第10章

Addingthentheeffects，ofhergreaterprogressintheartofsubstitutingcreditandpaperforcoin，andofthegreaterrapidity

ofhercirculation，totheresultsofthesuperiorityofEnglandinthemanufactureofcommoditiesforforeignsale，itwill

appearthatallthecausesconnectedwiththevalueofthepreciousmetalswhichtendtoproduceahighmoneyvalueof

commodities，areinmorepowerfulactionherethaninanyotherEuropeancountry，andthatwhatevermaybethepossible

ejectsofthosecausesinloweringthevalueofthepreciousmetals，andonmoneyprices，thoseeffectsarelikelytobefeltmoreextensivelyandpowerfullyinourowncountrythaninanyother。LeavingtheindividualcaseofEngland，however，wereturntothegeneralproposition，thatabstractingaltogetherfromany

differenceintheproductivepowersofagriculture，themoneypricesofrawproduceindifferentcountriesmayvaryfromadifferentvalueofthepreciousmetalsalone。Ithasbeenshewnthen，thatpricesofrawproduce，highwhencomparedwiththoseofneighboringcountriesofsimilarsoil

andclimate，mayproceedfromthreecausesactingseparatelyorjointly，andallofthemquitedistinctfromthedecreasing

fertilityofthesoil，namely，fromhigherwages，highertaxes，oralowrelativevalueofbullion；thelastofwhichalonea

writerofgreateminencehasdeclaredtobesoinfluential，thatitoccasions"farthegreaterpartofthehighpriceofcornin

"thiscountrycomparedwithmostofthestatesinEurope。"(25)Highmoneyprices，therefore，comparedwiththoseofthe

neighboringcountries，ofsimilarsoilandclimate，cannotbereceivedasanyindicationofadecreasingpowerintheagricultureofthedearercountry。Wehavealreadyseenthatneitheralowrateofprofits，norahighvalueofrawproduce，comparedwithothercommodities

fabricatedathome，arecertainindicationsofthedecreasingproductivepowerofagriculture。Thereisacircumstancewhich

atfirstsightappearsamoresureindicationofsuchadecreasethananyofthosewehaveyetexamined；anappearancehoweverstillfallacious。When，abstractingfromtheeffectsoftaxation，anapparentdiminutiontakesplaceintherevenuesoftheproducingclasses

consideredjointly，whenthereisafallintherateofprofits，notcompensatedbyariseofwages，orafallofwagesnot

compensatedbyariseintherateofprofits，therehasbeen，itmaybeargued，somedecreaseintheproductivepowerof

laborandcapital，andforthemomentwewillsupposethisargumentsound。Whensuchdecreaseoccurs，ithaslatelybeen

assumedascertain，thatthefailuremusthavebeeninagriculture，andnotinmanufactures，becausetheefficiencyof

mechanicalandmanufacturinglaborusuallyincreasesinsteadofdecreasingintheprogressofnations。Butthislastposition

isfarfrombeinguniversallytrue。Themajorityofthenationsoftheglobeareperhaps，at

thismoment，improvingin

manufacturingpower，andthereisnophysicalreasonwhytheyshouldnotcontinuetoimprove。Butwhenwetakepolitical

andmoralcausesintoourview，thehistoryoftheworldforbidsustoconcludethattheprogressofmankindinthe

mechanicalandmanufacturingarts，isalwaysnecessarilyinadvance。Egypt，theAfricanshoreoftheMediterranean，Asia

Minor，andtheMorea，canaidmechanicalindustrywithbutafeeble`partoftheingenuityorpower，whichboththeirstory

andtheirmonumentsattestthattheyoncepossessed。Capitalandscienceare，inourdays，indispensableassistantstothe

artisan，andthedecayofthedomesticarts，andthefailingefficiencyoftheindustryconnectedwiththem，must，therefore，be

expectedtocomeinthetrainoftheevilswhichassailthedecrepitudeofnations，andgraduallyimpairtheirresources。

Englandisatthismomenttheprincipaltheatreofallthatpowerandskillcaneffect，inthevariousdepartmentsofhuman

industrywhicharedistinctfromagriculture；andyet，ifdaysaretocomewhenherfreedom，andwealth，andthemany

elementsofheractualpowerforsakeher，itisinthesedepartmentsofindustrythattheprogressofdecaymaybeexpected

toexhibititselfthemoststrikingly。Thepowerofherartizans，andthewondersofhermanufactures，willassuredlydisappear

withthecapitalandsciencewhichnowsupportthem。Inanationsocircumstanced，themeansofthepopulationmaybecomeless，andtheannualconsumptionofallclassesshrink，thoughtheefficiencyofagricultureshouldremainstationary。Wehavebeenarguingontheadmission，thatadecreaseintherateeitherofwagesorprofits，theotherofthetworemaining

stationary，isaproofofadiminishedproduceandlessenedproductivepowerinsomeofthedepartmentsofnational

industry；andhavemerelyattemptedtoshew，thatevenwithsuchanadmission，anassumption

thatthedecreasenecessarily

originatesinagriculture，isinadmissible。Hereafter，weshallhaveoccasiontoprove，thattheadmissionitselfistoolarge；

thatadecreaseintherateofprofitwithstationarywages，doesnotofitselfindicateanydiminutionoftheproductivepower

inthepopulation；thatitisevenquiteconsistentwithadvancingefficiencyinthenationalindustry，andmaybeaccompanied

byasteadyincreaseofthepowerofaccumulatingfreshcapital；butthedevelopementofthispropositionbelongstoanotherpartofoursubject。Wehaveattemptedthen，asweproposed，toestablish，First，thatthereisnonecessarydecreaseinthereturnstoagricultural

laborandcapital，ascultivationspreadstosoilsofinferiorquality，orextractsagreaterproducefromthesoilsalready

cultivated；andsecondly，thatseveralcircumstancesusuallysupposedtoindicatetheexistenceofsuchadecreaseof

agriculturalpower，namely，afallofprofits，ahighrelativevalueofrawproducecomparedwithothercommodities，ora

highpriceofrawproduceathome，comparedwiththatgrownincountriesofsimilarsoilandclimate，mayoneandall

originateindistinctanddifferentcauses。Thereremains，itappearstome，nomethodofascertainingthefertilityofthesoils，

governingprices，whichareactuallycultivatedinanycountry，relativelytothefertilityofthosecultivatedinthesame

countryatearlierperiods，orinothercountriesatthesameperiod，butactualcomparison。Onebranchofsuchanenquiry

mightbedifficult:itmaynotbeeasytocomparethecostsofproductioninonecenturywiththoseofanothercentury，inthe

samecountry。Itiseasiertocompare，atthesameperiod，thecostofproducingcorninadearcountry，withthecostof

producingitinneighbouringcountries，inwhichitbearsalowerprice，andhasalowerrelativevalue。Itwouldnotbe

impracticable，forinstance，totakeEngland，andPolandorGermany，andtomakethemthesubjectsofsuchacomparison，

selectingfromthepoorestsoilsequaldistrictsofconsiderablesizeineach；(forallobservationsonsmallplotsofgroundare，

formanyreasons，fallacious；)itwouldbenecessarytoascertain(abstractingfrommoneyprices)thequantityoflaborand

thequantityofauxiliarycapitalemployedineachcountry；andtheirrespectiveproduce。Theresultwouldshewwith

sufficientaccuracytheproductivepowerofagriculturallaborandcapitalineachcountry。Ifitshouldappear，thatinthe

countrywheremoneypricesandrentsarethehighest，thelaborandcapitalemployedinagriculturereallyyieldmore

producethansimilarquantitiesemployedincountrieswherethemoneypricesofrawproducearecomparativelylow，then

wemustascribethehighpricesofthedearercountryeithertoheaviertaxation，tohigherrateofwages，ortoalowervalue

ofthepreciousmetals，ortothejointinfluenceofallthesecauses；nottothepovertyofthesoilsbroughtintocultivation，or

tothepoorreturnstothedosesofcapitalgraduallyappliedtotheoldsoils。Andanyincreaseoftherevenuesofthelanded

proprietors，whichmayhavetakenplace，must(abstractingfromchangesinthevalueofmoney)betraced，notcertainlytoa

decreasewhichhasnotoccurredinthereturnstoagriculturalindustryonthesoilsgoverningprices；buttoagradual

increaseofproduce，commontoallsoils，butgreatestinamountonthebest；andtosuccessiveimprovementsinthe

efficiencyofagriculturalcapital。

SECTIONVI。OnsomeIndicationsoftherealSourcesofincreasingRents，whicharetobeobtainedinparticular

Instances，byobserving，First，theVariationswhichtakeplaceinthecomparativeNumbersofthe

agriculturalandnon-agriculturalClasses；and，Secondly，theAlteration。whichskewthemselvesintheLandlord"sproportionoftheProduce。Ithasbeenstated，thatnothingshortofapreciseenumerationofthewagesandcapitalexpendedinobtainingsimilar

quantitiesofproduce，willenableustodecide，withperfectcertainty，uponthecomparative(26)actualfertilityofthesoils

whichgovernprices，eitherindifferentcountriesatthesametime，orinthesamecountryatdifferenttimes。Sucha

comparisonmaybeoftenimpossible。Yetinobservingthegrowthoftheterritorialrevenuesofacountry，weshallnaturally

bedesiroustoknow，ineveryinstance，whetherthatgrowthhasproceeded"fromtheemploymentofanadditionalquantity

oflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，"(Mr。Ricardo"ssolecauseofrents，(27))orfromthemoregenialsources，ofincreasedproduceobtainedbyincreased。capital，andimprovementsintheefficiencyofthecapitalpreviouslyemployed。Therearetwocircumstanceswhichmayguideusinourenquiriesonthispoint，ifnottoperfectandconclusivecertainty，yet

toahighandsatisfactorydegreeofprobability:andtheseare，First，thevariationswhichtakeplaceintherelativenumbers

oftheagriculturalandnon-agriculturalclasses。Secondly，thealterationswhichmaybetracedintheproportionofthe

producetakenbythelandlords。Indeed，theevidencefurnishedbythesecircumstancesoughttobeaccepted，asweshallsee，

bytheschoolofMr。Ricardo，asperfectanddemonstrative，althoughtheirwritingsforbidustosupposethatthiseveroccurredtothem。When，duringthespreadoftillage，"anadditionalquantityoflaborisemployedwithaproportionallylessreturn，"the

numbersoftheagriculturistsmustbeontheincrease，comparedwiththoseofthenon-agriculturists。Asimplecalculation

willshewthis。Let2，000，000ofcultivatorsproduce4，000，000ofquartersofcorn，sufficienttomaintain4，000，000of

people:thenumber"ofagriculturistsandnon-agriculturistsinsuchacommunity(abstractingfromforeigntradeincorn，)

willbejustequal。Letthepopulationincreaseto8，000，000:ifthefertilityofthefreshsoilsnowcultivatedequalthefertility

oftheoldsoils，then4，000，000ofcultivatorswillbeabletoproducefoodforthe8，000，000ofpeople，andtherelative

numbersofagriculturistsandnon-agriculturistswillremainastheywere。Butiftoyieldthefoodoftheadditional4，000，000

ofpeoplethefreshgroundcultivatedrequires"anadditionalquantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，"thenalarger

numberthan2，000，000oftheincreasedpopulationmustbeemployedinproducingfoodforthemselvesandtheother

2，000，000。Letthatlargernumberbe3，000，000，andthen5，000，000ofagriculturistswillbeemployedinproducingthefood

of8，000，000ofpeople。Theagriculturistsconstitutedone-halfofthepopulationbeforeitsincrease，theywillnowconstitute

five-eighthsofit。Andifthenumbersofthecommunitycontinuetoincrease，andthegroundfromwhichtheiradditional

suppliesoffoodareraised，continuestoabsorb"anadditionalquantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，"thenthenumbersofthecultivatorsmustalsocontinuetoincreaserelativelytothenumbersofthenon-cultivators。Inthenextplace，ifrentsinacountryoccupiedbyfarmers，shouldeverrisefromthatcausealone，whichhasbeenso

confidentlystatedbyMr。Ricardo，tobethesolepossiblecauseofariseofrents，namely，"theemploymentofanadditional

quantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，"andaconsequenttransfertothelandlordsofapartoftheproduce

beforeobtainedonthebettersoils；thentheaverageproportionofthegrossproducetakenbythelandlordsasrent，will

necessarilyincrease。Thisisalmostself-evident，butitmaybeaswellperhapstogiveashortcalculation。LetB，CandD，

then，besoilscultivatedwithequalcapitals，&；c。；letBproduce12quartersofcorn，C14，andD16；then，Byieldingthe

ordinaryprofitsofstock，Cwillhave2，andD4quartersofcornassurplusprofitsorrent。Thelandlord"sproportionofthe

produceofCandDtakentogether，willbe6quartersoutof30，orone-fifth。Duringtheprogressofpopulation，letitbe

necessarytocultivateanothersoilA，yieldingtothesamequantityofcapitalwhichisemployedonB，CandD，only8

quartersofcorn。Thenas8quartersmustnowyieldtheordinaryprofitsofstockonthecapitalemployed，B，whichbefore

paidnorent，willhave4quartersassurplusprofitsorrent，C6，andD8quarters:andthelandlordwilltakefromthesoils

payingrents，18quartersoutof42，orafractionmorethantwo-fifthsoftheirgrossproduce，insteadofone-fifth，hisformer

proportion。Andsoprogressively，asadditionallaborandcapitalareemployedintillage，withaproportionallylessreturn，

additionalportionsoftheproduceoftheoldsoilswillcontinuetobetransferredtothelandlordsassurplusprofits，inorder

toequalizetheprofitsmadebyallthecultivators；andalargerproportionofthewholeproducewillthus，stepbystep，

assumetheshapeofrent。(28)Inanycountry，therefore，inwhichtherehasbeenageneralriseofrents，proceeding"fromthe

employmentofanadditionalquantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，"andtheconsequenttransmutationofapart

oftheproduceoftheoldsoilsintorent，thesetworesultsmustbeobservable:First，theindustryofalargerproportionof

thepopulationmustbedevotedtoagriculture；Secondly，theproportionofthegrossproducepaidtothelandlords，asrent，

musthaveincreased。Ifthesetworesultsarenotobservable，theserentsmusthaveincreasedfromsomeothercauseor

causes，andnotfrom"theemploymentofadditionallaborinagriculturewithaproportionallylessreturn；"andinthatcase，

