，Iwasalsogladtogetridofit，fromthetroublethepeasantsgaveme。Thesedegradedbeings，on

receivingtheirfreedom，wereoverjoyed，itseems，attheyknewnotwhat。Havingnodistinctcomprehensionofwhat

freedommeant，butmerelyarudenotionthattheymaynowdowhattheyliked，theyraninto

everyspeciesofexcessand

extravagancewhichtheircircumstancesadmitted。Drunkenness，insteadofbeingoccasional，becamealmostperpetual；riot

anddisorderusurpedtheplaceofquietnessandindustry；thenecessarylaboursuspended，thelandswereworsecultivated

thanbefore；andthesmallrentsrequiredofthemtheywereoftenunabletopay。Yetwhatdoesallthisprove？thatslaveryis

betterthanfreedomforalargeportionofmankind？horribleinference!Butitprovesdecisively，whathasbeenoftenproved

before，thatwemaybetooprecipitateinourplansofreform；andthatmisguidedbenevolencemayfrequentlydomischief，whileitseeksonlytodiffusegood。Inallinstancesoffailurerelativetotheproposedbenefitofhumanbeings，thegreatdangeris，lestweshouldrelaxinourefforts，andconcludethattobeimpossible，which，infact，ourdeficientwisdomonlyhadpreventedusfromeffecting。Ibid。p。109。ThepresentCountZamoyski，sonofthelateChancellor，innowisedisheartenedbyhisfather"smiscarriage，

continuestomeditateextensiveplansofimprovementrelativetohisownpeasantry。Butheisnowawarethathemust

proceedwithcaution，andnotbyattemptingtoomuch，endindoingnothing。Hedesignstoemancipatethewholeofhis

vassalsgradually；togivethemslightprivilegesatfirst，andtoencouragethemwiththehopeofmore，onconditionof

properconduct。Inshort，hisprincipleistoretainthepowerofrewardandpunishmentcompletelyinhisownhands，thathe

maybeabletostimulatetoindustrybythehopeofnewfavours，andtorestrainfrommisconductbythethreatenedforfeiture

ofthosealreadyconceded；tilltheirstate，graduallyameliorated，shallrenderitsafetogivethementirefreedom，andtoleavetheirconducttoberegulatedbythegeneraloperationofthelaws。Ibid。p。121。ThecultivationofthesoilinPoland，inthemanneritisthereconducted，isattendedwithlittletroubleand

expence；indeed，farlessthanitoughttobe。Wenowhereseemorethanaploughmanwithhisploughandasinglepairof

smallbullocks，notbiggerthanEnglishsteers，toproduceafallow。Thereisscarcelysuchathingasmanuretobeseen，andtheproduceisproportionallysmall。Ibid。p。124。Theterritoryofanobleman，theextentofwhichIhadanopportunityofascertainingwithsomeexactness，is

aboutfivethousandsquaremiles；whichproducesanincomeofabout100，000ducats，or？0，000。sterling:thisgivesonly？0。ayearforeverytwentysquaremiles。

V。StateofthePoorfromtheConquesttotheReformation，bySirF。M。Eden，Bart。Vol。I——Ofthedomesticcomfortsenjoyed

bythegreatbodyofthepeople，intheperiodsimmediatelysubsequenttotheConquest，wemayformatolerableestimate，

notwithstandingthegreatdeficiencyofevidencetomarkthemannersofprivatelife，fromconsideringtheinformation

affordedusbyhistoriansconcerningtheirpoliticalsituation。Ifweexceptthebaronialproprietorsofland，andtheirvassals

thefreetenantsandsocmen，therestofthenation，foralongtimeafterthisera，seemstohavebeeninvolvedinastateof

servitude，which，thoughqualifiedastoitseffects，wasuniforminitsprinciple，thatnonewhohadunhappilybeenbornin，orhadfalleninto，bondage，couldacquireanabsoluterighttoanyspeciesofproperty。(1)Thecondition，however，ofthepeople，whowerethus。debarredfromtastingthefirstofsocialblessings，wasnot，inother

respects，equallyabjectandmiserable:those，denominatedvilleinsingross，wereattheabsolutedisposaloftheirlord；and

weretransferablebydeed，sale，orconveyance，fromoneownertoanother。Theywereprincipallyemployedinmenial

servicesaboutthehouse，andweresonumerousastoformaconsiderablebranchofEnglishcommerce。Anauthor，who

livedinthereignofHenrytheSecond，informsus，thatsuchanumberofthemwasexported

toIreland，thatthemarket

therewasabsolutelyglutted；andanotherdeclares，thatfromthereignofKingWilliamtheFirsttothatofKingJohn，there

wasscarcelyacottageinScotlandthatdidnotpossessanEnglishslave。Thesewereprobablythecaptivestakeninthe

predatoryinroadsontheborders:therecanbelittledoubtbutthattheEnglishretaliatedontheirneighbours，andmade

slavesofsuchoftheirScotchprisonersascouldnotpayfortheirransom。Inthevariousaccountsofthemarauding

expeditionsofthemoss-troopersofCumberland，menareoftenmentionedastheprincipalpartofthebootytheybroughtback。Villeinsregardantwerethosewhowereannexedtomanors，andboundtoperformthemostservileofficesofagricultural

labour，whichwasoriginallyunlimited，bothwithregardtoitsqualityanditsduration。Theyhoweverweresometimes

permittedtooccupysmallportionsoflandtosustainthemselvesandtheirfamilies，butwereremovableatthelord"s

pleasure，andwereliabletobesold，withthesoiltowhichtheybelonged；fromwhichtheymightalsoatanytimebesevered。

Ihavemadethisdistinctionbetweenvilleinsingross，andvilleinsregardant，asitislaiddownbyourlawyersandhistorians。

Itmay，however，Ithink，bedoubted，whetherthedifferenceintheirconditionwasmorethannominal。Thevilleinregardant

seemstohavebeenoccasionallyemployedasadomestic，aswellasanagriculturalslave:andalthoughhewasgenerally

indulgedbyhislordintheuseofafewacresofland，hewasliabletobecalledupontoperformeveryspeciesofwork，

howeverpainfulordegrading。Otherranksofmen，equallyservileanddependent，arenoticedinancientrecords；particularly

theBordarli，who，inconsiderationoftheirbeingpermittedtooccupyasmallcottage，wereboundtoprovidepoultry，eggs，

andotherarticlesofdietforthelord"stable:andtheCottarii，orCoterelli，whoappeartohavebeenmuchonthesame

footingwithvilleinsregardant，being`employedinthetradesofsmith，carpenter，andotherhandicraftartsnecessaryinthe

country；inwhichtheyhadbeeninstructedattheexpenceoftheirmasters，andforwhosebenefittheypursuedtheirseveraloccupations。AftertheConquest，variouscausesco-operatednotonlytopreventtheintroductionofanewstock，butalsotoextinguish

theancientraceofvilleins。Asitwasthecustomofenslavingcaptivestakeninwar，thatwasprobablythefoundation，and

certainlythesupport，formanyages，ofthisnotmoreiniquitousthanimpoliticsystem；soitseemsthatthedisuseofthe

ancientpracticeofconvertingcaptivityintoslavery，ledthewaytoitsultimateabolition:and，althoughhistoryissilenton

thesubject，Ishouldimagine，that，aftertheintroductionoftheNormanline，noEnglishmancouldbeaslave，unlessbybirth

orconfession。Theseweretheonlysourcesofsupply；buttheycontinued，foralongtime，sufficientlycopioustoinvolvethelabouringclassesofthecommunityinabondage，thatwasmarkedbyeveryessentialingredientofslavery。Ibid。p。18。BetweentheConquestandthereignofEdwardtheThird，therearoseamiddleclassofmen，who，although

theydidnotimmediatelyacquirethefullpowerofbarteringtheirlabourtothebestbidder，were，yetnotsubjectedtothe

imperiouscapricesofamaster，andtheunconditionalservicesofpersonalbondage。Ofthisdescriptionweretheservile

tenantsofmanors，who，althoughtheywerepermittedtooccupysmallportionsoflandfortheirownuse，wererequired，at

statedperiodsoftheyear，toattendtothecultivationofthedemesnesoftheirlords。PrevioustothereignsofHenrythe

