第10章

Inthehighestsituationwecanfancy，thepleasuresfromwhichweproposetoderiveourrealhappinessaregenerallythesameasthosewhich，inahumblerstation，wehaveatalltimesathandandinourpower。Thepoorman"sson，"whomheaveninitsangerhasvisitedwithambition，"willgothrough，inthefirstmonthofhispursuitofthepleasuresofwealth，morefatigueofbodyanduneasinessofmindthanhecouldhavesufferedthroughthewholeofhislifeforthewantofthem。"Examinetherecordsofhistory，recollectwhathashappenedinthecircleofyourownexperience，considerwithattentionwhathasbeentheconductofalmostallthegreatlyunfortunate，eitherinprivateorpubliclife，whomyouhaveeitherreadoforheardoforremember，andyouwillfindthatthemisfortunesofbyfarthegreaterpartofthemhavearisenfromtheirnotknowingwhentheywerewell，whenitwasproperforthemtositstillandbecontented。"

Popetaughtthesamelessonbetterandmorebrieflyinhiswell-knownlines:——

Hopespringseternalinthehumanbreast；

Manneveris，butalwaystobe，blest。

AndHoraceaskedMecaenasthesamequestionlongago:——

Quifit，Mecaenas，utnemoquamsibisortemSeuratiodederit，senforsobjeceritillaContentusvivat？

"Whatcanbeadded，"asksAdamSmith，"tothehappinessofthemanwhoisinhealth，whoisoutofdebt，andhasaclearconscience？"Andthiscondition，hemaintains，istheordinaryconditionofthegreaterpartofmankind。Wouldyoulivefreely，fearlessly，andindependently，thereisonesureway:"Neverentertheplacefromwhencesofewhavebeenabletoreturn，nevercomewithinthecircleofambition。"Theloveofpublicadmirationadmitsofnorivalnorsuccessorinthebreast，andallotherpleasuressickenbycomparisonwithit。Itisverytrue，aswassaidbyRochefoucault，"Loveiscommonlysucceededbyambition，butambitionishardlyeversucceededbylove。"

Thefollowingpassageisperhapsthebestillustrationofourphilosopher"sviewoftheobjectsofambition。"Powerandriches，"hesays，"areenormousandoperosemachinescontrivedtoproduceafewtriflingconveniencestothebody，consistingofspringsthemostniceanddelicate，whichmustbekeptinorderwiththemostanxiousattention，andwhich，inspiteofallourcare，arereadyeverymomenttoburstintopieces，andtocrushintheirruinstheirunfortunatepossessor。`Theyareimmensefabricswhichitrequiresthelabourofalifetoraise，whichthreateneverymomenttooverwhelmthepersonthatdwellsinthem，andwhich，whiletheystand，thoughtheymaysavehimfromsomesmallerinconveniencies，canprotecthimfromnoneofthesevererinclemenciesoftheseason。Theykeepoffthesummershowerbutnotthewinterstorm，butleavehimasmuch，andsometimesmore，exposedthanbeforetoanxiety，tofear，andtosorrow；

todiseases，todanger，andtodeath。"

Thequestionthenarises，Whydoweallsogenerallyfleefrompovertyandpursueriches？Theansweris(anditisoneofthehappiestapplicationsoftheauthor"sfavouritetheory，thoughitequallysolvestheproblemofthegreatabsenceofcontentment)，fromregardtothecommonsentimentsofmankind；fromthegreatersympathyoradmirationnaturallyfeltfortherichthanforthepoor。Forbeingaswearemoredisposedtosympathizewithjoythanwithsorrow，wemorenaturallyenterintotheagreeableemotionswhichaccompanythepossessorofriches，whilstwefailofmuchrealfellow-feelingforthedistressandmiseryofpoverty。Sympathywithpovertyisasympathyofpity；sympathywithwealthasympathyofadmiration，asympathyaltogethermorepleasurablethantheother。Thesituationofwealthmostsetsamanintheviewofgeneralsympathyandattention；anditistheconsciousnessofthissympatheticadmirationwhichrichesbringwiththem，nottheeaseorpleasuretheyafford，thatmakestheirpossessionsoardentlydesired。