Mr。Ricardoandhisschoolmusthavebeenwrong，whentheysupposedthislasttobetheonlypossiblecauseofincreasingrents。Thisreasoningissoobvious，thatwhenbroughtintocontactwithcircumstancesastheyexistaroundus，theresultmust

haveservedtorousemorewaryreasonersintoanimmediatesuspicion，orratherconviction，oftheunsoundnessoftheir

system。Theinstanceofourowncountry，viewedwiththeassistanceoftheseprinciples，isconclusiveastothefact，thatthe

causeerroneouslyassumedbyMr。Ricardotobethesolesourceofeveryriseofrents，cannotpossiblyhavebeeninaction

duringthegreatelevationofrentswhichhasactuallytakenplacehere。Onthispoint，theexampleofEnglandisthemore

important，becauseitistherealonewecanobserveonascalelargeenoughtobesatisfactory，theprogressoffarmers"rents，

andtheconnexionofthatprogresswiththefortunesoftheotherclassesofsociety。

TheIncreaseofRentsinEnglandhasproceededfromtheIncreaseofAgriculturalProduce。ThestatisticalhistoryofEnglandpresentstous，prominently，threefacts；First，therehasbeenaspreadoftillage

accompaniedbyariseinthegeneralrentalofthecountry；Secondly，therehasbeenadiminutionoftheproportionofthe

peopleemployedinagriculture；Thirdly，therehasbeenadecreaseinthelandlord"sproportionoftheproduce。Nooneof

thesecircumstancesrequiressurelyanyformalproof。Thattherehasbeenagreatspreadoftillageweknow。Thattherehas

beenaconsiderableincreaseinthegeneralrentalofthecountry，isafactadmittedbypersonswhoholdthemostopposite

opinionsastotherealcausesofthatincrease。Thattherehasbeenagreataugmentationoftherelativenumbersofthe

non-agriculturalclasses，isafactalmostequallynotorious。:Thereturnstothetwolastpopulationacts，provethatthis

processisstillgoingon。Thenon-agriculturistsinEngland，amountatpresenttodoubletheagriculturists，aproportionso

widelydifferentfromthatwhichprevailsinotherpartsoftheworld，astoconstituteperhapsthemoststrikingamongmany

peculiaritiesintheeconomicalpositionoftheEnglishpopulation。InFrance，beforetheRevolution，thecultivatorswereas4

to1，whencomparedwiththerestofthepeople。Theprogressoftheotherclasseshas，sincetheRevolution，beenextremely

rapid；insteadofone-fifth，theynowconstituteone-thirdofthewholepopulation。Francehas，withtheexceptionofEngland，

thelargestnon-agriculturalpopulationofanyconsiderablenationonthefaceoftheglobe。Thereisnoreasonwhateverto

suppose，thatthecultivatorsofEngland300yearsago，werelessnumerous，whencomparedwiththerestoftheEnglish

population，thanthoseofFrancearenow，comparedwiththerestoftheFrenchpeople。Thechangewhichhassocompletely

reversedtheirrelativenumbers，andgivensogreatasuperioritytotheotherclasses，hasprobablybeenlonginprogress，and

althoughweknowitlatelytohaveproceededwithconsiderablerapidity，thosemovementsofthedifferentbranchesofthe

population，bywhichithasbeeneffected，wereprobably，atthecommencement，slow；butnothingveryexactcanbeascertainedonthispoint，whichisnotatallessentialtoourpresentpurpose。Thegradualdiminutionofthelandlord"sproportionoftheproducehaslongbeennotorious。Thefollowingstatementisfrom

AdamSmith。Afterasserting，thatinmoreancienttimes，nearlythewholeoftheproducebelongedtothelandlord，hegoes

ontosay，"InthepresentstateofEurope，theshareofthelandlordseldomexceedsathird，sometimesnotafourthpartof

thewholeproduceoftheland。Therentofland，however，inalltheimprovedpartsofthecountry，hasbeentripledand

quadrupledsincethoseancienttimes；andthisthirdorfourthpartoftheannualproduceis，itseems，threeorfourtimes

greaterthanthewholehadbeenbefore。Intheprogressofimprovement，rent，thoughitincreasesinproportiontothe

extent，diminishesinproportiontotheproduceoftheland。"VariousreturnsmadetotheBoardofAgricultureshew，that

thethirdorfourthpartmentionedbyAdamSmith，ashavingbecomeinhistimetheordinaryshareofthelandlordsinthe

produce，isalargerproportionthantheynowobtain，(29)afacttobeexpected，ifhisdoctrine，containedinthesentencejustprintedinItalics，becorrect。InEnglandthen，rentshaverisen，theproportionofhandsemployedincultivationhasbecomemuchlessthanformerly，and

theproportionofthegrossproduce，takenbythelandlordasrent，hasdiminished。Itfollowsfromtheprecedingprinciples

andcalculations，thatthegeneralriseofrentswhichhastakenplace，hasnot"proceededfromtheemploymentofan

additionalquantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn，"butfromsomecauseorcausesessentiallydistinctfromthat，andattendedbyoppositeresults。Itappearsthen，asthelastresultofouranalysis，thattheincreasedrentsofthiscountryhaveproceededfrombetterfanningandgreaterproduce。(30)Therearepersons，nodoubt，andmoreperhapsamongtheranksofthepoliticaleconomistsofthepresentdaythan

elsewhere，whowilldisdainconclusionssolikethoseoftheuninitiated。Thosewhohavebeentrainedinbetterschoolsof

reasoning，mustsmileatsuchafeeling。Theenquirerintothesecretsofnatureexpectswithreasonthattheprogressofhis

laborswillleadtothecontinualrevelationoffreshwondersbutinethicalandpoliticalinvestigations，ourgeneralviews

must，forthemostpart，befoundedonfactsandfeelingscommontothehumanrace，andforcingthemselvesintovery

generalobservation。Onthesesubjects，therefore，withoutshewinganyquartertostubbornprejudiceorbruteignorance，we

maystillverysafelyconcludethattherearenosymptomsofafalseanddiseasedspiritofphilosophizingsocertain，asa

feverishthirstforthestimulusofstartlingnovelty；acontemptforobvioustruthsmerelybecausetheyarealreadyfamiliar；

andadispositiontothrustaside，unregardedandunnoticed，anyconclusionswhichresemblethosetowhicheveryday

experienceandpromptspontaneousjudgementshaveconductedthebulkofmankind。

SECTIONVII。

TheInterestsoftheLandlordarenotinOppositiontothoseoftheotherClasses。Thereisgreatreasontobelieve，thatcasesveryrarelyoccur，inwhichtherentalsofdistrictscultivatedbyfarmers，increase，

notbecausemoreproducehasbeenobtainedfromtheearth，butbecausetheshareoftheproducingclasseshasdiminished

withtheincreasingdifficultiesofproduction。Wehavejustseen，thatinEngland，theonlyconsiderablecountryinwhich

farmers"rentsareextensivelyprevalent，thereisstrongevidencetoshewthatthiscircumstancehasnot，inanydegree，

influencedtheprogressofrents。Stillithasbeenadmitted，thatinanextremecase，thiswouldbeapossiblecauseof

increasedrents；andthebeliefnowwidelyspread，thatitisnotonlyapossiblebutanactuallyoperatingcause，makesitof

someimportancetocorrectanerroneousimpression，foundedonthatbelief，thattheinterestsofthedifferentclassesof

societymaybeinpermanentoppositiontoeachother。Mr。Ricardo，whocouldperceivenocausefromwhichanincreaseof

therevenuesofthelandedproprietorscouldpossiblyproceed，except"theemploymentofadditionallaborwithouta

proportionalreturn，"wasledbytheunluckynarrownessofhissystemonthispoint，

todenouncetheinterestsofthe

landlords，asalwaysopposedtothoseofeveryotherclassofthecommunity。(31)Whilewehavebeentakingamore

comprehensiveviewofthesourcesoftheincreaseofrents，andhavebeenshewingthemannerinwhichthatincrease

necessarilyfollowstheconcentrationandimprovementofcultivation，wehavegatheredma。terialswhichenableusto

demonstratetheunsound。nessofthisrepulsivedoctrine。Itistruethattherearecasesinwhichthelandlordsmayderivea

limitedadvantagefromcircumstanceswhicharediminishingthemeansofthebodyofthepeople；buttheirpermanent

prosperity，andthatgradualelevationoftheirrevenuewhichsustainsthemintheirrelativepositioninthecommunity，mustemanatefrommorewholesomeandmoreabundantsources。Ifindeedthebeinginapositiontoderiveoccasionalgainfromthelossesofothers，weresufficienttocharacterizeanyclass

ofsocietyashavinginterestsinpermanenthostilitywiththoseoftheircountrymen，Mr。Ricardo，tobeconsistentandjust，

shouldhavemadehisdenunciationmoregeneral，andincludedinitboththecapitalistsandthelaborers；foritisnotdisputed

thattheytoohave，eachofthem，occasionally，interestswhichareadversetothoseoftherestofthecommunity；andthat

wagesmaybeincreasedbyadecreaseofprofits，andprofitsswelledbythedecreaseofwages，ascertainlyasrentsmaybe

elevatedbyencroachmentsontherevenuesoftheproducingclasses。Butifwewereseriouslytoarguethence，thatthe

interestsofallthedifferentclassesofthecommunityareinconstantandperpetualoppositiontoeachother，theconclusion

wouldarousethesuspicionofthemostunwaryenquirer。Thefactis，thattheprosperitywhicheachclasscangraspbythe

depressionofothers，is，bythelawsofnature，limitedandinsecure。Theadvantageswhicheachmaydrawfromsourcesof

increasingwealth，commontoal1，oratleastinjurioustonone，aresafe，andcapableofbeingpushedtoanextentofwhich

thelimitsliebeyondourexperience，ormeansofcalculation。Andinthisrespect，thereisnodifferenceinthesocialpositionofthelandlords，andthatoftheotherclasseswhichcomposethestate。Whentherevenuesofanyoneclassincrease，thatincreasemayineverycaseproceedfromtwocauses；first，froman

invasionoftherevenuesofsomeotherclass，theaggregaterevenueofthestateremainingwhatitwas:orsecondly，from

increasedproduction，leavingtherevenuesofalltheotherclassesuntouched，andpresentingaclearadditiontotheaggregaterevenueofthenation。Alittleconsiderationwillshewus，thatitisonlyinthelast，thatis，themostadvantageousmanner，thattherevenueofany

classcanincreaseprogressivelyandsecurelyintheprogressofnations。Wewilltracethistruth，first，inthecaseofthelaborersandcapitalists，andtheninthatofthelandlords。Theproductivepowerofapeoplebeingstationary，wagesmayincrease，weknow，attheexpenceofprofits；orontheother

hand，withtheadvanceoftheproductivepowersofthepopulation，wagesmayincreasewhileprofitsareundiminished。The

powerofproductionbeingstationary，wehavealreadyhadoccasiontoshewhowsmallanincreaseintherateofwageswill

produceaconsiderabledepressionofprofits:andwehaveseen，thatsupposingthecapitalemployedtoamounttofivetimes

thewagespaid，anadditionofonesingleshillingtoevery10s。paidaswages，would

lowerprofitsfrom12to10percent。In

theordinarystateoftheworld，thefurtherprogressofariseofwages，attendedbysuchaneffect，wouldsoonceasetobe

possible。Longbefore，inanyonenation，therateofprofitshad，inthecourseofsuchaprocess，beenreducedtoone-half

theiractualamount，capitalwouldflowabroad，employmentbecomemorescarce，andtheriseofwagesbestayed。Butifthe

increaseoftherateofwagesbeaccompaniedbyacorrespondingoragreaterincreaseofproductivepower，itmaygoon

indefinitelywithoutanydeterioration，possiblywithanincrease，oftherateofprofits，andoftherevenuesofthecapitalists；

andneedonlyceasewhentheproductivepowersofmankindhavereachedtheirultimatelimit。Itisthen，unquestionably，a

momentaryadvantagetothelaborer，thathiswagesshouldincreaseattheexpenceoftheprofitsofthecapitalist。Buthis

interests，andthoseofthecapitalists，arenot，therefore，inperpetualopposition；becausehisprosperity，ifitistobe

permanentandprogressive，canonlyexistundercircumstancesinwhichitisperfectlycompatiblewiththeundiminishedmeansandrevenuesofhisemployers。Inlikemanner，theproductivepoweroflaborbeingstationary，therateofprofitsmayrisefromadiminutionofwages；and

thecapitalistshave，therefore，amomentaryadvantageinthedepressionofthelaboringclasses。Butthearrangementsof

Providencearesuch，thattheirgreatandpermanentinterestscansafelyrestonnosuchgloomyfoundation。Asthepoverty

anddegradationofthepopulationproceeds，theproductivepowersofthelaboringclasses，andafteracertainpoint，the

securityofproperty，diminish。WehaveanexampleofthefirstoftheseeffectsintheserfsofEasternEurope，andofthelast

inIreland。Theserfdoesbutone-thirdofthelaborofthewellpaidfreeman；andtheIrishpeasant，onhislowwages，works

littlebetter，ifcomparedeitherwiththeEnglishpeasantorwithhimselfwhenlessdepressed。Butadifferenceoftwo-thirds

inproductivepower，willalonemorethanbalanceanydifferenceintherespectiveratesofwages，ofthebest，andofthe

worstpaidworkmeninEurope。TheEnglishcapitaliststhenwouldlosebytheestablishmentofaGermanorIrishrateof

wages，iftheirworkmenweretobereplacedbyaraceaslistlessandinefficientasGermanboorsorasIrishcottiersintheir

actualstateofdegradation。Theinefficiencyoftheexertionsofthelaboringclassesisnot，however，theonlycircumstance

whichmakesalowanddecreasingrateofwagesunfavorabletothepermanentprosperityof

thecapitalists。The

accumulationoflargemassesofauxiliarycapitalcannotgoonundisturbedinthemidstofadegradedandturbulent

population；anditisonthegreataccumulationofsuchcapital，relativelytothenumbersofthepopulation，thatthe

comparativerevenuesofthecapitaliststhemselves，andtheirstationandinfluenceonthecommunity，depend。InEngland，

profitsarelowandwagesarehigh，butinnopartoftheworlddothecapitalistsformsoprosperousandimportantabody。