Third，andEdwardtheFirst，theyarenotmuchnoticedinancientrecords；butintheperiodimmediatelysubsequent，on

everyoccasion，whenitbecameimportantforthelordtoinquireintothestateofhismanorsandtheirappendages，thevalue

ofhisarableandpastureland，thenumberofhisparks，hisfish-ponds，hismills，andhismansion-houses，werenotmore

minutelyinvestigated，thanthenumberandconditionofhisserviletenants，andtheextentandnatureoftheservicesthey

wereboundtoperform。Itwasextremelyessential

forhimtoascertainwhetherthatpartofhisestate，whichheretainedin

hisownhands，couldbecultivatedwithouttheinterventionoffreelabourers:andhencewemayseethenecessity，whya

baron，onacquiringafee，eitherbypurchaseorinheritance，andtheking"sescheators，onaforfeitureaccruingtothecrown，

seldomfailedtoobtainfullinformationrelativetomanorialrights，bymeansofaninquisition，composed，inthelatterinstance，offreeholdersofthecounty，andintheformer，mostusually，oftheprincipaltenantsofthemanor。Itisfromtheinqueststhustaken，thatwecan，perhaps，obtainthebestpossibleevidencerelativetotheancientstateof

agricultureinEngland。Theyoftendescribe，veryparticularly，thequantityofarable，ofpasture，andofmeadowinamanor；

thetimesatwhichthevariousoperationsofhusbandrywerecarriedon；thedutyofagriculturalservants；theirdiet；the

customsinharvest；andmanyotherparticularshighlyillustrativeoftheruraleconomyofancienttimes。Fromsuchrecords，

itappears，that，beforethereignofEdwardtheFirst，theconditionofvilleinswasgreatlymeliorated；andthat，insteadof

beingobligedtoperformeverymeanandservileoffice，thatthearbitrarywillofthelordrequired，theyhad，atlength，

acquiredatenureinlands，onoondltionofrenderingservices，whichwereeithercertainintheirnatureastoreapthelord"s

corn，orcleansehisfish-pond；orlimitedintheirdurationastoharrowtwodaysintheyear，ortoemploythreedaysincartingthelord"stimber。Atenantbyvillenage，thuscircumstanced，wasnolongeravillein。Hewasindeedboundtoperformcertainstipulatedwork

forhislord，generallyatsowing-timeandharvest，theonlyseasonswhich，intherudestateofagriculture，weremuch

attendedto:but，atothertimesoftheyear，hewasatlibertytoexercisehisindustryforhisownbenefit。Asearlyastheyear

1257，aserviletenant，ifemployedbeforeMidsummer，receivedwages:andinEdwardtheFirst"sreign，hewaspermitted，

insteadofworkinghimself，toprovidealabourerforthelord；fromwhichitisobvious，thathemusthavesometimes

possessedthemeansofhiringone:and，asitisnotnaturaltosuppose，thatatenantbyvillenagehadanypowerofhiringthe

purevillein，(who，wehaveseen，wasannexedeithertotheland，orthepersonofhislord，)labourers，whowerethushired

byservilecultivators，itisprobable，wereeithertenantsbyvillenage，whocouldassisttheirneighboursonthesparedays，in

whichtheywerenotboundtoworkfortheirlord；orfreelabourers，whoexisted(althoughperhapsnotingreatnumbers)longbeforetheparliamentarynoticetakenofthemintheStatuteofLabourers，passedin1350。TreatyseonSurveyinge(saidtohavebeen"compyledsometyrnebyMasterFitzherbarde，""p。49ofreprint)。SirAnthony

FitzherbertlivedinthereignofHenrytheEighth。ThisTreatiseonSurveyingisassignedtohimonstrongevidence，and

clearlyitwaspublishedin1523，abouthistime；itshewsthateventhen，barelymorethan300yearsago，therewerepredialslavesinEnglandinsufficientnumberstoformamarkedfeatureinthecompositionofthecommunity。Iteminquirendumestdecustomariisvidelicetquotsuntcustomariietquantumterrequilibetcustomariusteneat，quas

operationes，etquasconsuetudinesfacit，etquantumvalentoperaetconsuetudinescuiuslibetcustomariiperseannum，et

quantumredditumderedditu。assiseperannumpreteroperaetconsuetudines，etquipossunttalliariadvoluntatemdominietquinon。Itistobeinqueredofcustomarytenantes，thatistowytte，howemanytherebe，andhowmochlandeverytenauntholdeth，

andwhatwerkesandcustomshodoth，andwhatthewerkesandcustomsbeworthofeverytenauntbyitself，andhow

mocherentbytheyeare，abovehiswerkesandcustomeshedothpay，andwhichofthemmaytaxetheirlandesatthewyllof

thelordeandwhichenat。Customaryetenauntesarethosethatholdtheyrlandesoftheirlordbycopyeofcourterole，after

thecustomeofthemanour。Andtheremaybemanytenaunteswithinthesamemanor，thathavenocopies，andyetholdeby

lykecustomeandseruyceatthewyllofthelorde。Andinmyneopinionitbegansooneaftertheconquest，whenWilliam

conquerourhadconqueredtherealme，herewardedallthosethatcamewithhym，inhisviageroyall，accordingtotheir

degree。Andtohonourablemenhegavelordshyppes，maners，landes，andtenementes，withalltheinhabytantes，menandwomendwellynginthesatne，todowiththemattheirpleasure。Andthosehonourablementhought，thattheymustneedeshaveservantesandtenantes，andtheyrlandesoccupyedwith

tyllage。Whereforetheypardonedtheinhabytantesoftheirlyues，andcausedthemtodoalmanerofservyce，thatwastobe

done，wereitneversowyle，andcausedthemtooccupietheirlandesandtenementesintyliage，andtokeofthemsuche

rentescustomesandservices，asitpleasedthemtohave。Andalsotookalltheirgoodesandcattellatalltymisattheir

plesure，andcalledthemtheirbondmen，andsythethattymemanynoblemenbothspirituallandtemporall，oftheirgodly

dispositionhavemadetodiversofthesaidbondmenmanumissions，andgrantedthemfreedomandlibertie，andsettothem

theirlandesandtenementestooccupyafterdyversmanerofrentes，customesandservyces，thewhicheisusedindyuers

placesuntothisday。Howebeitinsomeplaces，theboundmencontynueasyet，thewhichmesemethisthegreatest

Inconueniencethatnowissufferedbythelawe，thatistohaueanychristenmanboundentoanother，andtohauetheruleof

hisbody，landesandgoodesthathiswife，children，andseruanteshauelabouredforalltheyrlyfetymetobesotaken，likeas

anditwereextorcionorbribery。Andmanytymesbycoulourthereof，therebemanyfreementakenasbondmen，andtheir

landes，andgoodestakenfromthem，sothattheyshallnotbeabletosueforremedy，toprouethemselfefreofblode。And

thatismostecommonlywherethefreemenhavethesamenameasthebondemen，orthathisauncesters，ofwhomeheis

comen，wasmanumysedbeforehisbyrthe。Insuchcasetherecannatbetogreatapunyshment。Forasmesemeth，there

shuldebenomanbounde，buttoGod，andtohiskynge，andprinceouerhym:Quiadeusnonfacitexceptionempersonarum，

forGodmakethnoexceptionofanyperson。Whereforeitwereacharitablededetoeuerynoblemanbothspirituall，and

temporall，todoastheywoldebedoneby，andthatistomanumysethemthatbebond，andtomakethemfreofbodyand

blode，reseruingtothemtheyrrentes，customes，andseruicesofoldetymedueandaccustomed，whereintheymaygettheprayersofthepartie，andremyssionoftheyroffences，asinthegospell。Eademmesura，quametiti，fueritis，metieturvobis。TheLatinwordswhichheadthisextract，arepartofastatuteofEdwardtheFirst；butFitzherbert，ortheauthor，behewho

hemay，doesnotmentioninhiscommentthatanypartofitrelatestoobsoleteusagesorlaws。Donotthereforethewords

etquipossunttalliariadvoluntaterndominietquinonindicatethatthisclassoftenaritryweretallagedortaxedbythosein

whoseestatetheylived，tilltheirracebecameextinct？

VI。Mü；llertreat，thePeriaeciastributarycommunities，asasortofinferiorallies，anddeniesthattheirconditionever

approachedthatofindividualpersonaldependence:theircondition，hesays，"neverhadtheslightestresemblancetothatof

bondage，"(seeTuffnellandLewis，p。30)。Itstrikesme，asitseemstohavedoneGaettling，(seehisAristotle；p。465。)thatif

thisismeanttoapplytotheGrecianPeriaecigenerally，itisgoingrathertoofar。ThePeriaeciappeartohavebeenevery

wherenativesreducedbyforeigninvaderstoastateofsubjectionlessservileinsomedistrictsthaninothers，butverylike

bondageinmany。Aristotlemusthaveseentheminsuchastatewhenheintimatesthattheymayverywelloccupytheplace

ofthe，heprefersascultivators。Seenotetopage80oftext。SeetooGaettling"sAristotle，p。473。"Urbsquaovis

autemCretensiumsuoshabebatPericecosindigenasquidemsedbellovictos，quiagrumceteriscolebant:nectamenanususutilicuitnecgymnasiis。IdexinstitutioneMinoissupererat，utauctorestAristoteles。"Gaettlingontheotherhandisofopinionsthatthisclassofpeople，neitherslavesorfreemen，butinvestedwithsomethingof

anintermediatecharacter，existedintheDorianstatesalone；andhesaysdistinctlythattheywerenottobefoundamongthe