Itistheoppositeconsciousnesswhichmakesallthemiseryofpoverty；

thefeelingofbeingplacedawayfromthesightornoticeofmankind，thefeelingthataman"smiseryisalsodisagreeabletoothers。Henceitisthatforeverycalamityorinjurywhichaffectstherich，thespectatorfeelstentimesmorecompassionthanwhenthesamethingshappentootherpeople；thusalltheinnocentbloodthatwasshedinthecivilwarsprovokedlessindignationthanthedeathofCharlesI。；andhencethemisfortunesofkings，likethoseoflovers，aretheonlyrealpropersubjectsoftragedy，forinspiteofreasonandexperienceourimaginationattachestothesetwoconditionsoflifeahappinesssuperiortothatofanyother。

Butthisdispositionofmankindtosympathizewithallthepassionsoftherichandpowerfulhasalsoitsutilityasthesourceofthedistinctionofranksandofthepeaceandorderofsociety。Itisnotthecase，aswastaughtbyEpicurus，thatthetendencyofrichesandpowertoprocurepleasuremakesthemdesirable，andthatthetendencytoproducepainisthegreatevilofpoverty。Richesaredesirableforthegeneralsympathywhichgoesalongwiththem，andtheabsenceofsuchsympathyistheeviloftheirwant。Stilllessisthereverenceofmenfortheirsuperiorsfoundedonanyselfishexpectationsofbenefitfromtheirgood-will。Itarisesratherfromasimpleadmirationoftheadvantagesoftheirposition，andisprimarilyadisinterestedsentiment。Fromanaturalsympatheticadmirationoftheirhappiness，wedesiretoservethemfortheirownsakes，andrequirenootherrecompensethanthevanityandhonourofobligingthem。

Itwouldequallybeamistaketosupposethatthecommondeferencepaidtotherichisfoundedonanyregardforthegeneralutilityofsuchsubmission，orforthesupportitgivestothemaintenanceofsocialorder，forevenwhenitmaybemostbeneficialtoopposethem，suchoppositionismostreluctantlymade。Thetendencytoreverencethemissonatural，thatevenwhenapeoplearebroughttodesirethepunishmentoftheirkings，thesorrowfeltforthemortificationofamonarchiseverreadytoreviveformersentiments，ofloyalty。ThedeathofCharlesI。broughtabouttheRestoration，andsympathyforJamesIIwhenhewascaughtbythepopulacemakinghisescapeonboardship，wentverynightopreventingtheRevolution。

Butalthoughthisdispositiontosympathizewiththerichisconducivetothegoodorderofsociety，AdamSmithadmitsthatittoacertainextenttendstocorruptmoralsentiments。Forinequaldegreesofmerit，therichandgreatreceivemorehonourthanthepoorandhumble；andifitbe"scarceagreeabletogoodmoralsoreventogoodlanguage，tosaythatmerewealthandgreatness，abstractedfrommeritandvirtue，deserveourrespect，"

itiscertainthattheyalmostalwaysobtainit，andthattheyarethereforepursuedasitsnaturalobjects。

Henceitcomesabout，that"theexternalgraces，thefrivolousaccomplishments，ofthatimpertinentandfoolishthing，calledamanoffashion，arecommonlymoreadmiredthanthesolidandmasculinevirtuesofawarrior，astatesman，aphilosopheroralegislator。"Notonlythedress，andlanguage，andbehaviouroftherichandgreatbecomefavourable，buttheirvicesandfolliestoo，vainmengivingthemselvesairsofafashionableprofligacyofwhichintheirheartstheydonotapproveandofwhichperhapstheyarenotguilty。

For"therearehypocritesofwealthandgreatnessaswellasofreligionandvirtue；andavainmanisapttopretendtobewhatheisnotinoneway，asacunningmanisintheother。"