Theirrevenueexceedsthatoftheproprietorsofthesoil，andequalsatleasthalfthewagesoflabor。IfEnglishwageswere

rundown，tillthestateofthelaborersapproachedthatoftheIrish，theirdiscontentandturbulence，addedtohabitsof

reluctantandinefficientlabor，wouldmakeitneitherprofitableorsafetoemployherethemassofcapitalatpresentusedin

production；andthen，inspiteofariseintherateofprofits，themanofprofitsrealized，and

therevenues，influence，and

comparativeimportanceoftheownersofcapital，mustshrinktodimensionsmorenearlyresemblingthoseofother

countries。Althoughthecapitalists，therefore，mayreapamomentaryadvantagefromthedepressionofthelaborers，yettheir

permanentprosperitycannotrestonsuchabasis。Toproceedsecurelyinacareerofincreasingwealth，theymustbe

surroundedbyworkmenwhompenuryanddegradationhavenotmadeeitheruselessinstrumentsofproduction，or

dangerousneighbours。Theinterestsofthecapitalistsandthelaborers，althoughtheymaybeoccasionallyinapparent

opposition，aresubstantiallyandpermanentlyinperfectharmony。Itistheinterestofeachclassthattheothershouldthrive；

andthatadditionstoitsownrevenueshouldbederivedsolelyfromanincreaseintheproductivepowersoftheindustryofthecountry。Thepositionofthelandlords，inthisrespect，issimilartothatofthelaborersandcapitalists。Thereisamomentarygain，

whichtheymaysnatchfromthedepressionoftherestofthecommunity；buttheyarenotexcludedfromtheoperationof

thatjustandbenevolentlawofProvidence，whichknitstogethertheinterestsofsocietybymakingfleetingandlimitedall

advancesintherevenuesofanyclass，whichrestonthedeprivationofothers；andwhichpermitsacareerofstableand

indefiniteincrease，onlywhentheprosperityattainedbyonepartgoeshandinhandwiththatofallpartsofthenation。An

advanceofrents，foundedsolelyonatransfertothelandlordsofaportionoftheproducebeforeenjoyedbytheproductive

classes，mustdiminish，whatwithoutsuchatransferwouldhavebeen，thejointamountofwagesandprofits。Mr。Ricardo

andhisschoolcontendthatinsuchacase，therevenueoftheproductiveclasseswouldbecomepositivelylessthanitwas

before；thatthedecreaseintheamountofrawproducereturnedtogivenquantitiesofcapitalandlabor，couldbebalanced

bynoincreaseintheeffectsofnon-agriculturalindustry；andtheycontendfurther，thatthisdecreasemustfallexclusivelyon

theemployersoflabor，anddiminishtherateofprofit，whichaccordingtothem，mustvarywitheachchangeinthereturns

tothecapitallastemployedupontheland；onwhichreturnstheystatetherateofprofitstobeexclusivelydependant。(32)Werewetoconcedethesoundnessofthisviewofthecase，itwouldatoncebecomeevident，howverylimitedthe

advantagesmustbewhichthelandlordscouldderivefromsuchacause。When，indifferentcountries，whichhaveaneasy

intercoursewitheachother，anordinaryrateofprofithasbeenestablished，anypeculiarcausewhichdiminishesthatratein

anyonecountry，hasatendencytodrivecapitaltoothers。TherateofprofitinEnglandrestsatapointsomewhatbelowthat

ofneighbouringcountries，butiftheratebedepressedbelowthisinferiorpoint，weknowfromexperiencethatcapitalbegins

toescapeveryrapidly。Averyshortperiod，therefore，duringwhichonlyverylimitedeffectscouldbeproduced，mustputan

entirestoptoariseofrentsfoundedonlyonacontinuousallofprofits。Andthelandlordsofanincreasingcountrywould

soonbereducedinsignificance，werethistheonlysourceonwhichtheycouldrelyfortheadvanceoftheirincomes，asthenumbersandwealthofalltheotherclasseswereswellingroundthem。Tosee，however，moredistinctly，thattheactualsourcesoftheincreaseoftherevenueofthelandlordsareperfectly

compatiblewiththeprosperityandundiminishedwealthofthepeople，wemustnotconfineourselvestosoimperfectaview

ofthecausesoftheincreaseofrents。Adiminutionintheshareofproducingclassesintheproduceis，aswemustagain

repeat，certainlyapossible，butascertainlyonlyalimitedandveryraresourceofanadvanceoftherevenuesofthe

landlords；thatgradualincreaseoftheirmeans，whichkeepspacewiththerichesofotherbranchesofthecommunity，flowsfromhealthierandmorecopiousfountains。Wehaveseenthattheaccumulationandconcentrationofcapital，anditsgraduallyincreasingefficiencyasthepowerand

skillofmanadvance，arecausesofincreaseinthemassofrentsofwhichtheconstantoperationisestablishedbythesame

lawswhichregulatetheproductivepowersoftheearth，andtheprogressofcivilizednationsintheartofcultivatingit。But

neithertheincreaseofcapital，northeincreaseofagriculturalscienceandpower，canberationallyexpectedamongapeople，

theaugmentationofwhosenumbersisattendedateverystepbyaninvasion，onthepartofthelandlords，oftheinterestsof

thecultivatingclasses。Ariseofrentsfoundedonsuchaninvasion，ifitisinjurioustothepeople，isnotlessunfavorableto

theprogressoftherevenueoftheownersofthesoil:itpresentsthemwithamomentaryandlimitedprofit，whileitdestroys

thehopesoflargeandenduringimprovement。Wesaw，whenexaminingthedifferentclassesofpeasantrents，thatwhile

theylast，thedepressionofthecultivatorsstopstheprogressofthosechangesintheformsoftenurewhichtheeaseand

interestsofthelandlordsdemandshouldbecompletedasfastassocietyisfitforthem；andwhenthecapitalistentersonthe

sceneasadistinctcharacter，itisobviouslytheinterestoftheproprietorsthateveryspotofgroundshouldreceivethe

benefitofalltheauxiliarycapitalwhichthewealthofthecountrycansupply，mademoreandmoreefficientbyalltheskill

andpowerwhichintellect，andknowledge，andexperiencecancreate。Thesearesourcesofincreased

rentswhichcontain

withinthemselvesnocausesofstagnationanddecay，andwhichforanindefiniteperiodmaycontinuetobuoyupthe

revenuesandinfluenceofthelandedbody，thoughthenumbersandwealthoftheotherclassesaremultiplyingrapidly

aroundthem。Whilethesewholesomecausesofincreasingrentsarcinoperation，thepowerandwealthofthecountry，we

haveseen，mustbeadvancing，theterritorymustbecomecapableofsupportingalargerpopulation，andthecapitaland

revenueofthatlargerpopulationmustreceiveconsiderableaccessions。Thecircumstances，therefore，whicharethemost

essentialtothecontinuousprosperityofthelandlords，arealsomostconducivetotheincreasingwealthandstrengthofthe

nation。Themiserablegainswhichitispossibleforthemtowringfromthenecessitiesofanimpoverishedpeople，arenot

lessdestructivetotheirownprospectsofmaintainingapermanentandprogressiveadvanceofincome，

thanthesamegains

areinjurioustotheproducingclasses。Liketheotherclassesofthecommunitythen，theyhaveaninterestindiminishingthe

revenuesofthosewhosharewiththemtheproduceofthesoil。Asinthecaseofalltheotherclassestoo，theirgainsfrom

suchadiminutionarelimited，scanty，andtemporary；whilethepermanenceandfulldevelopementoftheirprosperitycanonlybesecurewhenitgoeshandinhandwiththeprogressofthepeopleinwealth，andpower，andskill。Itwasanerror，therefore，tosuppose，thatthereisanythingpeculiartothelandlordsinthefact，thattheyhaveoccasionally

alimitedinterestopposedtothatoftheotherbodieswhich，composethestate。Itwasamuchgravererrorwhichledmento

teach，thattheircaseformsanexceptiontothatgeneralruleofProvidence；whichmakessterileandevanescentall

advantageswhichanyoneclassofthecommunitycangainattheexpenceoftheothers:thattheyalonehavenosourceof

prosperitycommontothemwiththewholepopulation，andconstituteaclassmarkedbythemiserablesingularityofhaving

nointerests，duringtheprogres。siveadvanceofnationalindustryandwealth，butsuchasarehostiletothoseofalltherestofmankind。Wehaveseenthen，thatrentsmayrisefromadiminutioninthereturntotheproducingclassesofthecapitallastemployed

uponthesoil，followedbyatransfertothelandlordsofaportionoftheproduceoftheoldsoils，sufficienttoequalizethe

shareoftheproducingclassesonallthesoilscultivated:thattherentthusgeneratedformsnoadditiontotheaggregate

nationalrevenue:thatitmakesthejointamountofwagesandprofitscomparativelyless，thatislessthanitwouldhavebeen

hadnodiminutioninthereturntoagriculturalcapitaltakenplace:thatnopositivedecreaseofthejointamountofwages

andprofitsnecessarilyfollows，becausetheincreasingproductivepowerofthenon-agriculturalportionofthecommunity

maybalance，ormorethanbalancethedecreasingpowerofagriculturalindustry:thatthiscauseof

theriseofrentsisnot

likethetwocausesfirstexamined，constantlyinactionasnationsincreaseinwealthandnumbers:thatitspresenceand

influenceintheelevationofrentsarenotprovedbythecircumstancesusuallyquoted，asthemostcertainindicationsofits

operation:thatwheretherelativenumbersofthenon-agriculturalclasseshavebeenincreasing，orwheretheproportionof

theproducetakenbythelandlordshasnotincreased，thereisastronganddecisivereasontobelieve，thatthiscausehas

contributednothingtoanyincreasewhichthastakenplaceintherentalofacountry:finally，thatalthoughthegenerationof

rentsfromthisparticularsourceisprejudicialtothenation，thegeneralinterestsofthelandlordsarenotonthisaccount

hostiletotheprogressoftheindustryandwealthofthepeople，sincetheircontinuousprosperityrestsalwaysonotherfoundations。Weadducedfactsandreasonstoshew，that"theemploymentofadditionallaborwithoutaproportionalreturn，"hasintruth

hadnoshareinelevatingtherentalofourowncountry；andhavepointedoutthatalthoughitis，strictlyspeaking，apossible

sourceofincreasedrevenueofthelandedproprietors，yetitisnot，astheestablishmentofmoreefficientandcomplete

cultivationis，aconstantandnecessarysourceofsuchanincrease，whereverthewealth，andskill，andindustryofabodyoffarmersareprogressive。Weareconsciousthatthispeculiarsourceofapossibleriseofrentshasbeendweltonatsomewhatgreaterlengththanits

relativeimportancemayseemtowarrant。Thereasonsforthishavebeenalreadyintimated。Theinfluenceofadecreasing

fertilityofthesoilslastcultivatedontheprogressofrents，andthemannerinwhichtheinterestsofthewholepopulationare

affectedbytheprocess，havelatelyattractedmuchpeculiarandanxiousattention，andbecomethebasisofmuchfallacious

reasoningandwildspeculation。SirEdwardWestandMr。Malthushadpointedout，thatthesoilsactuallycultivatedin

agriculturalcountries，wereofveryunequalquality，andthattheactualpricesofrawproducewerebarely，sufficient，on

somelands，torepaytheexpencesofcultivationwiththeordinaryrateofprofit；whileonothers，thesamepricesdidthis，

andleftbesidesasurplusforrent。Thisfactonceseen，itbecameevidentthattherelativevalueofrawproducedependednot

ontheavengecostofitsproduction，butonthecostofproducingaparticularportionofit:thattosecuretheactualsupply，

theactualpricesmustbemaintained，andcouldnotbelessened，eventhoughtherentpaidforthebettersoilswere

abandonedtothetenants，orceasedtoexist。Itbecameevidenttoo，thatanycircumstanceswhichmademoreexpensivethe

cultivationoftheinferiorsoilsused，wouldnotdiminishrents，butwouldraiseprices，sincethecultivatorofthelandwhich

producednorentmustgethisexpencesandprofit，orthesupplywouldfailandpricesrisefromthatcause。The

developementofthesefactsthrewconsiderablelightonthecircumstanceswhichdeterminetheexchangeablevalueofraw

produce，andontheeffectsandincidenceoftaxation；andopenedbesidesmanynewviewsofthosesubjects。Itisnot

perhapssurprising，thatthetwowriterslastnamed，should，inthefirstardorofdiscovery，havebeentemptedtopushthe

consequencesofthefactstowhichtheyweredrawingtheattentionofthepublic，somewhatfartherthansubsequentand

morecomprehensiveenquirieswouldwarrant。And，accordingly，bothSirEdwardandMr。Malthus，afterpointingout，that

ascultivationextendsitself，thecapitalemployeduponsoilsofdifferentqualitiesproducesveryunequalreturns，shewan

occasionaldispositiontotakeitforgranted，thatintheprogressofagriculture，everyadditionalportionofcapitalappliedto

thesoilsmustproducealessreturnthanthatwhichprecededit:adistinctandverydifferentproposition；entirelywithout

foundation，whenviewedrelativelytocapitalemployedindevelopingthepowersoftheoldsoils；andwhich，whenconfined

tothecaseofcapitallaidoutuponnewandinferiorsoils，allowsnothingfortheprogressofhumanpower。Theunsoundness

ofthisassumptionhasalreadybeenpointedout。InthetreatisesofSirEdwardWestandMr。Malthus，however，these

opinionsweremerelyexaggerationsoftheconsequencesofanimportanttruth，presentedtotheworldwithoutbeing

sufficientlysifted。WhenadoptedbyMr。Ricardo，theybecameunluckilythesolefoundationofanextensivesystemof

politicalphilosophy，embracingthewholesubjectofrents，wages，profitsandtaxes；andattemptingtoexplain，inaseriesof

logicaldeductions，drawnfromthisnarrowfoundation，allthecauseswhichinprogressofnationsregulatetherevenuesof

thedifferentclassesofsociety。(33)Itwasofcourseessentialtotheestablishmentofthissystem，thateveryotherapparent