Ionians，seeArist。Pol。byGaettling，p。464。"Fundataeratautemhaecdoricaconstitutioduabusmaximerebus:diverso

moderataemultitudinisjureetmagistratuumdescriptadignitate。NamquumcivitatesIonicaeoriginisnomisiliberos

novissentetservosquicivitatemconstituerent，apudDoriensesmediumquoddamgenusinterliberos(Spartanos)etservos

(Helotes)reperiebatur，Pesiaecorumnomineinsignitum"Surelythisisamistake，andonewhichwouldleadtoconsiderable

misapprehensionastothemodeinwhichtheearlycommunitiesofGreece，TonianaswellasDorian，wereoriginally

constituted。Whereveraconquesttookplace，thereaclasswasestablishedundersomenameorother，consistingofthe

conquerednatives，andrankingneitherascitizensorslaves。SuchaclassexistedaswehaveseenamongtheIonian

inhabitantsofAttica。Thefactseemstobe，thatalthoughthisorderinthestatemaybetracedalmosteverywhereinGreece，

stillitwasintheDorianstatesalonethatitspresenceandfunctionswerenecessarytosupporttheverypeculiarinstitutions

establishedbytheconquerors。Elsewhereitmightdisappearorbetransformed，asinAttica，withouttheevent"saffectingthe

constitutionofthestate。

VII。TravelsinFrance，byArthurYoung，Esq。Vol。II。p。151。ThepredominantfeatureinthefarmsofPiedmontismetayers，

nearlyuponthesamesystemwhichIhavedescribedandcondemned，intreatingofthehusbandryofFrance。Thelandlord

commonlypaysthetaxesandrepairsthebuildings，andthetenantprovidescattle，implements，andseed；theydividethe

produce。Whereverthissystemprevails，itmaybetakenforgrantedthatauselessandmiserablepopulationisfound。The

povertyofthefarmersistheoriginofit；theycannotstockthefarms，paytaxes，andrentinmoney，and，therefore，must

dividetheproduceinordertodividetheburthen。Thereisreasontobelievethatthiswasentirelythesystemineverypartof

Europe；itisgraduallygoingouteverywhere；andinPiedmontisgivingwaytogreatfarms，whoseoccupierspayamoney

rent。IwasforsometimedeceivedingoingfromNicetoTurin，andbelievedthatmoreofthefarmswerelargerthanisreally

thecase，whichresultedfrommanysmallonesbeingcollectedintoonehome-stead。ThatbelongingtothePrinceof

Carignan，atBiliaBruna，hastheappearanceofbeingveryconsiderable；but，oninquiry，Ifounditinthehandsofseven

familiesofmetayers。Inthemountains，fromNicetoRacconis，however，theyaresmall；butmanyproperties，asinthemountainsofFranceandSpain。TheCaval。deCapra，memberoftheAgrarianSociety，assuredme，thattheunionoffarmswastheruinofPiedmont，andthe

effectofluxury；thatthemetayersweredismissedanddrivenaway，andthefieldseverywheredepopulated。Idemanded

howthecountrycametohavetheappearanceofimmensecultivation，andlookedratherlikeagardenthanafarm，allthe

wayfromConi？Hereplied，thatIshouldseethingsotherwiseinpassingtoMilan:thatthericeculturewassupportedby

greatfarms，andthatlargetractsofcountrywerereducedtoadesert。Aretheythenuncultivated？No；theyareverywell

cultivated；butthepeopleallgone，orbecomemiserable。Wehearthesamestoryineverycountrythatisimproving:while

theproduceiseatenupbyasuperfluityofidlehands，thereispopulationonthespot；butitisuselesspopulation:the

improvementbanishesthesedronestotowns，

wheretheybecomeusefulintradeandmanufactures，andyieldamarketto

thatland，towhichtheywerebeforeonlyaburthen。Nocountrycanbereallyflourishingunlessthistakeplace；norcanthere

beanywhereaflourishingandwealthyraceoffarmers，abletogivemoneyrents，butbythedestructionofmetaying。Does

anyoneimaginethatEngland`wouldbemorerichandmorepopulousifherfarmerswereturnedintometayers？Ridiculous。

TheintendantofBissattiaddedanotherargumentagainstgreatfarms；namely，thatoftheirbeinglaidtograssmorethan

smallones；surelythisisaleadingcircumstanceintheirfavour；forgrassisthelastand。greatestimprovementofPiedmont；

andthatarrangementofthesoilwhichoccasionsmosttobeingrass，isthemostbeneficial。Theirmeadowsareamongstthe

finestandmostproductiveintheworld。Whatistheirarable？Ityieldscropsoffiveorsixtimestheseedonly。Tochange

suchambletosuchgrass，is，doubtless，thehighestdegreeofimprovement。ViewFranceandhermetayersViewEnglandandherfarmers；andthendrawyourconclusions。Whereverthecountry(thatIsaw)ispoorandunwatered，intheMilanese，itisinthehandsofmetayers。AtMozzatathe

CountdeCastiglionishewedmetherentbookhisintendant(steward)keeps，anditisacuriousexplanationofthesystem

whichprevails。InsomehundredpagesIsawveryfewnameswithoutalargebalanceofdebtduetohim，andbroughtfrom

thebookoftheprecedingyear:theypaybysomanymoggiiofallthedifferentgrains，atthepriceoftheyear:somany

headsofpoultry；somuchlabour；somuchhay；andsomuchstraw，&；c。Butthereis，inmostoftheiraccounts，onthe

debtor"sside，avarietyofarticles，besidethoseofregularrent:somuchcorn，ofallsorts，borrowedofthelandlord，forseed

orfood，whenthepoormanhasnone:thesamethingiscommoninFrance，wherevermetayingtakesplace。Allthisproves

theextremepoverty，andevenmisery，oftheselittlefarmers；andshews，thattheirconditionismorewretchedthanthatofa

daylabourer。Theyaremuchtoonumerous；threebeingcalculatedtoliveononehundredpertichi，andallfullyemployedby

labouring，andcroppingthelandincessantlywiththespade，foraproduceunequaltothepaymentofanythingtothelandlord，afterfeedingthemselvesandtheircattleastheyoughttobefed；hencetheuniversaldistressofthecountry。Ibid。p。155。EstatesinBolognaareverygenerallylettomiddlemen，whore-letthemtothefarmersathalfproduce，by

whichmeanstheproprietorreceiveslittlemorethanonehalfofwhathemightdoonabettersystem，withapeasantryina

bettersituation。Thewholecountryisathalfproduce；thefarmersuppliesimplements，cattle，andsheep，andhalftheseed；theproprietorrepairs。Ibid。pp。155-56——Lettinglands，atmoneyrent，isbutnewinTuscany；anditisstrangetosay，thatSig。Paoletti，avery

practicalwriter，declaresagainstit。AfarminTuscanyiscalledapodere:andsuchanumberofthemasareplacedunderthe

managementofafactor，iscalledfattoria。Hisbusinessistoseethatthelandsaremanagedaccordingtothelease，andthat

thelandlordhashisfairhalf。Thesefarmsarenotoftenlargerthanforapairofoxen，andeighttotwelvepeopleinone

house；some100pertichi(thismeasureistotheacre，asabout25to38)，andtwopairofoxen，withtwentypeople。Iwas

assuredthatthesemetayersare(especiallynearFlorence)muchattheirease；thatonholydaystheyaredressedremarkably

well，andnotwithoutobjectsofluxury，assilver，gold，andsilk；andlivewell，onplentyofbread，wine，andlegumes。In