CHAPTERXIADAMSMITH"STHEORYOFFINALCAUSESINETHICS。

Inoursympathyforrankandwealth，asexplainedinthelastchapter，AdamSmithseesplainlythe"benevolentwisdomofnature。""Nature，"hesays，"haswiselyjudgedthatthedistinctionofranks，thepeaceandorderofsociety，wouldrestmoresecurelyupontheplainandpalpabledifferenceofbirthandfortunethanupontheinvisibleandoftenuncertaindifferenceofwisdomandvirtue。"Andindiscussingthepervertinginfluenceofchanceuponourmoralsentiments，hefindsthesamejustificationforouradmirationofSuccess。Forequallywithouradmirationformerewealthitisnecessaryforthestabilityofsociety。Wearetherebytaughttosubmitmoreeasilytooursuperiors，andtoregardwithreverence，orakindofrespectfulaffection，thatfortunateviolencewecannolongerresist。Bythisadmirationforsuccess，weacquiescewithlessreluctanceinthegovernmentwhichanirresistibleforceoftenimposesonus，andsubmitnolesseasilytoanAttilaoraTamerlanethantoaCaesaroranAlexander。

ToacertainextentthisconceptionofNature，andrecognitionofdesign，enteredintothegeneralthoughtofthetime。EvenHumesaid，"Itiswiselyordainedbynaturethatprivateconnexionsshouldcommonlyprevailoveruniversalviewsandconsiderations；otherwiseouraffectionsandactionswouldbedissipatedandlostforwantofaproperlimitedobject。"ButAdamSmithmoreparticularlyadoptedthisviewofthings，andtheassumptionofFinalCausesasexplanatoryofmoralphenomenaisoneofthemoststrikingfeaturesinhisphilosophy；nordoesheeverwearyofidentifyingtheactualfactsorresultsofmoralitywiththeactualintentionofnature。ItseemsasiftheshadowofMandevillehadrestedoverhispen，andthatheoftenwroteratherastheadvocateofasystemofnaturewhichhebelievedtohavebeenfalselyimpugnedthanasmerelytheanalystofourmoralsentiments。

Writingtooashedescribeshimselftohavedone，withanimmenselandscapeoflawnsandwoodsandmountainsbeforehiswindow，itisperhapsnotsurprising，thathisobservationofthephysicalworldshouldhavepleasantlyaffectedhiscontemplationofthemoralone，andblessedhimwiththatoptimisticandgenialviewofthings，whichformssoagreeableafeatureinhisTheory。

TheextenttowhichAdamSmithapplieshisdoctrineoffinalcausesinethicsissoremarkable，thatitisworthwhiletonoticethemoststrikingexamplesofit。

Ourpropensitytosympathizewithjoybeing，ashasbeensaid，muchstrongerthanourpropensitytosympathizewithsorrow，wemorefullysympathizewithourfriendsintheirjoysthanintheirsorrows。Itisafact，thathoweverconsciouswemaybeofthejusticeofanother"slamentation，andhowevermuchwemayreproachourselvesforourwantofsensibility，oursympathywiththeafflictionsofourfriendsgenerallyvanisheswhenweleavetheirpresence。Suchisthefact，thefinalcauseofwhichisthusstated:"Nature，itseems，whensheloadeduswithourownsorrows，thoughtthattheywereenough，andthereforedidnotcommandustotakeanyfurthershareinthoseofothersthanwasnecessarytopromptustorelievethem。"

Anotherpurposeofnaturemaybetracedinthefact，thatasexpressionsofkindnessandgratitudeattractoursympathy，thoseofhatredandresentmentrepelit。Thehoarsediscord-antvoiceofangerinspiresusnaturallywithfearandaversion，andthesymptomsofthedisagreeableaffectionsneverexcite，butoftendisturb，oursympathy。For，manhavingbeenformedforsociety，"itwas，itseems，theintentionofnaturethatthoserougherandmoreunamiableemotionswhichdrivemenfromoneanothershouldbelesseasilyandmorerarelycommunicated。"

Ournaturaltendencytosympathizewiththeresentmentofanotherhasalsoitspurpose。Forinstance，inthecaseofamurder，wefeelforthemurderedmanthesameresentmentwhichhewouldfeel，wereheconscioushimself，andintowhichwesofarenterastocarryitoutashisavengers；

andthus，withregardtothemostdreadfulofallcrimes，hasnature，antecedenttoallreflectionsontheutilityofpunishment，stampedindeliblyonthehumanheartanimmediateandinstinctiveapprobationofthesacredandnecessarylawofretaliation。