causeofincreasingrentsshouldbeprovedillusory。Hencetheattemptsmadetodenythatthegeneralincreaseofthe

produceofthesoil，whichfollowstheaccumulationofcapitaluponit，canpossiblyraiserents，orbebeneficialtothe

landlords，unlesssomeofthatcapitalbelaidoutwithoutadiminishedreturn，andtheshareoftheproducingclassesbe

reduced。Hence，too，similarattemptstoprovethatagriculturalimprovementsofeverydescription，eventhosebywhichthe

expenceofobtainingproducearemadeless，are，foratime，absolutelyprejudicialtotheinterestsoftheproprietors，and

onlybegintobeusefultothemwhenthecostofgettingproduceonthesoilsgoverningpricehasbeenincreased。(34)Froma

systemwhichsawnopossiblemodeofincreasingtherevenuesofthelandlordswhichwasnot

foundedonacorresponding

decreaseofthoseoftheproducingclasses，itfollowednecessarilythattheinterestsofthelandlords，andthoseoftheother

classesofsocietywereinastateofperpetualhostility。Andthisgloomyconclusionassumedayetdarkercomplexionwhen

blendedwithsomeothererrorsofthesameschool。Asallcompensationfromtheincreasingpowerofnon-agricultural

industrywasoverlooked，thereductioninthereturnstoagriculturallaborandcapital，whichaccordingtothemfollowsa

peopleineveryattempttoincreasethequantityofrawproduceobtainedfromitsterritory，occasionsapositivedecreasein

therevenuesoftheproducingclasses。Theshareofthelaborers，theybelievedtobe，exceptofshortintervalsoftime，

invariable:thedecreaseoftherevenuesoftheproducingclassesmustaffect，therefore，exclusivelytherateofprofits。Butas

theyassumedthepeopletobefedinallcasesfromaccumulatedcapitalalone，andcapitaltobeaccumulatedfromprofits

exclusively，andthepoweroftheownersofprofitstoaccumulate，tobedependantontherateofprofit，itfollowedthatat

everyfallintherateofprofit，thenationalpowerofaccumulationwasdiminished，andadisastrouscheckgiventothesole

meansofprovidingforanincreasingpopulation。Thereisnooneofthesevariouspositionswhichisnotpartiallyor

altogetherfalse；buttopersonspossessedwithanopinionoftheirtruth，thegreatoriginalerrorofsupposingeveryincrease

ofrenttoindicateacorrespondingdiminutioninthereturnsyieldedbyagriculturetotheproducingclasses，seemedtolead

atoncetotheconclusion，thatateverystepintheelevationofrents，theelementsofnational

prosperitywereweakened，and

theotherclassesofthecommunityexposedtocorrespondingprivations。Theseviewsareembodiedinmanystriking

passagesofMr。Ricardo"swritings，whichformtheframeworkofasystemerectedbyhimandfinishedbyotherswhohave

adoptedhisviews。Thosewhowilltakethetroubleofturningtohispublications，willfindhimdeclaringindifferent

passages，someofwhichhavebeenalreadyquoted，thattheincreasingrentsproceedalways，notfromadditionalwealth

createdonthesoil，butfromatransferofwealthwhichbeforeexistedintothehandsofthelandlords:thatrentinvariably

proceedsfromtheapplicationofadditionalcapitaltoagriculturewithadiminishedreturn:thatnothingwhichdoesnotalter

therelativefertilityofthelandscultivatedcanincreaserents:thatimprovementsinagriculturedonotincreaserents:(35)that

suchimprovementslowerrentsatleastforatime，andlessenthemeansofthelandlords，theirabilitytopaytaxes，&；c。:that

increasingrentsnoadditiontotheresourcesofacountry:thateveryriseinrentsisameretransferofvalue，advantageous

onlytothelandlords，andproportionablyinjurioustotheconsumers:and，finally，thattheinterestsofthelandlordsare

alwaysopposedtothoseofeveryotherclassinthecommunity。(36)Theerroneousviewsinwhichthesepositionsoriginated，

proceedednodoubtfromimperfectobservationandhastyreasoning；thereisnoreasonwhatevertobelieve，thattheywere

promptedbymalignity，orputincirculationtocreatemischief。But，howevercalmandfreefromthoughtofevilmaybethe

philosophyfromwhichfalsepoliticaltheoriesareengendered，theyarenosoonerafloatand

currentintheworld，thanthey

necessarilycomeintocontactwithprejudicesandpassionswhichconvertthemintosourcesofveryseriousdelusions。

Mistakenviewsandexcitedfeelingsastothesourcesoftheprosperityofthelandedproprietors，likethosewhichhavelately

prevailedinEngland，haveadoublebadeffect。Theyleadthepeopletolookwithjaundicedandangryeyesupon

augmentationsintherevenueoftheproprietors，whichareintruthonlysomanyindicationsandeffectsofagreatandmost

desirableincreaseintheresourcesofthecountry。Andwhendiscussionshavearisenastopracticalmeasures，thesame

mistakenviewsandfeelingshaveevidentlyserved，firsttomakeonepartyquerulousandangry，andthentheother，asifinself-defence，suspiciousandreluctant。SECTIONVIII。SummaryofFarmer"sRentsThefactthattheserentsprevailalmostexclusivelyinEngland，issufficienttofixuponthemearnestattention。Theydeserve

itonanotheraccount。Thereareindications，faintinsomequarters，strongerinothers，butdiscernibleinmany，thatthe

Europeannationswillall，soonerorlater，approachpartially，atleast，toasimilarsystem。Wehaveshewnreasonsfor

believing，thattheirprogresstowardsitwillonthewholebeveryslow；butstillitisnotthelesstruethatthecomposition

andcapabilitiesofcountriesinwhichfarmer"srentsprevail，mustbedistinctlyunderstood，ifwewouldthoroughly

comprehendeitherthepeculiareconomicalconditionofourowncountry，ortheprobabledirectionandcharacterofthe

futurecareerofourneighbors。Itcertainlywillbewise，whiledevotingourselvestothistask，nottorepeatanerrorwhich

hasblindedmanylatewriterstotruthsofayetmoregeneralapplication:whichhasledthem，whilespeculatingon

circumstancespeculiartothemselves，sometimeswhollytoneglectthoseruderandmoreprevalentsystems，theresultsof

whichdecidethefortunesandconditionofthelargestportionofthehumanrace:atothertimes，toconfoundandconfuse

thingsandcircumstancesessentiallydifferent，underthecoverofimperfectanalogies，mademoreillusorybythecarelessuseofgeneralterms，andidleattemptstoreasondeductivelyfromthem。Weareall，asEnglishmen，occasionallymoreliablethancouldbewished，tosomeofthesemistakes；wearemuchtooprone

toconsiderthestateofsocietyinwhichweexistasatypeofallothers，andthisnarrowandmistakenassumptionis

necessarilytheparentofmuchignoranceandmanyerrors。Englandis，infact，attheextremeendandvergeofthe

economicalcareerofnations，asfarasthatcareerisyetknown；atapointnotyetreachedbyanyotherconsiderable

community；andonewhichhasplacedherinaposition，ifnotmoredesirable，yetverydifferentfromtheirs(37)Weseemen

here，inagricultureaswellasinalltheotherbranchesofhumanindustry，aidingtheirnativepowersofproductionhytheuse

ofanunusuallylargemassofaccumulatedstock，whichtheskillandinventionofsuccessivegenerationshasbeentaskedso

oapply，astoaddgraduallybutconstantlytotheproductivepowersoftheexistingrace。Thiscapital，andthepowerithascreated，intheirseparateapplicationtotheartofagriculture，enablethesoiltosupportapopulation，ofwhichthewhole###第11章amountistriplethatofthecultivators。Theownersofanimposingmassofaccumulatedforce，themselvesmaintainand

employthewholeoftheindustriouspopulation。(38)Theproprietorsofthesoilarenolongerexclusivelyeitherrulersin

peace，orleadersinwar，andarenotthedirectsourcesofsubsistencetoanypartofthepopulation。Thenationisinfluenced

byrevenues，asitisgovernedbyinstitutions，inestimatingwhich，thelandownersappearonlyasapart。Thenational

territory，andtheestatesoftheproprietorsofland，preserveofcoursepreciselythesameextent，whilethewealthand

numbersofclasseswhollyindependentofthesoil，areswellingandmultiplyingalmostindefinitely。Arethefortunesofthe

landownersinthemeanwhilestationary？Dotheysinkgraduallyintoinsignificance？Dotheyceasetooccupyausefuland

prominentstationinthecommunity？Noneofthesethingshappen。Bytheconsequencesofapartofthe

physicalconstitution

oftheearth，fromtheeffectsofwhichcommunitiesofmencouldnotescape，weretheyperverseenoughtowishit，the

landedbodypreservesawholesomeandmodified，thoughnomoreanexclusiveinfluence；anditsmembersremainimportant

elementsofasociety，inwhichtheyarenolongerdominant。Astheknowledgeandskillofthecultivatorsdiscoverthe

meansofapplyingafairportionoftheincreasingcapitalofthecommunitytotheimportantpurposeofbringingintoplaythe

latentpowersofthesoil，andofenlargingthemeansofsupportingagrowingnation，anewspeciesofrentexclusively

prevails:thefreshpowerthusapplied，forcinggreaterresultsfromthebettersoils，producesafundwhichformsnopartof

theordinaryremuneration，eitherofthelaborerswhotillthelands，orofthecapitalistswhomaintain，directandassistthem，

andwhenonceidentifiedwiththisfund，ofwhichwehaveseenthattheprogressandamountarequiteindefinite，the

incomesofthelandlordscontinueprogressivewiththeadvancingresourcesofthecountry。Itisthusthatthatinequalityin

theproductivepowersofdifferentportionsoftheearth"ssurface，whichatthecommencementoftheagriculturallaborsof

mankind，exercisesnoperceptibleinfluenceontheoriginorontheformsofrent，andbutlittleonitsvariations，shewsatlast

itspeculiarimportance；andduringthematuredandimprovedadvanceofnations，issufficientofitselftosecureforthelandedbody，asteadyandnecessary，thoughalimitedandinnoxiousadvanceoftheirincomes。Wehavealreadyseentheutterfallacyofthenotion，thatthisprogressmustbeattendedateverystepwithadecreaseinthe

productivenessofthesoilswhichgovernprices，orwithaconsequentpressureonthemeansofanyclassofsociety。

ObservationsonsomecircumstancesintheactualpositionofEngland。Insurveyingthissubjectoffarmersrents，itisnoteasy，perhapsitisnotdesirable，toavoidquittingthecontemplationof

theminageneralandabstractpointofview，forthepurposeofapplyingtheprincipleswhichariseoutofthatsurveytothe

caseofEngland，andtothepeculiaritiesofitsactualcondition:andmeaningtosteerasclearaspossibleofeverythingcommonlycalledpolitics，thereareafewobservationsofthisdescriptionwhichIcannotturnasidefrommaking。Itis，wehaveseen，ontheincreasingwealthandprogressiveskilloftheagriculturalcapitalist，thefarmer，thatthesteady

progressofthelandedbodyisindependent。Notastepcanbemadeinagriculture，notoneimprovement，

notasingle

portionofnewpowerintroducedintotheartofcultivation，whichdoesnot，ifgenerallyadopted，byitsunequaleffectsover

thesurfaceofthecountry，raisethemassofrents。Thepropertyandtheenergyandmentalactivityofthefarmers，arethus

themainstay，thesolepermanentrelianceofthelandlords。Everycircumstancewhichdiminishesthemeans，thesecurity，or

thehopefulnessandenergyoftheseagentsofcultivation，mustbeproportionablydetrimentaltothebestinterestsofthe

proprietors。Ithinkthereislittledoubt，thatifthechangesandfluctuationswhichhaveoccurredsincethepeace，hadnot

crippledthemeansanddampedtheenterpriseofthefarmers，theywould，byspreadingimprovedmodesofcultivationto

largedistricts，asyetimpervioustothem，andbyacontinuousprogressofpowerandskill，haveproducedaconsiderable

massofproducerentswhichdonotnowexist。`Thenon-existenceoftheseisunquestionablya

seriousandgratuitous

misfortunetotheproprietors:perhapsthegreatesttheyhaveexperienced；forhaditnotoccurred，theirincomes，inspiteofthealteredcircumstancesofthecountry，mighthavebeenbuoyeduptosomethingliketheirformerlevel。Butproprietorsdonotsufferalone，whenthenationalprogressindevelopingthepowersofitssoilisstayedandthwartedby

thefarmersbeingimpoverishedanddisheartened。Thenon-agriculturalclassessufferintheirturn，andthatinamanner，and

toanextent，whichisnotthelessformidable，becauseitisnoteasyaccuratelytotrackthelossinitsprogressanddiffusion，

ortomeasureitspreciseamount。Itisprobable，thatafterallowingfortheirownconsumption，thevalueoftheproduce

barteredbytheagriculturistswiththenon-agriculturistsisnotlessthan100millions。Thisfactiswelladaptedtoshewthe

mutualdependenceofthetwogreatclassesofthestate。Letussuppose，thatscaredbylossesandapprehensions，the

farmerswithdrawonefourthoftheirannualexpenditurefromthetaskofcultivation。Thisisaprocess，whicheveryone

acquaintedwithcountrybusinesswillknowmightbequietly，andalmostimperceptiblyeffected，byusinglesslabor，orby

farminglesshighlyinavarietyofways。Ifaproportionatediminutioninproductionweretofollow，andconsequentonthat，

asimilardiminutioninthehometraffickbetweentheagriculturistsandthenon-agriculturists，thedecreaseinthedemandfor

theproduceoftheindustryoftheselastwouldbeconsiderablymorethanequivalenttothedecrease

ofdemand，which

wouldfollowthedestructionofonehalfthewholeforeigntradeofthecountry。Idonotsaythatsuchacaseeitherhas

occurred，orislikelytooccur，althoughIhavebeardsomestrongopinionsonthatsubjectfrompersonswellentitledtobe

listenedtowithattention；butaneffectmuchlessthanthis，wouldunquestionablybemorethanequaltothesuddenand

completestoppageofthemostimportantbranchofourexporttrade；andaneffectevengreaterthanthis，wouldcertainly

followanysuddenandviolentattackuponthemeansofthefarmers。Theresultsofanydecreaseinthedomesticdemand