someinstancesthismaypossiblybethecase，butthegeneralfactiscontrary。Itisabsurdtothinkthatmetayers，uponsucha

farmasiscultivatedbyapairofoxen，canbeattheirease；andaclearproofoftheirpovertyisthis，thatthelandlord，who

provideshalfthelivestock，isoftenobligedtolendthepeasantmoneytoenablehimtoprocurehishalf；buttheyhirefarms

withverylittlemoney，whichistheoldstoryofFrance，&；c。；andindeedpovertyandmiserableagriculturearethesure

attendantsuponthiswayoflettingland。Themetayers，notinthevicinityofthecity，aresopoor，thatlandlordsevenlend

themcorntoeat:theirfoodisblackbread，madeofamixturewithvetches；andtheirdrinkisverylittlewine，mixedwithwater，andcalledaquarolle；meatonSundaysonly；theirdressveryordinary。Ibid。p。157。InthemountainsofModenatherearemanypeasantproprietors，butnotintheplain。Agreatevilhere，asin

otherpartsofLombardy，isthepracticeofthegreatlords，andthepossessorsoflandsinmortmainlettingtomiddlemen，whore-lettometayers；underwhichtenureareallthelandsofthedutchy。Ibid。p。158——AppearancesfromReggiotoParmaaremuchinferiortothosefromModenatoReggio；thefencesnotso

neat；northehousessowellbuilt，white，orclean。Allheremetayers；theproprietorsuppliesthecattle，halftheseed，and

paysthetaxes；thepeasantprovidestheutensils。InthewholedutchiesofParmaandPiacenza，andindeedalmostevery

whereelse，thefarmsmustbeverysmall；thepracticesIhaveelsewherenoted，ofthediggingthe，landforbeans，and

workingitupwithasuperfluityoflabour，evidentlyshewit:theswarmsofpeopleinallthemarketsannouncethesamefact；

atPiacenza，Isawmen，whoseonlybusinesswastobringasmallbagofapples，aboutapeck；onemanbroughtaturkey，andnotafineone。Whatawasteoftimeandlabour，forastoutfellowtobethusemployed。TravelsinSwitzerland，byW。Coxe，Vol。III。p。Anothercauseoftheirwretchednessproceedsfromthepresentstateof

property。Fewofthepeasantsarelandholders；asfromthecontinualoppressionunderwhichthepeoplehavegroanedfor

abovethesetwolastcenturies，thefreeholdshavegraduallyfallenintothehandsofthenoblesandGrisons，thelatterof

whomaresupposedtopossesshalftheestatesintheValteline。Thetenantswhotakefarmsdonotpaytheirrentinmoney，

butinkind；astrongproofofgeneralpoverty。Thepeasantisatallthecostsofcultivation，anddeliversnearhalftheproduce

tothelandholder。Theremainingportionwouldillcompensatehislabourandexpence，ifhewasnotinsomemeasure

befriendedbythefertilityofthesoil。Thegroundseldomliesfallow，andtherichestpartsofthevalleyproducetwocrops。

Thefirstcropiswheat，rye，orspelt，halfofwhichisdeliveredtotheproprietor；thesecondcropisgenerallymillet，

buck-wheat，maize，orTurkeycorn，whichistheprincipalnourishmentofthecommonpeople:thechiefpartofthiscrop

belongstothepeasant，andenableshiminaplentifulyeartosupporthisfamilywithsomedegreeofcomfort。Thepeasants

whoinhabitthedistrictswhichyieldwinearethemostwretched:forthetroubleandchargeofrearingthevines，of

gatheringandpressingthegrapes，isveryconsiderable；andtheyaresoveryapttoconsumetheshareofliquorallottedto

theminintoxication，that，wereitnotforthegrainintermixedwiththevines，theyandtheirfamilieswouldbeleftalmostentirelydestituteofsubsistence。Besidesthebusinessofagriculture，someofthepeasantsattendtothecultivationofsilk。Forthispurposetheyreceivethe

eggsfromthelandholder，rearthesilkworm；andareentitledtohalfthesilk。Thisemploymentisnotunprofitable；for

althoughtherearingofthesilkwormsisattendedwithmuchtrouble，andrequiresgreatcaution，yetastheoccupationisgenerallyentrustedtothewomen，itdoesnottakethemenfromtheirwork。Withalltheadvantages，however，derivedfromthefertilityofthesoil，andthevarietyofitsproductions，thepeasants

cannot，withouttheutmostdifficulty，andaconstantexertion，maintaintheirfamilies；andtheyarealwaysreducedtothegreatestdistress，whenevertheseasonisunfavourabletoagriculture。Tothecausesofpenuryamongthelowerclassesaboveenumerated，maybeaddedthenaturalindolenceofthepeople，and

theirtendencytosuperstitionwhichtakesthemfromtheirlabour。Uponthewhole，Ihavenot，inthecourseofmytravels，

seenanypeasantry，exceptinPoland，socomfortlessastheinferiorinhabitantsofthisvalley。Theyenjoyindeedonegreat

advantageoverthePoles，innotbeingtheabsolutepropertyofthelandholder，andtransferable，likecattle。Theyare

thereforeatlibertytolivewheretheychuse，toquittheircountry，andseekabetterconditioninotherregions；arelieftowhichdistressoftencompelsthemtohaverecourse。Ibid。p。143——Thecottagesofthepeasants，whicharebuiltofstone，arelarge，butgloomy，generallywithoutglasswindows:

Ienteredseveral，andwaseverywheredisgustedwithanuniformappearanceofdirtandpoverty。Thepeasantsaremostly

coveredwithrags，andthechildrenhaveusuallyanunhealthylook，whicharisesfromtheirwretchedmannerofliving。Such

ascarcityofprovisionshasbeenoccasionedbylastyear"sdrought，thatthepoorinhabitantshavebeenreducedtothemost

extremenecessity。Thepriceofbreadwasunavoidablyraisedsohigh，thatinmanypartsthepeasantscouldnotpurchaseit；

andtheironlyfoodwasforsometimeakindofpaste，madebypoundingthehullsandstonesofthegrapeswhichhadbeen

pressedforwine，andmixingitwithalittlemeal。Famine，addedtotheiroppressedsituation，reducedtheinhabitantstothelowestconditionofhumanmisery，andnumbersperishedfromabsolutewant。Gilly"sNarrativeandResearchesamongtheVaudois，&；c。p。129。Theothercottagesweenteredwereofaveryinferior

order，andhadbutfewofthoselittlecomforts，withwhichinEnglandwedesiretoseethepoorestsupplied，anditwasquite

astonishingtocomparetheveryrudeandinsufficientaccommodationsofthesepeople，withtheircivilityandinformation。In

theirmodeofliving，orImightalmostsay，herdingtogether，underaroof，whichisbarelyweatherproof，theyarefarbehind

ourownpeasantry，butinmentaladvancementtheyarejustasfarbeyondthem。Mostofthemhaveafewroodsofland，

whichtheycancalltheirownproperty，varyinginextent，fromaboutaquarterofanacreandupwards，andtheyhavethemeansofprovidingthemselveswithfuel，fromtheabundanceofwooduponthemountains。Thetenure，uponwhichlandishired，requiresthattheoccupiershouldpaytotheproprietorhalftheproduceofcornand

wineinkind，andhalfthevalueofthehay。Theindifferentcorn-landyieldsaboutfivefold，andthebesttwelvefold。They

seldomsufferthegroundtoliefallow，andthemostgeneralcourseis，wheatfortwoyears。andmaizethethird。Thelandis

wellmanuredfromtimetotime，andthecornisusuallysowninAugustorSeptember，andcutinJune。InthevaleofSanGiovanni，andinafewotherproductivespots，hayiscutthreetimesintheyear。Ibid。p。128。Onacratesuspendedfromtheceiling，wecountedfourteenlargeblacicloaves，Breadisanunusualluxury

amongthem，buttheownerofthiscottagewasofaconditionsomethingabovethegenerality。

VIII。NoteonRyotRents。Cal。Tod"sservicesinRajast"hanweremostdistinguished。Hiselaborateworkisavaluablecontributiontotheliteratureof

hiscountry。HadIfoundthatthefactscollectedbysuchapersonreallycontradictedtheopinionsIhavearrivedat(in

common，however，withthemajorityofthosewhohaveconsideredthesubject)，Ishouldhavebeenmostreadytohave

re-examinedthoseopinions，andperhapstohaveabandonedthem。ButtheconclusionswhichCol。Todhasdrawnfromhis

facts，seemtometorequireconsiderablemodificationbeforetheycanbereconciledwiththepastandpresentconditionof

therestofIndia，orindeedofRajast"hanitselfashedepictsit。TheColonelthinks，thattherelationsbetweentheprincesof