Resentmentwithinmoderationisdefensibleasoneoftheoriginalpassionsofournature，andisthecounterpartofgratitude。Nature"doesnotseemtohavedealtsounkindlywithusastohaveendoweduswithanyprinciplewhichiswhollyandineveryrespectevil。"Theveryexistenceofsocietydependingasitdoesonthepunishmentofunprovokedmalice，manhasnotbeenlefttohisownreason，todiscoverthatthepunishmentofbadactionsisthepropermeanstopre-servesociety，buthehasbeenendowedwithanimmediateandinstinctiveapprobationofthatveryapplicationofpunishmentwhichissonecessary。Inthiscase，asinsomanyothers，theeconomyofnatureisthesame，inendowingmankindwithaninstinctivedesireforthemeansnecessaryfortheattainmentofoneofherfavouriteends。Astheself-preservationoftheindividualisanend，forwhichmanhasnotbeenlefttotheexerciseofhisownreasontofindoutthemeans，buthasbeenimpelledtothemeansthemselves，namely，foodanddrink，bytheimmediateinstinctsofhungerandthirst，sothepreservationofsocietyisanend，tothemeanstowhichmanisdirectlyimpelledbyaninstinctivedesireforthepunishmentofbadactions。

Thesameexplanationisthenappliedtothefact，thatbeneficence，orthedoinggoodtoothers，aslessnecessarytosocietythanjustice，orthenotdoingeviltoothers，isnotenforcedbyequallystrongnaturalsanctions。Societyisconceivablewithoutthepracticeofbeneficence，butnotwithoutthatofjustice。withoutjustice，society，"thepeculiaranddarlingcareofnature，"mustinamomentcrumbletoatoms。Itisthemainpillarwhichupholdsthewholeedifice，whilstbeneficenceisonlytheornamentwhichembellishesit。Forthisreasonstrongermotiveswerenecessarytoenforcejusticethantoenforcebeneficence。Thereforenature"implantedinthehumanbreastthatconsciousnessofill-desert，thoseterrorsofmeritedpunishmentwhichattenditsviolation，asthegreatsafeguardoftheassociationofmankind，toprotecttheweak，tocurbtheviolent，andtochastisetheguilty。"

Intheinfluenceoffortuneoverourmoralsentiments，inourdispositiontoattachlesspraisewherebyaccidentagoodintentionhasstoppedshortofrealaction，tofeellessresent-mentwhereacriminaldesignhasstoppedshortoffulfilment，andtofeelastrongersenseofthemeritordemeritofactionswhentheychancetooccasionextraordinarybutunintendedpleasureorpain，AdamSmithagaintracestheworkingofafinalcause，andseesinthisirregularityofoursentimentsanintentiononthepartofNaturetopromotethehappinessofourspecies。Forwereresentmentasvividlykindledbyameredesigntoinjureasbyanactualinjury，werebadwishesheldequivalenttobadconduct，merethoughtsandfeelingswouldbecometheobjectsofpunishment，andastateofuniversalsuspicionwouldallowofnosecurityevenforthemostinnocent。If，ontheotherhand，themerewishtoserveanotherwereregardedasequivalenttotheactualservice，anindolentbenevolencemighttaketheplaceofactivewell-doing，tothedetrimentofthoseendswhicharethepurposeofman"sexistence。Inthesameway，manistaught，bythatmereanimalresentmentwhicharisesnaturallyagainsteveryinjury，howsoeveraccidental，torespectthewell-beingofhisfellows，and，byafallacioussenseofguilt，todreadinjuringthembyaccidentonlylessthanhedreadstodosobydesign。

Letustakenextthemanifestationoffortitudeundermisfortune。A

man"sself-approbationundersuchcircumstancesisexactlyproportionedtothedegreeofself-commandnecessarytoobtainit；or，inotherwords，tothedegreeinwhichhecanassumewithregardtohimselfthefeelingsoftheimpartialandindifferentspectator。Thusamanwhospeaksandactsthemomentafterhisleghasbeenshotoffbyacannon-ballwithhisusualcoolness，feels，asareflexoftheapplauseoftheindifferentspectator，anamountofself-approbationexactlyproportionedtotheself-commandheexhibits。AndthusNatureexactlyapportionsherrewardtothevirtueofaman"sbehaviour。ButitisneverthelessnotfittingthattherewardwhichNaturethusbestowsonfirmnessofconductshouldentirelycompensatehimforthesufferingswhichherlawsinflictonhim。For，ifitdidso，amancouldhavenomotivefromself-interestforavoidingaccidentswhichcannotbutdiminishhisutilitybothtohimselfandsociety。Naturetherefore，"fromherparentalcareofboth，meantthatheshouldanxiouslyavoidallsuchaccidents。"