wouldbespreadoveralargersurface；andwouldthereforebelessintenselyfeltonanyonepoint，andcreateless

concentratedclamor；thantheresultsofadecreasetoasimilarextent，whenfeltintheexportmarketalone；butitwouldbe

anobviousdelusiontosuppose，thattheresourcesandprosperityofthewholebodyofnon-agriculturists。wouldnotbeaffectedtopreciselythesameextentintheonecaseasintheother。Itisdifficultnottobelievethatpartofthedistresswhichseemstohavelightedfromsomemysteriouscauseonmanyclasses

ofthecommunity，istobetracedtotheimperceptiblecontractionofthispartofthehomedemand。Therearepersons

doubtlesswhothink，thatanypossiblereductionofhome，maybecompensatedbytheextensionofforeign，demand。This，in

practice，isonlytruetoacertainextent；butthisquestionwouldprovokediscussion，andwewillsupposeittruetoany

extent。Stillitisclearthatforeigndemandisnotlikelytobesuddenlycreated，tocounteracttheeffectsofsudden

contractionsofthedomestictraffic；andthatthereforeaperiodofconsiderabledistressandlanguor，perhapsruinandcalamity，mustfollowallsuchcontractions。Itistheevidentinterestofthenon-agriculturiststhen，thatwhateverchangestakeplaceinforeigndemand，thehomemarket

shouldbeprosperous，becauseitistheirlargestmarket；andthatitshouldnotvary，becausesuchvariationsmustaffecttheir

ownprosperity。Iftheuncheckedcareerofthefarmersisessentiallyconnectedwiththeprosperousfortunesbothofthe

landedproprietors，andofthenon-agriculturalclasses，itmustobviouslybecloselyconnectedwiththeprosperousfortuneof

thenation；andnoplanoflegislationcanbesoundandwise，whichdoesnotcautiouslyavoidanymeasureslikelytodestroy

eitherthemeansorthespiritoftheagriculturalcapitalists。Nowconsideringhowmanyinterestsareboundupintheresults

ofwiseandcautiouslegislation，whenevertheinterestsoftheagriculturalcapitalistsareconcerned，itissingularlyunlucky

thatsuchaquestionasthatofthe"CornLaws"shouldexist，whichseemsfatednevertobeapproachedwithoutprovoking

anangryandheadlongspiritinonegreatdivisionofthenation，Boandamostmischievoustemperoffearanddepressionin

theotherdivision。Yetitisadmitted，thatinthepresentfinancialsituationofthecountry，cornlawsofsomedescription

mustexist。Noristhereintruthanygreatdisputeaboutthemainprinciple:theestablishmentofa"Protectionfrompeculiarburthens"iswhatallprofesstobecontentwith。Butheretherealdifficultyofthequestionbegins；whatarethepeculiarburthenssustainedbytheagriculturists？anditis

becauseIcanpointouttwoimportantmeasures，theeffectingwhichwouldgofartoremovethedifficultyofdecidingthisquestionsoratanyratewouldmakethatdifficultylessdecisiveandimportantthatIhaveventuredintothisdigression。Therearetwopaymentsmadebythefarmer，whichwhiletheyremainintheirpresentstate，willcontinuetoconfusethe

subjectsomuch，thatneitherpartytothediscussionislikelytobesatisfied；andtheseareTithesandPoorRates。Thereal

incidenceandtheeffectsofbothofthese，weshallexplainmoreatlargewhenspeakingoftaxation。

Theincidenceoftithes

iscertainlyineveryparticularinstanceaquestionwhichinvolvessomestatisticaldifficulties，notbecausetheprinciples

whichenableustodeterminethequestionareabstruseorobscure，butbecausethatincidenceisdifferent，incountries

differentlycircumstancedastotheactualpositionandstateoftheiragriculturalpopulation。Intheparticularcaseof

England，however，inthefirstplaceitcanbemadeabundantlyclear，thattithes，whenfirstcreated，musthavebeeninthe

thencircumstancesoftheEnglishpopulation，meanttoactasarentcharge；andinthesecondplaceitseemsagreedonall

hands，notonlythattithesshouldbeputuponsuchafootingastobenorealburthenonagriculture；

tocausenoadditionto

thegrowingpriceofproduce；butfurther，thattheyshouldbeplaceduponsuchafooting，thatitmaybepalpableandclear

toallbranchesandclassesofthepopulationonandofftheland，thattheyarenotsuchaburthen，anddonotcausesuchan

addition。Nowthiscanonlybeeffectedbyageneralcommutation。WhathaspassedinParliamentmaybetakenasaproof，

thattheleadersoftheChurchareperfectlywillingtoco-operateintheadoptionofanyrationalplanofthiskind:shouldthe

legislaturesetaboutthetask，withaseriousconvictionofitsusefulnessandimportance，andintrusttheexecutionofittothe

handsofpersonsactingonsoundviews，andinafrankandhonestspiritofconciliation，itsveryfewdifficultieswould

quicklydisappear。Ontheimmenseimportanceofsuchachangeinapoliticalandreligious，aswellasinaneconomicalpointofview，itcannotbenecessarytoenlarge。Thepoorlawspresentamuchmorepressingandalarmingmassofevil，astheydoalsomuchmoreseriousdifficulties。Inthe

firstplace，theeffectsofthepoorlawsasamereeconomicalevil，asaffectingtheinterestsandcalculationsofthefarmer，

andthegrowingpricesofcorn，areconsiderablyunderrated。Theselawsarefirst，aburthenthedirectandindirectpressure

ofwhich，itisdifficultforthefarmerhimselftocalculate；andwhichitisprobabletherefore，thatinallcaseshe

exaggerates；andinthenextplacetheyformamuchmore，averymuchmore，seriousadditiontothenecessarypriceof

agriculturalproduceinEngland，thanamerearithmeticalcalculationwouldleadustoconcludethey

did:andtheydothis，

becausetheirpressureisunequallydistributed，andfallsbyfarthemostheavilyonthosepoorersoils，theexpenceof

cultivatingwhichmustinthelongrun，(abstractingfromtheeffectsofforeignimportation)determinetheaveragepricesof

rawproduce。Thiscircumstancealoneformsasufficientlyurgentreasonforattemptingsuchalterationsasmightgetridofthisunnatural，andcertainlynotdesirable，interferencewiththelevelofEnglishprices。Butallmerelyeconomicalconsiderationsreallysinkintoutterinsignificanceswhenweturntothefearfulmassofmoraland

politicalmischiefwhichtheyhavebroughtintoaction。(39)Itisnottoomuchtosay，thattheyhavethoroughlydestroyedthe

happinessoftheagriculturalpeasantry，andcorruptedtheirhabitsaslaborersandasmen。Theseeffectshaveshewn

themselvesbuttoodistinctly。Thelatedisturbancesamongthatpeasantryonlysheerignorancecouldattributetoany

peculiaractualpressure。Thetemper，andfeelings，anddelusionsinwhichtheyoriginated，havebeenformingforsometime。

Theoutbreakmighthavebeenforeseenbyall(anditwasforeseenbysome)familiarwiththepracticalworkingandresults

ofthesystem:andunlessthatsystembeannihilated，oratleastessentiallyandfundamentallyaltered，thosedisturbanceswill，

itmayconfidentlybeexpectedfromthenatureofthecase，havebeenneitherthelast，northemostdangerous。Andstill，evil

anddangerousastheyhavebeen，theywereonlyoneeffectandindicationofthemiserablydistortedandirritatedfeelingsof

whichtheyweretheresult。Thelegislationofthecountryonthissubjecthasbeenbad，anddeservesunquestionablymuchof

theblamewhichhasbeenshiftedtotheshouldersofthosewhohaveadministereditsregulations。Butneither，certainly，has

theiradministrationbeenblameless，Badlawshavelaidthefoundation；andthen，sometimesbybadmanagementwithvery

goodintentions，andsometimesbybadmanagementwithveryquestionableintentions，thepoorhave

graduallybeenbrought

intoaconditioninwhichtheyareledtoattributeunhesitatinglyeveryprivationandeverydisappointmenttothose

neighbors，underwhosecontroltheyfindthemselves，andwhoaretothemthevisiblesourceofallthegoodandeviloftheir

lot。Whenmenareinthisposition，theconsequencesarcmostfatal，thoughmostnatural。Canwewonderthattheirtempers

hadbecomesoured，andtheirviewsofwhatisreasonableandunreasonable，ofwhatisrightandwrong，perverted？Thefact

is，thattherehadbeenforsometimespreadingthroughthisclassofourpopulationanangryspiritofdisliketotheir

immediatesuperiors，themostdangerousgermofpoliticaldisorder；andinthemeantimetheirownprinciplesandhabits

haveassumedacharacter，overwhichitisimpossiblenottomourn；whichfar-seeingpersonsmayeasilytracebackto

causesoverwhichthepoorthemselveshadnocontrol；butwhichisextremelyillcalculatedtoconciliatetheconfidence，orthegoodwill，orforbearance，ofthosewhohavetodealwithit；andtendsthereforebyitsconsequencestoperpetuateand

increascdistrustandillwillbetweenthelaborers，andthosewhohavethemanagementofthemandoftheirfortunes。Wehavehadfromthesecausesapainfulinstanceoftheconnexionofeconomicalandmoralevil。Themoralhavochas

indeedbeencomplete。Thehonestyofthelaborers，theirselfrespect，theirvaluefortheircharacterasworkmen，allhopeof

betteringtheirconditioninlifebygoodconduct，industry，andprudence；theirsenseoftheirmutualdutiesandclaimsas

parentsandchildren，allfeelingsandhabitsinshort，thatcontributetomakemengoodcitizens，andgoodmen，havebeenunderminedandimpaired，orutterlydestroyed。Noremedyfortheseevilsintheconditionofthepoordeservesthenameofawiseandstatesmanlikemeasure，whichisnot

ofanaturesufficientlycomprehensive，tooffersomepromiseofbringinghealingandhealthtoallthesediseasedpoints。Ido

notknowthatsucharemedyneedbedespairedof:theplanofusingallotmentsoflandforsuchapurpose，hasbeen

sufficientlydiscussedandtried，toenableustojudgeofitscapabilities。Ifthecountrywasenabled，bythenecessary

modificationsoftheexistinglaws，andbysomenewones，toadoptthatplanefficientlyintogeneralpractice，itmightenable

theagriculturaldistricts，notmerelytopalliatetheactualpressure，thethreateningdanger，fromthepoorlaws；buttodo

whatmustbeeffectuallydone，ifthemoralmischiefistobeeradicated；andthatis，to

annihilatetheconnexionbetweenthe

ablebodiedlaborersandthoselaws，altogether，andforever。(40)Inthemeantime，itwouldbeadangerousexperimentfor

thegovernorsofastatesosituated，tofoldtheirhandsandwaitforwhatistohappennext。Theslow，andtoooften

perplexedandthwartedprogressofindividualefforts，canleadtonogeneralresultsofsufficientpowertoarrestintimethe

progressofthemoralpestilencewhichhaslongbeenpursuingourfootsteps，andisalreadybreathingonournecks。

Legislationmustberesortedto，andthat，comprehensiveanddecisive，astheoccasiondemands；butcarriedon(itneed

hardlybesaid)inaspiritascalmandbenevolentasitisfirmanddecided:andguidedever，itmaybehoped，bythegreat

aim，ofpromotingthecomfortsandhappinessofthelaboringclass，asthebestandsurestfoundationoftheprosperityandpeaceofthenationatlarge。Imustadd，whileonthissubject，thatnoplanforextinguishingtheclaimsofablebodiedlaborersontheirparishes，will

appeartomeeitherjustorexpedient，whichisnotcalculatedtoplacethemnotonlyultimately，butateverystepofthe

change，inaposition，notmerelyasgoodasthatinwhichtheyarenow，butbetter。Withoutforgettingorpalliatingtheir

actualfaults，stillweshouldremember，thatthemiserablesystembywhichtheirbetterprinciples，andinsomemeasuretheir

freedomofbodyandmind，havebeenbarteredasitwerepiece-mealfordolesfromthepoors"-rate，wasneitherdevisednor

desiredbythem:anditwillbeinvainandunjusttocalluponthemtomakeeffortstodisentanglethemselvesfromitseffects，excepttheycandistinctlyseethatitisnotriskorlossorsuffering，butgainandreward，whichareprofferedtothem。Itwillberecollected，thatthetitheandpoor-lawshaveonlybeenconsideredhereasbearingonthegeneralquestionofthe

corn-lawsandthroughthatquestion，ontheharmonyoftheagriculturalandnon-agriculturalclasses，andonthe

uninterruptedperceptionbybothofthem，oftheircommonandinseparableinterests。Toreturnthenmoredistinctlyand

exclusivelytothispointofview。Ifwesupposethetithescommuted，andthepoor-ratesdoneawaywith，orreducedtoa

verysmallsum，thenthefarmer，inestimatinghispeculiarburthens，wouldberelievedfromafeelingofindefinitepressure，

andfrommanyvaguefearsofriskandloss，whicharekeptaliveandirritatedbytheexistenceofthosepaymentsintheir

presentstate。Thiseffected，ascaleofdutiesmightprobablybedevised，whichshouldbebothfixedandmoderate。Tillthisis

done，itisverymuchtobefearedthatnocorn-laws，whicharereallyequitable，willeverappeartothefarmertogivehim

sufficientprotectionwhilethenon-agriculturalclasseswillbebuttooeasilypersuaded，thattheyaddexorbitantlyand

unjustlytothepriceofprovisions。Theceaselesscollisionofsuchopinionswillnecessarilykeeponfoothostileandangry

feelings，andbedestructiveofthatconfidenceandfrankco-operationbetweenthedifferentordersandclassesofthecommunity，withoutwhich，intimesofperil，andevenintimesofpeace，astateisshornofmorethanhalfitsstrength。Butafixedandmoderatedutypermanentlyesablished，(41)andangryfeelingsontheoneside，andexaggeratedfearsof

changeontileother，finallyquelled，thefarmermightoncemorebegingraduallytoaccumulate，andgraduallytofindnew

modesofemployingfreshquantitiesofcapital。Theconsequencesofadiffusedandskilfulemploymentofsuchfreshfarming

capital，havealreadybeenpointedout。Englandoffersstillalargefieldforagriculturalenterprizeandimprovements。The