Rajast"hanandtheirnoblesaresimilartothosewhichexisted，betweenthefeudalnobilityofEuropeandtheirsovereigns；

andthattheryotshaveaninterestinthesoil，whichhecallsafreeholdinterest:andthishemagnifiesanddwellson，withallthepartialityofaman，whofeelsagoodnaturedpleasureinexaltingtheinstitutionsofhisfavoriteRajpoots。Thequestiontobediscussedis，whetherthereisanythinginthefactsproducedbyCol。Todorothers，tocontradictthe

notionadoptedinthetext，thatthesoilofIndiabelongstothesovereignandtothesovereignalone，andthattheoccupiers

havenever，practically，anyothercharacterthanthatofhistenantry，exceptinsonicsmalldistricts，whichform

acknowledgedexceptionstoageneralrule。Themereexistenceofafeudalnobility，sofarfrombeinginconsistentwiththe

proprietaryrightofthesovereign，stronglyconfirmsit。Itistheoneessentialcharacteristicofafeudalsystem，thattheland

shouldbegrantedbythesovereign，andoncertainconditions。InEuropetherightofresumptionslidoutofthehandsofthe

monarchsbyimperceptibledegrees。InRajast"hanithasneverescapedthematall。Onlyacenturyandahalf"ago，so

miserablyunstablewastheclaimofsubjectnobleseventothetemporarypossessionofanyparticularspot，thattheywerein

thehabitofchangingtheirlandseverythreeyears。"SolateasthereignofManaSingram(10generationsago，)thefiefsof

Mewarwereactuallymoveable，andlittlemorethanacenturyandahalfhaspassedsincethispracticeceased。Thus，a

Rahtorewouldshiftwithfamily，chattelsandretainers，

fromthenorthintothewildsofChuppun，whiletheSuktawut，

relieved，wouldoccupytheplainsatthefootoftheAravulli，oraChondawutwouldexchangehisabodeonthebanksofthe

ChumbulwithaPramaraorChohanfromtheTableMountain，theeasternboundaryofMewar。"Suchchanges"(Mr。Tod

saysinanote，)"weretriennial，andasIhaveheardthePrincehimselfsay，sointerwovenwiththeircustomswasthisrule，

thatitcausednodissatisfaction:butofthiswemaybeallowedatleasttodoubt。Itwasaperfectchecktotheimbibingof

localattachment；andtheprohibitionagainsterectingfortsforrefugeordefiance，preventeditsgrowthifacquired。Itproducedtheobjectintended，obediencetothePrince，andunityagainsttherestlessMogul"。Tod"sRajast"han，p。164。Evennowtheirrightsremainmuchonthesamefooting。InEurope，thenecessityofadmissionbythesovereign，thefine

paidbytheheir，andtherenewalofhomageandfealty，keptalivetherecollectionatleast，ofthepastrightsofthesovereign。

InRajast"han，anactualresumptiontakesplacebytheRajahonthedeathofeverychief:andisconductedinsuchamanner，

asveryimpressivelytoexhibittheexistingclaimsofthemonarch，andtheentire(legal)dependenceofallderivativeinterests

onhiswill。"Onthedemiseofachief，theprinceimmediatelysendsaparty，termedthezubti(sequestrator)，consistingofa

civilofficerandafewsoldiers，whotakepossessionofthestate(quere，estate)intheprince"sname。Theheirsendshis

prayertocourttobeinstalledintheproperty，offeringtheproperrelief。Thispaid，thechiefisinvitedtorepairtothe

presence，whenheperformshomage，andmakesprotestationsofserviceandfealty；hereceivesafreshgrant，andthe

inaugurationterminatesbytheprincegirdinghimwithasword，intheoldformsofchivalry。Itisanimposingceremony，

performedinafullassemblyofthecourt，andoneofthefewwhichhasneverbeenrelinquished。Thefinepaid，andthebrand

buckledtohisside，asteed，turban，plume，anddressofhonourgiventothechief，theinvestitureiscomplete；the

sequestratorreturnstocourt，andthechieftohisestate，toreceivethevowsandcongratulationsofhisvassals。"Tod"sRajast"han，p。158。Aftertheseextracts，itcanhardlybenecessarytostate，thatthedoctrineastotheproprietaryrightsof

thesovereignisnotweakenedbythe`conditionofthenobleRajpoots。Itwouldbeacurioussubject，werethistheplacefor

it，totracethepeculiarcauseswhichhaveledthesovereignsofRajast"han，todelegate，inagreatmeasure，themilitary

defenceoftheirfrontierstochieftainssonearlyresemblingourfeudalbarons。Thosecausesmaybepartiallydiscernedinthe

tiesofbloodwhichconnectthesovereignandchiefswiththeirtribesinthemountainouscharacteroftheirfortressesintheir

beingconstantlyliabletohostileincursionsandintheiralmostperpetualstateofdefensivewar。Weshould，Ithink，after

fairlyexaminingthecausesandresultsoftheRajpootsystem，findmuchmorereasontowonder，thattherightsofthe

sovereigntothesoilhavenotoftenergeneratedsuchasystem，thantoconcludefromitsexistenceinRajast"hanthattherearenosuchproprietaryrights。Icannotquitthefeudalpartofthequestion，withoutwarmlyrecommendingCol。Tod"sbooktothegeneralreader，andto

thestudentofhistory，andofman。Thesystemofmodifieddependenceonthechiefformilitaryservices，asestablishedin

thispartofIndia，hasproducedaresemblancetothestateofEuropeatacertainperiodoftheprogressoffeuds，whichis

moststriking，interestingand，instructive。ThatresemblancemaybetracedinthetenuresandlawsoftheRajpootsinthe

mixedpoliticalresultsofthesebothgoodandevilandinthemoral，andwemayalmostsaypoeticalcharacteristicsofthe

populationinthedeepandenthusiasticfeelingwhichaccompanytheirnotionsoffealtyintheemulouscourage，the

desperatefidelityofthenoblesandinmanyloftyandromantictraitsofmannersworthytohavesprungoutofthevery

bosomofchivalry，andextendingtheirinfluencetothedark

beautiesoftheZenana，aswellastotheirwarriorkindred。High

borndamesindistress，stillthere，astheyoncedidinEurope，sendtheirtokenstoselectedchampions，whowhether

investedwithsovereignpower，oroccupyingalessdistinguishedstation，areequallyboundtospeedtotheiraid，underthe

penaltyofbeingstigmatizedforeverascravensanddishonored。Col。Tod，himself，canboastanhonor(welldeservedby

zealousdevotionanddisinterestedservices，)whichmanyapreuxchevalierwouldhavejoyfullydaredathousanddeathsto

obtain，thatofbeingthechosenfriendandchampionofmorethanoneprincess，whoseregal，andindeedcelestial，descentsmakethelongestgenealogiesofEuropelookmean。ThenextquestionarisingoutofCol。Tod"sbookisthis。AretheryotsinRajast"hanpractically，asheconceivesthemtobe，

freeholdersinanysenseinwhichanEnglishproprietoriscalledthefreeholderofthelandheowns？Ibeganinthetextby

remarking，thattheryothasverygenerallyarecognizedrighttothehereditaryoccupationofhisplotofground，whilehe

paystherentdemandedofhim:andthequestionis，whetherthatrightinRajast"hanpracticallyamountstoaproprietary

rightornot。Nowadistinctionbeforesuggestedinthetext，seemstoaffordtheonlyrealcriterionwhichcanenableusto

determinethisquestionfairly。Istheryotatrack-rent？hashe，orhashenot，abeneficialinterestinthesoil？canheobtain

moneyforthatinterestbysale？canhemakealandlord"srentofit？Togiveacultivatoranhereditaryinterestatavariable

rack-rent，andthentocallhisrighttotill，afreeholdright，wouldclearlybelittlebetterthanmockery。Tosubjectsucha

persontothepaymentofmorethanarack-rent，toleavehimnoadequateremunerationforhispersonaltoil，andstilltocall

himafreeholdproprietor，wouldbesomethingmorebitterthanmeremockery。Toestablishbylaw，andenforcecruellyin

practice，finesandpunishmentstoavengehisrunningawayfromhisfreehold，andrefusingtocultivateitforthebenefitof