bestmethodsofcultivationalreadyknown，extendtonogreatproportion。ofhersurface；andwhenthesehavebeen

generallydiffused，thecareerofthecultivatorsmaystillbeforagesprogressive。SuperiorastheEnglishagricultureis，there

aremanyindicationsthatitisstillonlyapproaching，thatitisfarfromhavingreached，thetermofitspower。The

introductionofmechanicalorchemicalforceswhichwilldisplacemuchoftheanimalpowernowused；thediscoveryof

freshandmoreprolificgrassesandvegetablestobecultivatedbytheploughorspade；thegradualbreakingupofmuchof

thegroundoverwhichcattlenowroam；theraisingagreaterproportionofthemorevaluablecrops，whichcontribute

directlyorindirectlytohumansubsistence；andageneraladvanceintheefficiencyofthemanyaidstohumanlaborusedby

thehusbandman；theseareallimprovements，thegradualestablishmentofwhichitissofarfromextravaganttoexpect，

thatitisperhapsmorelikeextravagancetodoubtthatmanyofthemarecloseathand。

Oneeffectofsuchnewpowergained

byagriculture，willunquestionablybethereclaimingandgraduallyfertilizingaconsiderableportionofthelargepartofthe

soilofthecountrywhichisnowunproductive:andwhilethegrapplingwiththewildland，andthemultiplicationofmeans

andpowerontheold，aregoingon，wemay，judgingofthefuturefromthepast，rationallyhopethatthepowerof

agriculturewillbeincreasing，andthatthepopulationofthecountrywillbemaintainedbytheexertionsofadiminished

proportionofitslaborioushands。Ithasbeenalreadypointedout，itishopedwithsufficientclearness，thatduringsucha

progress，themassofrentsmustbeconstantlyincreasing。Inacountrycultivatedbyfarmers，witheveryforwardmovement

ofthepeopleinnumbers，wealth，knowledgeandskill，thelandedbody，borneupbytheswellingwave，willbeliftedtoa

stationinwhichtheirmeansandinfluencewillbeadaptedtothefreshpositionofthepopulation。Thecausesofthis

advancementaredeeplyseatedinthephysicalconstitutionoftheearth。Thefundswhichsupportitareinjurioustonoclass:

theycannotbedestroyedorlessened:theirexistenceandincreasearesecuredbythesameunfailinglawswhichregulate

thoseunequalreturns，whichthevariedsurfaceoftheearthmustevermaketo

thelaborsbestoweduponit。Theenduring

interestsofthelandedproprietorsarethusindissolublyboundupandconnectedwiththemeans，theenterprize，andthe

successoftheagriculturalcapitalists。Temporary:advantagesintheirbargainswiththeirtenantry，orintheirarrangements

withthestate，aretothemobjectsnecessarilyofinferior，sometimesofonlyillusorybenefit。Thefortunes，thestation，the

comparativeinfluenceandmeansoftheirorder，arealwaysthereforebestguardedandpreservedbythem，when，keeping

alooffromallthatmayembroilorhinderthegeneralprogressofthenationinwealthandskill，theyusetheirindividual

influence，andtheirpoliticalfunctions，topromotesuchsystemsonlyofnationalpolicyandfinanceasarejustandmoderate；

likely，therefore，tobesteadyanddurable，andtoleaveafreecoursetothosewholesomecauseswhichpromotetheirown

peculiarinterests，onlyasidentifiedwiththoseofthenation。

Conclusion。

Thetaskofobservingtherevenuesannuallyderivedfromthesoilbyitsowners，isfinished。Wehavemarkedthelawswhichdeterminetheamountofrentsunderalltheirmanyformsandcharacters。Wehavetraced

themtotheirorigin，intheearlyappropriationofthesoil；initspowertoyieldmoretotherudesteffortsofmanthanthe

baresustenanceofitscultivators；andinthenecessitywhich，intheinfancyofagriculturalcommunities，bindsthepeasantto

thetaskoftillingtheearth，becauseitisthusonlythathecanearnthefoodonwhichheistoexist。Wehavefollowedthem

afterwardstothosemorelimitedspots，inwhichanadvanceinthestateofsociety，andtheintroductionofabodyof

agriculturalcapitalists，(notnecessarilydependentonthesoilforsubsistence，)havelimitedrentstothosesurplusprofits，

whichcanberealizedonparticularspotsofground。Perhapsthisistheplacetonoticeanattempt，whichithasbeen

suggestedtomemaystillbemade，toreduceallrentstorentsofthislastdescription。Those，ithasbeensaid，whomaintain

thatrentsalwaysconsistinunequalreturnstoequalportionsofcapital，andinsuchunequalreturnsalone，maystillrefuseto

admit，thatthehistorywhichhasbeengivenofthenatureandoriginofpeasants"rents，isanyrefutationoftheirnarrowsystem。Ishouldnothaveanticipatedsuchanattempt:butIcanconceiveitpossible。Thereoftenexistsunquestionablyamongthelabororproducerentspaidbyeveryclassofpeasanttenantry，aportionofthe

payment，whichmaybetracedtothesuperiorqualityofsomepartsofthesoil。Thelandlordofaserfpeasantrygetsmore

laborfromthesamespacewhenthelandisgood，thanhedoeswhenitisbad。Thelandlordofryots，metayers，orcottiers，

findshisproduceormoneyrentsgreateronthegoodsoils，thanontheinferior。Wehavealreadyseen，however，thatsucha

differencehasnothingtodowiththeorigin，orwiththeformofsuchrents，andexistsasaquantityunknownorunobserved

bythosewhopay，orthosewhoreceivethem，amidsttheactionofthecauseswhichhavebeenpointedoutaspractically

determiningtheirvariations。Thereisoneverylimitedandpeculiarformofsociety，inwhichthisdifferencedoesafforda

correctmeasureoftherentspaidbytheagriculturalcapitalists，whoconstitutethebodyofthetenantry。But，outofthe

peculiarrentspaidintheselimiteddistricts，firsttoformanarrowdefinitionofthewordrent，andthentoattemptforciblyto

includeunderthisword，thepaymentsmadebythetillersoftheearthoverthewholeofitssurface，istoattempttomakethe

realitiesofthingsbendandcircumscribethemselveswithinthemoremanageablebutarbitrarycompasstowhichwemay

wishtoconfineourreasonings:itistoabandonthetaskofobservationbywhichourknowledgeshouldbeearnt，thatwe

maycreateanunrealfoundationforsystems，which，asfarastheyprofesstobegeneral，mustnecessarilybevisionaryand

false；whichcanbeserviceableonlyintheworkofamusingourselvesanddeludingothers；andmustendinleavingus

ignorantoftheorigin，progress，andeffects，oftherelationsbetweenlandlordandtenant，overninety-ninepartsinahundred

ofthecultivatedglobe。Ineednot，Ihope，pressthispointfarther。Thewholeofthesepagespresenttheproperanswerto

suchanattempt。Theyhaveeffectedlittle，iftheyhavenotshewn，thatitisbynosuchpuerileeffortstomakereasoning

supplytheplaceofknowledge，thatwecangatherpracticalwisdomfromenquiriesintotheeconomicalconditionofthegreatfamilyofmankind。Theexistenceoftherevenuewhichisderivedfromlandsforms，intheverydawnofciviliza-tion，themostimportant

elementofitsprogress。Itisthefundfromwhichcommunitiesderivetheirornamentsandtheirstrength。Itsuppliesstates

withleadersinwar，andrulersinpeace；givesbirthtotheusefulandtheelegantarts；andyields，directlyorindirectly，thosemeansandopportunitiesofleisure，whicharetheparentsofliterature，andofallaccumulatedandtransmittedknowledge。Iftheexistenceandgeneralprogressofrentsisidenticalwiththeextentandgrowthofthesourcesofcivilization，their

peculiarformsexerciseanolessdominantinfluenceonallthemostimportantdistinguishingcharacteristicsofnations，and

ofclassesofnations。Noristhisthecaseonlyintheinfancyofcommunities；wehavealreadyseen，thatwiththeexception

ofourcountry，andofoneortwoothers，all，eventheleadingpeopleoftheearth，arestillagricultural；thatis，byfarthe

largestportionoftheirindustriouspopulationisemployedinagriculture；andwehavetoo，goodreasontobelieve，thattheir

conditioninthisrespectwillchangeslowly，whereitchangesatall。Butamongnationssosituated，(formingthemajorityof

theinhabitantsoftheworld)soitis，andevermustbe，thattheproductivepowersoftheirpopulation，theirjointwealthand

strength，theelementsofmostoftheirpoliticalinstitutions，andofmanyoftheirmoralcharacteristics，canonlybe

understoodandweighed，afterathoroughinvestigationintothehabits，theties，therelations，therevenues，towhichthe

occupationofthelandtheyexistonhasgivenbirth，andwhichitcontinuestomaintain。Itisfromsuchaninvestigationalone

therefore，thatwemustacquirethepowerofestimatingtheactualcondition，orofjudgingofthefutureprospects，ofthemajorityofourfellowmen。Ofthegreatleadingdivisions，whichseparatetheagriculturalnationsoftheearthintodistinctmasses，Ihaveattemptedto

drawadistinctoutline。Thereare，however，probably，withinthelimitsofeachdivision，instancesofexceptionsand

modifications，whichmayhaveescapedmynotice，andwhichexercisesomeinfluenceoverthecircumstancesand

institutionsofindividualcommunities。IfIshouldsucceedindirectingtheattentionofotherstothepointswhichIhave

pointedoutasimportantinthetenuresandhabitsofagriculturalnations，someaccountofthosemodificationswillprobably

behereaftersupplied。Inthemeantime，asIamconsciousthatthewideoutlineIhavedrawn，andsuchdetailsasIhave

introduced，arefaithfulandimpartial，1cannotanddonotdoubt，thattheprogressivesupplyofdetailedinformation，will

confirmtheprincipleswhichIhavepointedout，whileitmayprobablymodifyandcorrect，tosomeextent，theirlocalapplication。Therentspaidbythesmallest，buttousthemostinterestingclassoftenantry，agriculturalcapitalists，orfarmers，Ihave

treatedwithMr。Malthusandothers，simplyassurplusprofits。Theview，however，takenhereofthedifferentmodesby

whichthesesurplusprofitsmayincreaseandaccumulateonthesoil，is，Ibelieve，new。Certainlyitischeering，andstrips

awayatonceallthatwasharshandrepulsive，inthefalseaspectlatelysolaboriouslygiventothecausesandsourcesofincreaseinthisclassofrents。Duringtheprogressofthewholesubject，abstractingfromalldifferenceintheformsofrents，andinthecharacterandthe

relationsbetweenthecultivatorsandproprietors，onegreattruthhasbeenplaced，itishoped，onthesecurefoundationofa

patientandcopiousinduction。Ihavehadpleasureinintroducingtheevidenceofitwhereverithasoccurred，andIshall

concludewithit。Innoonepositionofsociety，duringnooneperiodoftheprogressofcivilization，dotherealinterest。qf

theproprietorsofthesoilceasetobeidenticalwiththoseofthecultivators，andofthecommunitytowhichtheyboth

belong。Buteventhistruthitself，iftheviewswhichIhave，withsomelabor，arrivedat，donotdeceiveme，will，inthefuture

progressofoursubject，appeartobeincludedinoneyetmorecheering，becausemorecomprehensive；namely，thatall

systemsareessentiallyfalseanddelusive，whichsupposethatthepermanentgainandadvantageofanyoneclassofthe

community，canbefoundedonthelossofanotherclass:becausethesameprovidencewhichhasknittogethertheaffections

andsympathiesofmankind，bysomanycommonprinciplesofaction，andsourcesofhappiness，has，inperfectconsistency

withitsownpurposes，soarrangedtheeconomicallawswhichdeterminethesocialconditionofthevariousclassesof

communitiesofmen，astomakethepermanentandprogressiveprosperityofeach，essentiallydependentonthecommonadvanceofall。Note。Ithasbeensuggestedtome，thatIhavehardlydweltenoughonthepossibilityofconfoundingthecharacterofthe

Ryotsastenants，andtheirclaimsashereditaryoccupiersofthesoil。Ihaveaddednote，VIII。intheAppendix，inwhichthis

pointisconsidered，withaparticularreferencetoCol。Tod"slateworkonRajast"han。11。Thepracticeofploughinglightlandswithtwohorsesandoneman，andthealternateandconvertiblehusbandry，the

greatimprovementsofmoderntimes，havebeenfullyknownformorethanhalfacentury。Iftheyspreadthemselvesnofasterthantheyhavedoneyet，anotherhalfcenturywillelapsebeforetheyareadoptedonallthelandsfittedforthem。12。Ricardo，2ndEdit。pp。499，500，501。"Oneoftheseerrors(heisspeakingofsomesupposederrorsofMr。Malthus，)lies

insupposingrenttobeadeargainandanew"creationofriches。""Rentthenisacreationofvalue，but"notacreationof

wealth；itaddsnothingtotheresourcesofacountry:itdoesnotenableittomaintainfleetsandarmies，"&；c。&；c。Thereader

willhaveobservedalready，howutterlyfallaciousandinapplicablethesereasoningeandopinionsare，ifweturntopeasant

rents，thatis，tothelargebodyoftherentsactuallypaid。Itrusttheywill，inthetext，bemadetoappearequallyfallacious，whentakenasexclusivelyapplicabletothesurplusprofitsrealisedontheland，thatis，tofarmers"rents。13。Ricardo，3rdEdit。p。4。85。Weshouldhave，hesays，preciselythesamequantity，andnomore，ofcommodities，andthe

samemillionsofquartersofcornasbefore(thatis，beforetheriseofrents。)

14。Meaninglabornotproductiveofwealth，aswehavedefinedwealth，thatis，materialwealth。

15。Macculloch，p。282。16。Itwouldcomplicatethecalculation，ifweweretotakeinhereanyelementsofexchangeablevaluebesidesthemerelaboremployed:andtodemonstratethetruthwearetravellingto，thatcomplicatedcalculationisnotnecessary。17。Itwillbeshewnhereafter，thatinacountryrepletewithcapital。anEnglandis，itisalwayshighlyprobablethattherate

ofwageswillbesufficientlyaheadofthatrateinpoorercountries，toproduceaslightinferiorityintherateofprofitsintherichercountry；thoughitsproductivepowerbethegreatestandinastateofrapidincrease。18。"Wehaveseen，intreatingonwages，thattheyinvariablyrisewiththeriseinthepriceofrawproduce。Itmaybetaken

forgranted，that。underordinarycircumstances，nopermanentrisetakesplaceinthepriceofnecessarieswithout

occasioningorhavingbeenprecededbyariseinwages。Thusweagainarriveatthesameconclusion，whichwehavebefore

attemptedtoestablish，thatinallcountriesandalltimes，profitsdependonthequantityoflaborrequisitetoprovide

necessariesforthelaborersonthatland，orwiththatcapitalwhichyieldsnorent。"Ricardo，pp。118，128。

19。PrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy，p。193。

20。Page198。

21。Ricardo，2ndedit。p。163。

22。Ibid。p。159。

23。Ricardo，2ndedit。p。157。

24。SeearticleCredit，SupplementtoEncyclopediaBritannica。

25。Malthus，PrinciplesofPoliticalEconomy，p。193。26。Thecomparativepotentialfertilityofsoils，thatis，thefertilityeachwouldbefoundtopossessafterhavingbeenfor

sometimecultivated，withthemostandbestindustry，skill，andmeans，issomethingverydifferentfromtheircomparative

actualfertility；acircumstancewhichshouldalwaysberemembered，whenthepolicyofcultivatingapparentlybarrenwastesisunderconsideration。27。"Rentinvariablyproceedsfromtheemploymentofanadditionalquantityoflaborwithaproportionallylessreturn。"Ricardo，1stedit。p。60。28。Mr。Ricardohimselfwasperfectlyaware，(indeedhecouldnotbeotherwise，)thatthiswasanecessaryconclusionfrom

hisdoctrineastotheonesolecauseofaugmentedrents。"Thesamecause，"hesays，"thedifficultyofproduction，raisesthe

exchangeablevalueofrawproduce，andraisesalsotheproportionofrawproducepaidtothelandlordasrent。"RicardoonPoliticalEconomy，2ndedit。p。71。29。SomeofthesereturnsmaybeseeninMr。Lowe"sbook，2ndedit。p。155。Itwillbeobserved，thattheexpensesonlyare

therecomparedwiththerent；addingprofitsonthelowestpossiblescale，itwillbeseenthattherentmusthaveordinarilybeenaboutone-fifthofthegrossproduce。Eventhisexceedstheusualcalculationsofsomeexperiencedland-valuers。30。Toestimatethatgreaterproducefairly，itisalwaystoberecollected，thatwemustnotconfineourviewstothe

increasedcornproduceofsmallspots，althoughthatisremarkable，butmusttakeinthevariedproduceofconsiderabletracts；oratleast，ofwholefarms。31。Ricardo，EssayontheInfluenceofalowprice，&；c。p。20。"Itfollowsthen，thattheinterestofthelandlordisalways

opposedtotheinterestsofeveryotherclassinthecommunity。"

32。Ricardo，pp。118，128。33。"Intreatingonthesubjectoftheprofitsofcapital，itisnecessarytoconsidertheprincipleswhichregulatetheriseand

fallofrent；asrentandprofits，itwillbeseen，haveaveryintimateconnectionwitheachother。"Ricardo，Essayonthe

InfluenceoflowPriceofCornontheProfitsofStock，Introduction，p。1。"Thegeneralprofitsofstockdependwhollyon

theprofitsofthelastportionofcapitalemployedontheland。"Ricardo，Ibid。p。20。"ButIthinkitmaybemostsatisfactorily

proved，thatineverysocietyadvancinginwealthandpopulation，independentlyoftheelectproducedbyliberalorscanty

wages，generalprofitsmustfallunlesstherebeimprovementsinagriculture，orcorncanbeimportedatacheaperprice。It

seemsthenecessaryresultoftheprincipleswhichhavebeenslatedtoregulatetheprogressofrent。"Ricardo，Ibid。p。22。

ButthosewhoareatallacquaintedwithMr。Ricardo"swritings，willwantnoextractstoprovetothemthemannerinwhichhisnotions，astotheonepeculiarsourceofrents，servedasabasisforallhisspeculationsonthedistributionofwealth。34。"If，bytheintroductionoftheturniphusbandry，orbytheuseofamoreinvigoratingmanure，

Icanobtainthesame

producewithlesscapital，Ishalllowerrent。"RicardoonPoliticalEconomy，2ndedit。p。68。Thereferencetothisstrange

passagewasmislaid，oritwouldhavebeenquotedbefore。Mr。R。proceedstoargue，thatinthecaseheissupposing，land

wouldbenecessarilythrownoutofcultivation，"andadifferentandmoreproductiveportionwillbethatwhich"willform

thestandardfromwhicheveryotherwillbereckoned。"Thereaderhasseen(p。240。)inwhatmannertheintroductionofthe

turniphusbandry，anditsgradualspread，asthenumbersofthepeoplewereincreasing，actuallyraisedtherentalofagreat

partofEngland，and，pushedtillagetoavarietyofsoilsbeforeuncultivated；manyofwhichalsopaidarent。

35。SeetooonthispointMacculloch。36。"Itfollows，then，thattheinterestofthelandlordisalwaysopposedtotheinterestofeveryotherclassofthecommunity。"Ricardo，EssayontheInfluenceofalowPriceofCornontheProfitsofStock，p。2037。Iought，perhaps，toexcepttheLowCountries；butIshallhaveoccasiontoshewhereafter，thatalthoughfarmersrents

prevailextensivelyinthosecountries，theireconomicalpositionisstillverydifferentfromthatofEngland。

38。Exclusiveofmenialservants，ofcourse。39。ItisfromnotheoreticalviewsthatIspeak，butfromanintimateandassuredlyamostpainfulexperience，whenIsay

this。Iought，however，perhapstomention，thatmypersonalexperiencehasbeenconfinedtotheagriculturallaborers，andtothecountiesofKentandSussex。40。Individualimpressionsuponasubjectofsuchmightynationalimportance，Iamawaredoandoughttocountforbut

little；butssIhavebeenledtothesubject，itmaynotperhapsbepresumptuoustostate，thatmyownobservationshaveled

toastrongbelief，thatsuchaplanmightbedevisedandcarriedwithcheerfulnessandpopularityintogeneralexecution；and

this，withverydesirableeconomical，aswellasmostimportantmoralandpoliticaleffects。Andthat，ifregulatedand

executedundertheguidanceofsoundviews，andwithreasonableprecautions，itneednotbefearedthatthemanygood

effectsofsuchaplanwouldbemarredbytheresultsoftheprincipleofpopulation，orbeneutralizedbyanytrainofaccompanyingevils。41。Itwillagainberemembered，thatIconsiderthecommutationoftithes，andchangeofpoor-laws，essentialpreliminaries

tothismeasure。Noallowanceintherateofdutyforthosepayments，astheyareatpresentassessed，will，Ifear，ever

produceanythingbutdissatisfaction，inanyclass。

APPENDIX。HERSCHELontheStudyofNaturalPhilosophy。Lardner"sCabinetCyclopaedia，No。14，p。67。Wehavethuspointedout

tous，asthegreat，andindeedonlyultimatesourceofourknowledgeofnatureanditslaws，EXPERIENCE；bywhichwe

mean，nottheexperienceofonemanonly，orofonegeneration，buttheaccumulatedexperienceofallmankindinallages，

registeredinbooksorrecordedbytradition。Butexperiencemaybeacquiredintwoways:either，first，bynoticingfactsas

theyoccur，withoutanyattempttoinfluencethefrequencyoftheiroccurrence，ortovarythecircumstancesunderwhich

theyoccur；thisisOBSERVATION:or，secondly，byputtinginactioncausesandagentsoverwhichwehavecontrol，and

purposelyvaryingtheircombinations，andnoticingwhateffectstakeplace；thisisEXPERIMENT。Tothesetwosourceswe

mustlookasthefountainsofallnaturalscience。Itisnotintended，however，bythusdistinguishingobservationfrom

experiment，toplacetheminanykindofcontrast。Essentiallytheyaremuchalike，anddifferratherindegreethaninkind；so

that，perhaps，thetermspassiveandactiveobservationmightbetterexpresstheirdistinction；butitis，nevertheless，highly

importanttomarkthedifferentstatesofmindininquiriescarriedonbytheirrespectiveaids，aswellastheirdifferenteffects

inpromotingtheprogressofscience。Intheformer，wesitstillandlistentoatale，toldus，perhapsobscurely，piecemeal，and

atlongintervalsoftime，withourattentionmoreorlessawake。Itisonlybyafter-ruminationthatwegatheritsfullimport；

andoften，whentheopportunityisgoneby，wehavetoregretthatourattentionwasnotmoreparticularlydirectedtosome

pointwhich，atthetime，appearedoflittlemoment，butofwhichweatlengthappreciatetheimportance。Inthelitter，onthe

otherhand，wecross-examineourwitness，andbycomparingonepartofhisevidencewiththeother，whileheisyetbefore

us，andreasoninguponitinhispresence，areenabledtoputpointedandsearchingquestions，theanswertowhichmayat

onceenableustomakeupourminds。Accordinglyithasbeenfoundinvariably，thatinthosedepartmentsofphysicswhere

thephenomenaarebeyondourcontrol，orintowhichexperimentalenquiry，fromothercauses，hasnotbeencarried，the

progressofknowledgehasbeenslow，uncertain，andirregular；whileinsuchasadmitofexperiment，andinwhichmankind

haveagreedtoitsadoption，ithasbeenrapid，sure，andsteady。

I。NarrativeofavisittoBrazil，Chili，PeruandtheSandwichIsland，duringtheYears1821and1822，byCharlesFarquhar

Mathison，Esq。p。449。TheKingthenisacompleteautocratallpower，allproperty，allpersonsareathisdisposal:the

chiefsreceivegrantsoflandfromhim，whichtheydivideandletoutagaininlotstotheirdependants，whocultivateitforthe

useofthechief，reservingaportionfortheirownsubsistence。Thecultivatorsarenotpaidfortheirlabour，nor，ontheother

hand，dotheypayaregularrentfortheland。Theyareexpectedtosendpresentsofpigs，poultry，tarrow，andother

provisions，tothechief，fromtimetotime，togetherwithanylittlesumsofmoneywhichtheymayhaveacquiredintrade，or

anyotherpropertywhichitmaysuitthefancyortheconvenienceofthegreatmantotake。Thisarbitrarysystemisasad

hindrancetotheprosperityofthetenant；forifheisdisposedtobeindustrious，andbringhislandintogoodcultivation，or

raiseagoodbreedoflivestock，andbecomesrichinpossessions，thechiefissooninformedofit，andthepropertyisseized

forhisuse，whilstthefarmerlosesthefruitofallhislabours。Thisstateofthings，asbetweentheKingandhischiefs，islittle

morethantheoretical；butasbetweenthechiefsandtheirdependants，itexistsmischievouslyinpractice:hencethegreat

stimulustoindustrybeingremoved，thepeopleliveandvegetate，withoutmakinganyexertionsbeyondwhatthecommand

ofthechiefandthecareoftheirownsubsistenceforceuponthem。Onedayinaweek，orafortnight，asoccasionmay

require，thetenantsarerequiredtoworkupontheprivateestateofthechief。Ihaveseenhundreds——men，women，and

children，atonceemployedinthiswayonthetarrowplantations:allhandsturnout，fortheyassisteachotherinabody，and

thusgetthroughtheworkwithgreaterexpeditionandease。Whenakanaka，ortenant，refusestoobeytheorderofhischief，

themostsevereandsummarypunishmentisinflictedonhim，namely，confiscationofhisproperty。

Aninstanceinpoint

happenedtooccurwhileIwasstayingatWhy-aronah。Coxehadgivenorderstosomehundredsofhispeopletorepairto

thewoodsbyanappointeddaytocutsandal-wood。Thewholeobeyedexceptonemanwhohadthefollyandhardihoodto

refuse。Uponthis，hishousewassetfireto，andburnttothegroundontheveryday:stillherefusedtogo。Thenextprocess

wastoseizehispossessions，andturnhiswifeandfamilyofftheestate；whichwouldinevitablyhavebeendone，ifhehad

notalloweddiscretiontotaketheplaceofvalour，andmadeatimelysubmission，topreventthisextremity。Ithasbeen

beforesaid，thatnocompensationismadetothelabourersfortheirwork，exceptasmallgrantofland。This，however，does

notpreventthechief，ifkindlydisposed，fromdistributingsuppliesofmaros，tappers，cloth，&；c。gratuitouslyamongthem。I

haveheardthatKrimakoooncedistributednolessthanthreethousandblanketsamonghispeople。TheKingexercises

absolutedominionovertheseaaswellasovertheland；andinthesamewayletsouttherightoffisheryalongthecoasttohischiefs。Ibid。p。382。Atsixo"clockwereachedasmallvillageaboutamilefromthesea-shore，andeasilyobtainedatolerablehutto

passthenightin:itbelongedtoanEnglishsailor，whohadestablishedhimselfhere。Hereceiveduswithgreatcivility，andkilledapigforoursupper，which，whenbaked，togetherwithtarrow-root，furnishedaveryexcellentrepast。Ibid。p。383。TheEnglishsailorinformedmethatallthelandinhisneighbourhoodbelongedtoKrimakoo，theKing"s

Minister，familiarlycalledBillyPitt，whohadgivenhimsixtyacres。Onpartof。thishemadeatarrow-plantation，which

affordedthemeansofliving；buttherest，hesaid，wasuseless。Heseemedwretchedlypoor；woreanoldshirtandtrowsers，moreraggedanddirtythancanbewellconceived，andwassodisfiguredbyathickblackbeardofseveralweeksgrowth，

thathewasreallyfarmoresavagelookingthananyoftheislanders。Withoutplacingmuchdependenceuponthestatementofthispoorfellow，Iwasstillinterestedbywhathetoldme，and

pitiedtheabjectconditionofdependenceuponsavages，towhichhewasnowreduced。Amongothercausesof。complaint，

heinveighedbitterlyandwithtruthagainstthetyrannyofthechiefs，whoclaimarighttopossessallprivatepropertywhich

isacquiredupontheirestates，andseizeeverythingbelongingtothepoorerclassesforwhichtheyfeelaninclination。He

saidthatwheneveranindustriouspersonbroughtmorelandintocultivationthanwasnecessaryforhissubsistence，orreared

agoodbreedofpigsandpoultry，thechief，onhearingofit，hadnohesitationinmakingthepropertyhisown。Thistakes

place，independentofthecustomarypresentsandtribute；eveneverydollarobtainedbytrafficwithstrangersmustbegiven

up，onpainofthechief"sdispleasure。Europeansaresubjecttothesameoppression。andfromthisgeneralinsecurityof

privateproperty，arisesinagreatdegreetheabsenceofmuchindustryorimprovement，bothamongthemandthenativepeasantry。Ibid。p。412。Ontheeveningofthesameday，IbadeadieutoGovernorCoxe，ashewasstyled，andwenttovisitan