hishardtaskmaster，wouldbetoconverthimintoapredialslave:andthis，althoughaverynaturalconsequenceofthemodeofestablishingsuchfreeholdrightswouldmakethenamesofproprietorandowneralmostridiculous。Theuseofthecriterionherepointedout，ismadeverypalpablebySirT。Munroina"MinuteontheStateoftheCountry

andontheConditionofthePeople，"datedthe31stofDecember，1824。"Hadthepublicassessment，aspretended，ever

been，asinthebooksoftheirsages，onlyasixthorafifth，orevenonlyafourthofthegrossproduce，thepaymentofafixed

shareinkind，andalltheexpensivemachineryrequisiteforitssupervision，nevercouldhavebeenwanted。Thesimpleplanof

amoneyassessmentmighthavebeenatonceresortedto，inthefullconfidencethattherevenuewouldeveryyear，ingood

orbadseasons，beeasilyandpunctuallypaid。NopersonwhoknowsanythingofIndiarevenuecanbelievethattheRayet，if

hisfixedassessmentwereonlyafifthorafourthofthegrossproduce，wouldnoteveryyear，whethertheseasonweregood

orbad，payitwithoutdifficulty；andnotonlydothis，butprosperunderitbeyondwhathehaseverdoneatanyformer

period。Hadsuchamoderateassessmenteverbeenestablished，itwouldundoubtedlyhavebeenpaidinmoney，because

therewouldhavebeeunoreasonforcontinuingtheexpensiveprocessofmakingcollectionsinkind。Itwasbecausethe

assessmentwasnotmoderate，thatassessmentsinkindwereintroducedorcontinued:foramoneyrentequivalenttothe

amountcouldnothavebeenrealizedoneyearwithanother。TheHindooGovernmentsseemtohaveoftenwishedthatland

shouldbebothanhereditaryandasaleableproperty；buttheycouldnotbringthemselvestoadopttheonlypracticablemodeofejectingit，alowassessment。LifeofMunro，Vol。III。p。881。Ibid。p。886。"Rayetssometimeshavealandlord"srent；foritisevidentthatwhenevertheysofarimprovetheirlandasto

derivefromitmorethantheordinaryprofitofstock，theexcessislandlord"srent；buttheyareneversureoflongenjoying

thisadvantage，astheyareconstantlyliabletobedeprivedofitbyinjudiciousoverassessment。Whilethisstateofinsecurity

exists，nobodyofsubstantiallandholderscaneverarise；norcanthecountryimprove，ortherevenuerestonanysolid

foundation。Inordertomakethelandgenerallysaleable，toencouragetheRayetstoimproveit，andtoregarditasa

permanenthereditaryproperty，theassessmentmustbefixed，andmoremoderateingeneralthanitnowis；andaboveall，soclearlydefinedasnottobeliabletoincreasefromignoranceorcaprice。"Ibid。p。839。"ThelandoftheBaramahlwillprobablyintimeallbecomesaleable，evenunderitspresentassessment；but

privatelandedpropertyisofslowgrowthincountrieswhereithasnotpreviouslyexisted，andwheretheGovernment

revenueisnearlyhalftheproduce；andwemustnotexpectthatitcanbehastenedbyregulationsorformsofsettlement，or

byanyotherwaythanbyadheringsteadilytoalimitedassessment，andloweringitwherever，afterfullexperience，itmay

stillinparticularplacesbefoundtoohigh。Bypursuingthiscourse，or，inotherwords，byfollowingwhatisnowcalledthe

Rayetwarsystem，weshallseenosuddenchangeorimprovement。Theprogressoflandedpropertywillbeslow，butwemaylookwithconfidencetoitsultimateandgeneralestablishment。Ibid。p。344。"IfwewishtomakethelandsoftheRayetsyieldthemalandlord"srent，wehaveonlytolowerandfixthe

assessment，allthenintimehavethegreatbodyoftheRayetspossessinglandedproperties，yieldingalandlord"srent，butsmallinextent。"Ibid。p。352。"ItmaybesaidthatGovernmenthavingsetalimituponitsdemandupontheZemindar，hewillalsosetalimit

tohisdemandupontheRayet，andleavehimthefullproduceofeveryimprovement，andthusenablehimtorenderhisland

avaluableproperty。Butwehavenoreasontosupposethatthiswillbethecase，eitherfromthepracticeofthenew

Zemindarsduringthetwentyyearstheyhaveexisted，orfromthatoftheoldZemindarsduringasuccessionofgenerations。

InoldZemindarries，whetherheldbytheRajahaoftheCircars，orthePoligarsofthemoresouthernprovinces，whichhave

fromadistantperiodbeenheldatalowandfixedpeshcush，noindulgencehasbeenshowntotheRayets，noboundhasbeen

settothedemanduponthem。Thedemandhasrisenwithimprovement，accordingtothecustomofthecountry，andtheland

oftheRayethasnosaleablevalue；weoughtnot，therefore，tobesurprisedthatinthenewZemindarries，whoseassessment

issomuchhigher，theresulthasbeenequallyunfavourabletotheRayets。ThenewZemindarrieswill，bydivisionamong

heirsandfailuresintheirpayments，breakupintoportionsofoneortwovillages；butthiswillnotbettertheconditionofthe

Rayet。Itwillnotfixtherentoftheland，norrenderitavaluableproperty；itwillmerelyconvertonelargeZemindarryinto

severalsmallZemindarriesorMootahs，andMootabsofakindofmuchmoreinjuriousthanthoseoftheBaramahltothe

Rayets；because，intheBaramahl，theassessmentoftheRayets"landhadpreviouslybeenfixedbysurvey，whileinthenew

ZemindarriesoftheCircarsithadbeenleftundefined。ThelittlewillintimesharethefateofthegreatZemindarries；they

willbedivided，andfail，andfinallyreverttoGovernment；andtheRayets，afterthislongandcircuitouscourse，willagain

becomewhattheyoriginallywere，theimmediatetenantsofGovernment；andGovernmentwillthenhaveitinitspowerto

surveytheirlands，tolowerandfixtheassessmentuponthem，andtolaythefoundationoflandedpropertyinthelandeoftheRayets，wherealone，inordertobesuccessful，itmustbelaid。"Yetwithalltheseviewsofthedifficultyofestablishingprivatepropertyinland，SirThomasMunrodeclarestheryottobe

thetrueproprietor，possessingallthatisnotclaimedbythesovereignasrevenue。This，hesays，whilerejectingthe

proprietaryclaimsoftheZemindars；whichhethinksundulymagnified——"ButtheRayetistherealproprietor，forwhatever

landdoesnotbelongtothesovereignbelongstohim。Thedemandforpublicrevenue，accordingasitishighorlowin

differentplaces，andatdifferenttimes，affectshisshare；butwhetheritleaveshimonlythebareprofitofhisstock，orasmall

surplusbeyonditaslandlord"srent，heisstillthetrueproprietor，andpossessesallthatisnotclaimedbythesovereignas

revenue。"Vol。III，p。840。ImustreferthereadertotheMinuteitselfforSirT。Munro"saccountofthebeneficial

proprietaryrightsactuallysubsistinginCanara，andofcertainsimilarbutsubordinateandimperfectrightsexisting

elsewhere。TocomprehendtherealconditionofsouthernIndia，itwouldbenecessarytounderstandthesewell。Theplanofsuchaworkasthiswillnotallowmetodilateonthem。Taking，then，thefacthereestablishedbySirT。Munro，thatinspiteofthehereditaryclaimsoftheryot，itisextremely

difficulttodiscern，orevenestablisharealbeneficiallandlord"sinterestamongthecultivators，whiletheassessmentishigh

andvariable，letusapplythistoRajast"han，andtothestatementsofCol。TodastotheRyotfreeholdersofMewar。Letus

examine，first，therelationbetweenthesubordinatechiefsandtheirimmediatevassals。Thechiefs，itwillberemembered，

representthesovereignontheirestates。ThevassalsofDeogurhsenttotheBritishresidentalongcomplaintoftheirchief，

towhichCol。Todoftenrefers。Thefollowingaresomearticles。"ToeachRajpoot"shouseachurras，orhideoflandwas

attached，thishehas"resumed。""TenortwelvevillagesestablishedbyhisPuttaetshehasresumed，andlefttheirfamiliesto

starve。"Whilecomplainingofbeingdrivenfromtheirland，itwillbeobservedthattheproceedingiscalledbythemselvesa

resumption。"WhenDeogurhwasestablished，atthesametimewereourallotments:ashispatrimony，soourpatrimony:ourrightsandprivilegesinhisfamilyarethesameashisinthefamilyofthepresence(thesovereign)。"Tod，p。199。Nowiftheselastpassagesexpress，asIsuspecttheydo，theextentandgroundoftheirclaims；weknowhowtointerpret

them。Iftheirinterestinthesoilwassimilartothatofthechiefinhisestate，itwasagrantfromthesovereignoncertainconditions；resumableatpleasure，althoughpracticallyrarelyresumed。Letusnextexaminethemoredirectrelationbetweenthesovereignandthecultivatorsonhisdomain。Thefollowingdecree

isheadedPrivilegesandImmunitiesgrantedtothePrintersofCalicoandInhabitantsoftheTownofgreatAkolain