Americansailor，whohadbeenestablishedupwardsoffiveyearsinthisisland，andcultivatedasmallfarmbelongingtothat

chief。Hispropertyconsistedofafewacresoftarrow-plantations，inthemidstofafineorchardofbread-fruitandother

trees，withpasturageforalargeherdofgoats；andthese，inadditiontosomepigsandpoultry，renderedhimrichintheeyes

ofallhisneighbours。Hiscottagewaswellbuilt，andbeingfurnishedwithmatting，wepassedthenightverycomfortablyin

it。Helikedhissituationaltogether，andthoughtitverypreferabletoaseaman"slife；butcomplained，nevertheless，ofthe

insecuretenurebywhichpropertyisheldinthiscountry。Hetoldme，asothershaddone，thathewasafraidofmakingany

improvements，andputtingmorelandintocultivation，lesthisprosperityshouldexcitethecupidityofthechief，whowould

nothesitate，ifhechoseit，toappropriatethewholetohimself。Asitwas，hehadtobeareverysortofpettyexaction，

accordingtothecapricesofthechief，ontheinstigationsofhisadvisers，andonlyretainedpossessionofhispropertybyaccedingtoeverydemand，andpropitiatingwithcontinualpresents，thefavourofthegreatman。Ibid。p。427。Meniniwassupposedtobeworththirtyorfortythousanddollars，amassedduringaresidenceofthirtyyearsin

thecountry:butheheldhispropertybyratherafeebletenure，namely，theKing"sgoodwillandpleasure；andmightatany

momentbedeprivedofit，withoutthepossibilityofobtainingredress。

II。EmigrationReportofJune1827，p。397。AreyouawareofthetermsuponwhichlandisnowgrantedtosettlersinthecolonyofNewSouthWales？Iunderstandtherehasbeenanalterationlately；thatalterationIamnotawareof。Thepresentsystemis，thatapriceisplaceduponthelandaswildland；forexample，200，000acreswouldbevaluedat18d。

anacre，thatwouldmakethetotalgrantofthevalueof？5，000。；then，uponthat？5，000。，fivepercent。wouldbecharged

attheendofsevenyears，redeemableatanytimeat。acertainnumberofyears"purchase；consequently，forsuchagrantas

youcontemplate，arentof？50。ayearwouldbedemanded，whichrentwouldberedeemableatanytimebypaymentofthe

capitalof？5，000。；atthesametime，itisnotthecustomtomakegrantslargerthan10，000acres。

III。TravelsfromViennathroughLowerHungary，byRichardBright，M。D。p。114。But，ifthelandlordhavereasontobelittle

satisfied，stilllesscanthepeasantbesupposedtorejoiceinhissituation。Itcanneverbewell，tomakethegreatandactually

necessarypartofsociety，thelabouringclass，dependantonthechancesofagoodorbadharvestforitsexistence。Amanof

capitalcanbear，forayearortwoyears，thefailureofhiscrops；but，letacoldeastwindblowforonenight，——letahail

stormdescend，orletariveroverflowitsbanks，andthepeasant，whohasnothingbuthisfield，starvesorbecomesa

burthentohisLord。OfthisIhaveseenactualproof，notonlyinthewinedistrictsofHungary，inwhichtheuncertaintyof

thecropisextreme，butinsomeofitsrichestplains，whereIhaveknownthepeasantry，fullthreemonthsbeforegathering

in，humblysupplicatingthelandlordstoadvancethemcornonthefaithofthecomingharvest。

Theseareevilsalwaysliable

tooccur，supposingthepeasantwereallowedtocultivatehislandswithoutinterruption。Butisthisthecase？TheLordcan

legallyclaimonlyonehundredandfourdays"labourfromeachintheyear；yetwhocanrestrainhimifhedemandmore？

Thereareamultiplicityofpretextsunderwhichhecanmakesuchdemands，andbesupportedinthem。Theadministrationof

justiceis，inagreatdegree，vestedinhisownhands。Therearemanylittlefaultsforwhichapeasantbecomesliabletobe

punishedwithblowsandfines，butwhichheisoftenpermittedtocommuteforlabour。Infact，thesethingshappenso

frequently，andotherextorteddaysoflabourwhichthepeasantfearstorefuse，occursooften，thatIremember，whenin

conversationwithaveryintelligentDirector，Iwasestimatingthelabourofeachpeasantat104days，heimmediately

correctedme，andsaidImightdoubleit。If，however，theLord，orhisheadservants，havetoomuchfeelingofproprietyto

transgressagainstthestrictnessofthelaw，theycanatanytimecalluponthepeasantstoservethemforpay；andthat，notat

theusualwagesofaservant，butaboutone-thirdasmuch，accordingtoanassessedrateoflabour。Addtoallthis，the

servicesduetothegovernment，remember，too，thatcasesoccurinwhichapeasantisobligedtobesixweeksfromhis

home，withhishorsesandcart，carryingimperialstorestothefrontier，andthenjudgewhetherheispermittedtocultivate，

withoutinterruption，thelandwhichhereceives，astheonlyreturnforhislabour。

IV。Burnet"sViewofthePresentStateofPoland，p。85。Whenayoungpeasantmarries，hislordassignshimacertainquantity

ofland，sufficientforthemaintenanceofhimselfandfamilyinthepoormannerinwhichtheyareaccustomedtolive。Should

thefamilybenumerous，somelittleadditionismadetothegrant。Atthesametime，theyoungcoupleobtainalsoafew

cattle，asacowortwo，withsteerstoplowtheirland。Thesearefedinthestubble，orintheopenplacesofthewoods，as

theseasonadmits。Themasteralsoprovidesthemwithacottage，withimplementsofhusbandry，inshort，withalltheirlittle

moveableproperty。Inconsiderationofthesegrants，thepeasantisobligedtomakeareturntothelandholderofonehalfof

hislabour；thatis，heworksthreedaysintheweekforhislord，andthreeforhimself。Ifanyofhiscattledie，theyare

replacedbythemaster；acircumstancewhichrendershimnegligentofhislittleherd，asthedeathorlossofsomeofthemis

afrequentoccurrence。Whenafarmerrentsafarm，thevillagessituatedonit，withtheirinhabitants，areconsideredas

includedinthecontract；andthefarmerderivesarighttothesameproportionofthelabourofthepeasantsforthe

cultivationofthatfarm，asbytheconditionoftheirtenuretheyareboundtoyieldthelord。Ifanestatebesold，thepeasants

arelikewisetransferred，ofcourse，withthesoil，toanewmaster，subjecttothesameconditionsasbefore。ThePolish

boors，therefore，arestillslaves；andrelativelytotheirpoliticalexistence，absolutelysubjecttothewilloftheirlords，asinall

thebarbarismofthefeudaltimes。Theyarenotprivilegedtoquitthesoil，exceptinafewinstancesofcomplete

enfranchisement；andiftheywere，theprivilege，forthemostpart，wouldbemerelynominal:forwhithershouldtheygo？

Theymayretire，indeed，intotherecessesoftheforest，whereitispossibletheymaynotbetraced；anditisprobable，thatin

timespastmanyresortedtothisexpedienttoescapefromthecrueltiesofatyrannicalmaster。Toflyfromamildmaster

wouldbeobviouslyagainsttheirinterest。Toquittheterritoryofonegrandeeforthatofanother，mustcommonly，ifnot

always，havebeenimpracticable:forwhatlandholderwouldchoosetoadmitafugitivepeasant，andthusencourageaspirit

ofrevolt？Again，itisnotintheirpower，fromthecircumstancesoftheircondition，toselltheirlabourindifferentlytothisor

thatmaster；andifsuchobstaclesdidnotoppose，theveryextentofthePolishfarms，andtheconsequentwantofasecondcontiguousemployer，wouldsufficeinmostcasestoprecludeachangeofmasters。Itissaidthatafewofthepeasantsimprovethelittlestockwhichiscommittedtotheirmanagement，accumulatingsome

smallproperty；buttheirconductisfarmorefrequentlymarkedbycarelessnessandawantofforecast。Instances，however，

ofthisaccumulation，begintomultiply:foroneeffectofthepartitionhasbeen，thatthepeasantsarelessliabletobe

plundered。Generallyspeaking，itdoesnotappearthatthisallowanceoflandandcattleeitheris，ordesignedtobe，more

thanenoughfortheirscantymaintenance。Iwasonceonashortjourneywithanobleman，whenwestoppedtobaitatthe

farm-houseofavillage，whichIhavebeforementionedasacommoncustominPoland。Thepeasantsgotintelligenceofthe

presenceoftheirlord，andassembledinabodyoftwentyorthirty，topreferapetitiontohim。Iwasnevermorestruckwith

theappearanceofthesepoorwretches，andthecontrastoftheirconditionwiththatoftheirmaster。Istoodatadistance，

andperceivedthathedidnotyieldtotheirsupplication。Whenhehaddismissedthem，Ihadthecuriositytoenquirethe

objectoftheirpetition；andhereplied，thattheyhadbeggedforanincreasedallowanceofland，onthepleathatwhatthey

hadwasinsufficientfortheirsupport。Headded，"Ididnotgrantitthem，becausetheirpresentallotmentistheusual

quantity；andasithassufficedhitherto，soitwillforthetimetocome。Besides，(saidhe，)ifIgivethemmore，Iwellknowthatitwillnot，inreality，bettertheircircumstances。"Polanddoesnotfurnishamanofmorehumanitythattheonewhorejectedthisapparentlyreasonablepetition；butitmustbe

allowedthathehadgoodreasonsforwhathedid。Thosedegradedandwretchedbeings，insteadofhoardingthesmall

surplusoftheirabsolutenecessities，arealmostuniversallyaccustomedtoexpenditinthatabominablespirit，whichtheycall

achnaps。Itisincrediblewhatquantitiesofthisperniciousliquoraredrunk，bothbythepeasantmenandwomen。Ihavebeen

told，thatawomanwillfrequentlydrinkapint，andevenmore，atasitting，andthattooinnogreatlengthoftime。Ihave

myselfoftenseenoneofthesepoorwomenledhomebetweentwomen，sointoxicatedastobeunabletostand。Therecan

benoquestion，thattheexcessiveuseofthiswhiskey(wereitnottolibelwhiskeythustostyleit)oughttobeenumerated

amongthechiefproximatecausesofthedeficientpopulationofPoland。ItisindeedsoconsideredbythePoles；andthe

CountZamoyskihaslatelyestablishedaporterbreweryinGalitzia，inthehopeofcheckingeventuallysohurtfulahabit，bythesubstitutionofthatwholesomebeverage。ThefirsttimeIsawanyofthesewitheredcreatures，wasatDantzic。Iwasprepared，byprintedaccounts，toexpectasight

ofsingularwretchedness；butIshrunkinvoluntarilyfromthecontemplationofthereality；andmyfeelingscouldnotbe

consoledbytheinstantaneousandinevitablereflection，thatIwastheninaregionwhichcontainsmillionsofmiserable

beingsofthedescriptionofthosebeforeme。Someinvoluntaryexclamationofsurprizemixedwithcompassionescapedme。

Athoughtlessandafeelinglessperson(whichareaboutthesamethings)wasstandingby。"Ohsir!(sayshe)youwillfind

plentyofsuchpeopleastheseinPoland；andyoumaystrikethemandkickthem，ordowhatyoupleasewiththem，andthey

willneverresistyou；theydarenot。"Thus，thisgentleman，bythemannerinwhichhespoke，seemedtothinkitasortof

privilege，thattheyhadamongthemasetofbeingsonwhomtheymayventwithimpunitytheexuberanceoftheirspite，and

gratifyeveryfitfulburstofcapriciouspassion。Farbeitfromme，toascribethefeelingsofthismantothemorecultivated

andhumanizedPoles；butsuchincidentalandthoughtlessexpressionsbetraybuttoosensiblythegeneralstateoffeelingwhichexistsinregardtotheseoppressedmen。Somefewoftheboorsarefoundabouteverylargemansion。Theyareemployedbythedomesticsinthemostdirtymenial

offices。Thesehaveneveranybeds(howevermean)providedthem；sothatinthesummer-nights，theysleeplikedogs，inany

holeorcornertheycanfind，alwayswithoutundressing。Butthewinter"scolddrivesthemintothehall，wherethey

commonlycrouchclosetothestoveswhicharestationedthere。Here，too，severalofthedomesticsspreadtheirpallets，and

takeuptheirnight"sabode。Frequently，asIhaveretiredtomyroomaftersupper，Ihavestumbledoveraboorsleepingat

thefootofthestairsacuriousandamelancholyspectacle!toseethesepoorcreatures，inalltheirunmitigatedwretchedness，lodginginthehallsofpalaces!Ingivingordersordirectionsofanysorttothesetorpidbeings，thoughthesentimentofthespeakerbenotdisgracedbythe

slightestadmixtureofunkindfeeling，itiscustomarytoaddresstheminacertainsmartandstrikingmanner；asifto

stimulatetheirstupidsensesintosufficientactiontoprompttheperformanceofthemostordinaryoffices。Thereisno

circumstancemoredeplorableinslaverythanthatdead-palsyofthefaculties，whichbereavesitspossessorevenofthe

comfortofhope；orcapacitateshimonlytohopethathemaylivewithouttorment，andmopeouthisexistenceinjoyless

apathy!Iftoacontiguouspersonyougiveutterancetoanycompassionatingremark，youarecommonlyansweredwiththe

mostindifferentairimaginable，"Itisverytrue；buttheyareusedtoit；"somethinginthesameway，Ihavethought，aseels

areusedtoskinningalive。