Mewar。"MaharanaBheemSingcommanding。Whereasthevillagehasbeenabandoned，fromtheassignmentsleviedbythe

garrisonofMandelgurh，anditbeingdemandedofitspopulationshowitcouldagainberenderedprosperous；they

unanimouslyreplied，`nottoexactbeyondtheduesandcontributions`establishedofyore；toerectthepillarpromisingnevertoexactabovehalftheproduceofthecrops，ortomolestthepersonsofthosewhothuspaidtheirdues。""Tod，p。206。Ileavethereadertodetermineifthisisthelanguageofarulerdealingwithabodyofacknowledgedfreeholders，orofanIndianownerofryotland，promisingtomoderatehisdemandsforthefuture。ButthemostcuriousspecimenoftheactualconditionoftheryotsofRajast"han，istobefoundintheaccountofthe

managementofZalimSingh，theRegentofKotah。ThischiefwastherealsovereignofKotah；thoughadministeringits

affairsinthenameofarajahfainean。Hisadministrationwasconsideredsingularlyprudentandvigorous；heiscalledbyCol。

Ted，theNestorofIndia，andisspokenofbySirJohnMalcolmmuchinthesamespirit。ThefollowingisanextractfromSir

John"s"CentralIndia。""OneoftheprincipaloftheRajpootrulersofcentralIndia，ZalimSingh，hasarevenue"system，

which，likethatofhisgovernment，isentirelysuitedtohispersonalcharacter。Hemanagesakingdomlikeafarm，heisthe

bankerwhomakestheadvancestothecultivators，aswellastherulertowhomtheypayrevenue:andhistermsofinterest

areashigh，asthoseofthemostsordidmoneybrokers。Thisplacesthecultivatorsmuchinhispower，andtoincreasethis

dependencehehasbelongingtohimselfseveralthousandplough，withhiredlaborers，whoarenotonlyemployedin

recoveringwastelands，butsentontheinstanttotillthosefieldswhichthepeasantryobjecttocultivate，fromdeemingtherenttoohigh。"Malcolm"sCent。India，Vol。II。p。62。Trulyafterreadingtheseextracts，itisdifficulttobelieve，thatthecultivatorsofRajast"hanareinamuchmoreelevated

condition，thanthoseofsouthernIndia；amongwhomSirThomasMunroperceived，thatitwouldbeaveryslowand

difficultprocesstoestablishlandedpropertyandbeneficialinterests；althoughherecognizedinthemtheproprietorsofallnotclaimedbythesovereignasrevenue。ButthereisapositionofCol。Tod"swhichyetremainstobenoticed。HecitestheinstitutesofMenu，toprovethatlands

throughoutIndia，belongstohimwhofirstclearsthewoodandtillsit；andthisquotationderivesrathermoreimportance

thanwouldotherwisebelongtoit，fromthefactthatthepassagerelatingtothesovereign"srighttothesoil，whichisquoted

inthetextfromColebrooke"stranslationofthedigestofHindoolaw，hasbeensuspectedofhavingbeenforgedbythe

nativesemployedtocompilethatdigest，inordertoflattersomesupposedprepossessionsofthosewhoemployedthem。I，

however，stillbelieve，thatthelawastranslatedbyMr。Colebrooke，whether。genuineornot，veryaccuratelyrepresentsthepracticalmanagementofthesoilofIndiaformanyages。He，(saysCol。Tod，speakingoftheryot，)hasnatureandMenuinsupportofhisclaim，andcanquotethetext，alike

compulsoryonprinceandpeasant。"Cultivatedlandisthepropertyofhimwhocutawaythewood，orwhoclearedandtilled

it。"ThefollowingisthetextasitstandsinHaughton"seditionofMenu:

OnJudicatureandLaw，PrivateandCriminal，andontheCommercialandservileClasses。Haughton，p。298。44。Sageswhoknowformertimes，considerthisearth(Prit"hivi)asthewifeofKingPrithu；andthustheypronounce

cultivatedlandtobethepropertyofhim，whocutawaythewood，orwhoclearedandtilledit；andtheantelope，ofthefirsthunterwhomortallywoundedit。Nowhadthispassagebeenfoundinapartofthecederelatingtolandedproperty，itwouldatleasthavecarriedwithitthe

authorityofMenu。InthatcaseIshouldhavehadtorecalltothereader"srecollectionthesmallvaluewhichSirT。Munro"s

experienceledhimtoattachtothesayingsoftheancientIndiansages，whenquestionsariseastotheactuallaworpast

practiceofIndia[seeback，p。(37。)]But，intruth，thepassageisfoundinaverydifferentpartofthecode；aslightfurther

examinationwillconvincethereader，thatthismythologicalsagewasspeakingoffarothermatters:andthatCol。Todhasfallenintoamistake，atwhichwemustheallowedtosmile。Menuisinfactdecidingtowhomthechildrenshallbelong，bornofanadulterousintercoursebetweenamarriedwomanand

herparamour。"Learnnowthatexcellentlawuniversallysalutary，whichwasdeclared，concerningissue，bygreatandgood

sagesformerlyborn，"andillustratingthisinhisownallegoricalfashion，hecomparestheearthtothelady；anddeclares，that

hewhoreceivedhervirgincharmsshouldbetheownerofalltheprogenyshemightproduce，underanycircumstances，

howeverstrong，ofdetectedorpermittedfaithlessness；andthatascultivatedgroundbelongedtohimwhofirsttilledit，and

theantelopetothefirsthunterwhomortallywoundedit，so"menwhohavenomaritalpropertyinwomen，butsowinthefieldsownedbyothers，mayraiseupfruittothehusband，buttheprocreatorcanhavenoadvantagefromit。"ThissubjectMenupursuesfrom81p。291to55p。295。ofHaughton，andfollowsuphisillustrationbyputtingavarietyof

caseswhichIcertainlyshallnotquote，butwhichonceread，willeffectually(Ishouldthink)preventanyperson"sagainreferringtothispassage，asagraveauthorityforthelawsrelatingtolandedpropertyinIndia。Whendeliberatelyspeakingoftherightsofthesovereign，thecodeusesalanguageincompleteunisonwiththeactual

usagesofthecountry。"Iflandbeinjuredbythefaultofthefarmerhimself，asifhefailstosowitinduetime，heshallbe

finedtentimesasmuchastheking"sshareofthecropthatmightotherwisehavebeenraised:butonlyfivetimesasmuchifitwasthefaultofhisservantswithouthisknowledge。"OnJudicatureandLaw，248，p。259ofHaughton"sTranslation。Thesameimperfectright，however，tohereditaryoccupation，whilethedemandsofthesovereignaresatisfied，whichis

everywhereconcededtotheryots，isalsostillconcededinsomepartsofIndia(notinall)tothefirstreclaimerofwasteordesertedground。ExtractsfromafirmaunoftheEmperorAurenzebe，A。D。1608，publishedbyMr。PattoninhisPrinciplesofAsiaticMonarchies。Thefirmaunconsistsofinstructionstothegovernmentcollectors。p。343。"Inaplacewhereneitherashernorkheraj(mowezzeff)areyetsettleduponagriculture，theyshallactasdirectedin

thelaw。Incaseofkheraj(mowezzeff)，theyshallsettleforsucharate，thattheryotsmaynotberuinedbythelands；and

theyshallnot，onanyaccount，exactbeyond(thevalueof)halfoftheproduce，notwithstandingany(particular)abilityto

paymore。Inaplacewhere(oneortheother)isfixed，theyshalltakewhathasbeenagreedfor，providedthatinkheraj

(mowezzeff)itdoesnotexceedthehalf(oftheproduceinmoney)，thattheryotsmaynotberuined:butif(whatissettled

appeartobetoomuch)theyshallreducetheformerkherajtowhatshallbefoundproportionabletotheirability；however，ifthecapacityexceedsthesettlement，theyshallnottakemore。"p。340。"Theymustshewtheryotseverykindoffavourandindulgence；inquireintotheircircumstances；andendeavour，by

wholesomeregulationsandwiseadministration，toengagethem，withheartygoodwill，tolabourtowardstheincreaseofagriculture；sothatnolandsmaybeneglectedthatarecapableofcultivation。Fromthecommencementoftheyeartheyshall，asfarastheyareable，acquireinformationofthecircumstancesofevery

husbandman，whethertheyareemployedincultivation，orhaveneglectedit:then，thosewhohavetheability，theyshall

exciteandencouragetocultivatetheirlands；andiftheyrequireindulgenceinanyparticularinstances，letitbegrantedthem；

butif，uponexamination，itshallbefound，thatsomewhohavetheability，andareassistedwithwater，neverthelesshaveneglectedtocultivatetheirlands，theyshalladmonish，andthreaten，anduseforceandstripes。"Yetinthisandinanotherfirmaun，alsopublishedbyMr。Patton，Aurenzebespeaksverytenderlyoftherightsofthe

cultivatorsasproprietors，andisclearlyanxioustosubstituteamildermodeofmanagementfortheoneactuallyinuse。

ThecasewasmuchworsewiththeryotswhentheMogulgovernmentwasbrokenup。IndianRecreationsbytheRev。W。Tennant，Vol。III。pp。18890。"Thisaspectofthenativegovernmentsmeritsthegreater

notice，becauseitformsnotanaccidentalortemporaryfeatureintheircharacter，butapermanentstateofsociety。Itisa

maximamongthenativepoliticians，toregardtheir"Stateascontinuallyatwar。"Hencetheirmilitarychiefsarenot

permittedforamomenttoindulgethehabitsofcivillife；nordotheyexperiencetheshelterofahouseformanyyears

successively。Theircampsarenotbrokenup；nor，exceptduringamarch，aretheirtentseverstruck。Theintervalsofforeign

hostilityareoccupiedinthecollectionofrevenue；ameasure，whichinIndiaisgenerallyexecutedbyamilitaryforce，andis

morefertileinextensivebloodshedandbarbarity，aswellasinthevariedscenesofdistress，thananactualcampaignagainstanavowedenemy。TherefractoryZemindars，(astheyaredenominated)uponwhomthetroopsareletloose，betakethemselves，ontheir

approach，toaneighbouringmudfort；oneofwhichiserectedforprotection，inthevicinityofalmosteveryvillage。There

theinhabitantsendeavourtosecurethemselves，theircattle，andeffects，tilltheyarecompelledbyforceorfaminetosubmit。

Thegarrisonisthenrazedtothefoundation，andthevillageburnt，toexpiateadelinquency，toofrequentlyoccasionedsolelybytheiniquitousexactionsofgovernmentitself。Inthesemilitaryexecutions，someofthepeasantryaredestroyed；somefallvictimstofaminethusartificiallycreated，and

notafewaresold，withtheirwivesandchildren，todefraytheirarrearstothetreasury，ortodischargetheaggravated

burdensimposedbytheland-holders。Suchassurvive，betakethemselvestothewoods，tillthedepartureoftheiroppressors

encouragesthemtorevisittheirsmokinghabitations，andtorepairtheirruins。Thusharrassedbytheinjusticeandbarbarity

oftheirrulers，thepeasantryloseallsenseofrightandwrong；fromwant，theyareforcedtobecomerobbersintheirturn，andtoprovoke，bytheirfraudorviolence，arepetitionofthesameenormitiesagainstthenextannualvisitationofthearmy。"Thefixingthepoorryottothehereditarytaskofcultivation，wasevidently，undereventhebestofsuchgovernments，agreatgaintothesovereign，andamiserableprivilegetohim。Buchanan"sEdit。Smith"sWealthofNations，Vol。IApp。p。86。"Mr。Place，towhomthemanagementofthejaghire，that

surroundsthepresidencyofMadras，wascommitted，whendescribingacertainspeciesoftenant，observes，thatbygranting

themthelandstothemandtheirheirsforever，aslongastheycontinuedinobediencetotheCircar，andpaidalljustdues，hewasenabledtoconvertthemoststubbornsoilandthickest"jingleintofertilevillages。"ThesamesentimentswereexpressedbyColonelMunro，whohadthechargeofseveraldistricts。Hesawclearly，thatthe

highassessmentonthelandcheckedagricultureandpopulation；andonthisaccount，hestronglyrecommendedto

governmentaremissionofthetribute。Hisviewswereadmittedtobejust；butthepublicnecessitieswerepleadedasan

apologyforatax，theeffectofwhichitappearsistokeepbackthecultivationofthecountry。"Itisthehighassessmenton

theland，"themembersoftheboardofrevenueobserve，"whichColonelMunrojustlyconsidersthechiefcheckto

population。Wereitnotforthepressureofthisheavyrent，population，hethinks，oughttoincreaseevenfasterthanin

America；becausetheclimateismorefavourable，andtherearebuttractsofgoodlandunoccupied，whichmaybeploughed

atonce，withoutthelabourorexpenceofclearingawayforests，asthereisabovethreemillionsofacresofthiskindinthe

cededdistricts。Heisofopinionthatagreatincreaseofpopulation，andconsequentlyoflandrevenue，mightbeexpectedin

thecourseoftwenty-fiveyears，fromtheoperationoftheremission。Butaremissiontoafewzemindars，heapprehends，wouldnotremedytheevil，norremovetheweightwhichatpresentdepressespopulation。"Underthesystemproposed，ColonelMunroconceives，thatcultivationandpopulationwouldincreasesomuch，that，inthecourseoftwenty-fiveyears，landsformerlycultivated，amountingtostarpagodas5，55，962，wouldberelievedandoccupied，togetherwithaconsiderableportionofwaste，neverbeforecultivated。Theextensionofcultivation，however，wouldnot

makethefarmslarger，andtherebyfacilitatecollection。Theenlargementoffarmsorestatesisatpresentpreventedbythewantofproperty；hereafteritwouldbepreventedbyitsdivision。"ThisistheoutlineofColonelMunro"splan，whichisnotlessapplicabletoallthedistrictsasyetunsettled，thantotheceded

districts；and，iftheexigenciesofgovernmentallowedofsuchasacrificeasaremissionofthepresentstandardrents，tothe

extentof25percent，orevenof15percent，weshouldconsiderthemeasurehighlyadvisable，andcalculatedtoproduce

greatulterioradvantages。Indeed，itwouldbeabsurdtodispute，thatthelesswetakefromthecultivatoroftheproduceofhislabour，themoreflourishingwillbehiscondition。""But，iftheexigenciesofgovernmentdonotpermitthemtomakesogreatasacrifice；iftheycannotatonceconfertheboon

ofprivateproperty，theymustbecontenttoestablishaprivateinterestinthesoil，aseffectuallyastheycanunderthe

farmingsystem。Iftheycannotaffordtogiveupashareofthelandlord"srent，theymustbeindulgentlandlords。"SeeReportofSelectCommittee，Appendix。Forexamplesoftherateatwhichpopulationandproducehaveincreasedundermildgovernment，Imustreferthereaderto

accountsofCol。Read"sadministrationoftheMysore，SirThomasMunro"softhecededdistricts，andtoSirJohnMalcolm"s

pictureoftherapidrevivalofcentralIndia，afterthedestructionoftheMahrattasway。Ifindthatextractswouldswellthis

Appendixtoomuch。

ERRATA。

PageLine13。forlabororreadlaboron。

93。Note。forDixamereadDaxme。22。forSarmacanreadSarmacand。10。forsupportsrendsupport……1deleboth。22。forbywhicharereadbywhichtheyare。

174。Note。for66。read86。12。forpurposesreadpurpose。21121。forasunlimitedreadalimited。9。insertasemi-colonaftercloth，andomititaftercorn1。Litt。？77。ThiswasalsothecaseinScotland:"Nabondmanmaybuyorpurcheshislibertiewithhisawinproperguile。or

geirbecauseallthecattellandgudesofallbond-menareunderstandtobeinthepoweranddominionofthemaister:swa

thatwithoutconsentofhismaister，hemaynotredemehimselfoutofbondsgewithhisawin"properdeniresormoney。"See

theRegiamMajestatem；ortheAuldLewesofScotland，BukeII。Chap。12。