Thisisagoodillustrationofthedifficultiesofthiskindofreasoningingeneral。Itwillbeeasilyseenthatitraisesmoredoubtsthanitsolves。

IftherereallyisthisparentalcareonthepartofNatureformankind，whyarehermeasuresincomplete？Iftherewardshebestowsonfortitudedidentirelycompensateforthemisfortunesitcontendswith，wouldnotalltheevilofthembedestroyed？AndmightnotNature，withherparentalcare，havemadelawswhichcouldnotbeviolated，ratherthanmakelawswhoseobservanceneedstheprotectionofmisfortune？Itdoesnotsolvetheproblemofmoralevil，toshowhereandtherebeneficialresults；itonlymakesthedifficultythegreater。Wherethereissomuchgood，whyshouldtherebeanyevil？

TothisquestionAdamSmithattemptsnoanswer，orthinkstheproblemsolvedbythediscoveryofsomegoodsidetoeverythingevil。HiswholesystemisbasedonthetheorythattheworksofNature"seemallintendedtopromotehappinessandguardagainstmisery。"Againstthose"whiningandmelancholyMoralists，"whoreproachusforbeinghappyinthemidstofallthemiseryoftheworld，hereplies，notonlythatifwetakethewholeworldonanaverage，therewillbeforeverymaninpainormiserytwentyinprosperityandjoy，andthatwehavenomorereasontoweepwiththeonethantorejoicewiththetwenty，butalsothat，ifweweresoconstitutedastofeeldistressfortheevilwedonotsee，itcouldservenootherpurposethantoincreasemiserytwofold。Thisistrueenough；butitisanotherthingtoarguefromthefacttothepurpose，andtosaythatithasbeenwiselyordainedbyNaturethatweshouldnotfeelinterestedinthefortuneofthosewhomwecanneitherservenorhurt。Foritistomenwhosesympathieshavebeenwiderthantheaveragethatallthediminutionoftheworld"smiseryhasbeendue；anditisfair，ifwemustargueaboutNatureatall，tosaythathadsheendowedmengenerallywithwidersympathiesthanshehasdone，themiseryintheworldmighthavebeenstillmorereducedthanithasbeen，andthesum-totalofhappinessproportionatelygreater。

Similarthoughtsarisewithrespecttothefollowingpassage，whereinAdamSmithcontends，inwordsthatseemaforetasteoftheWealthofNations，thatNatureleadsusintentionally，byanillusionoftheimagination，tothepursuitofriches。"ItiswellthatNatureimposesuponusinthismanner。Itisthisdeceptionwhichrousesandkeepsincontinualmotiontheindustryofmankind。Itisthiswhichfirstpromptedthemtocultivatetheground，tobuildhouses，tofoundcitiesandcommonwealths，andtoinventandimproveallthesciencesandarts，whichennobleandembellishhumanlife；whichhaveentirelychangedthewholefaceoftheglobe，haveturnedtherudeforestsofnatureintoagreeableandfertileplains，andmadethetracklessandbarrenoceananewfundofsubsistence，andthegreathighroadofcommunicationtothedifferentnationsoftheearth……Itistonopurposethattheproudandunfeelinglandlordviewshisextensivefields，and，withoutathoughtforthewantsofhisbrethren，inimaginationconsumeshimselfthewholeharvestthatgrowsuponthem……

Thecapacityofhisstomachbearsnoproportiontotheimmensityofhisdesires，andwillreceivenomorethanthatofthemeanestpeasant。(7)Therestheisobligedtodistributeamongthosewhoprepare，inthenicestmanner，thatlittlewhichhehimselfmakesuseof，amongthosewhofitupthepalaceinwhichthislittleistobeconsumed，amongthosewhoprovideandkeepinorderallthedifferentbaublesandtrinketswhichareemployedintheeconomyofgreatness；allofwhomthusderivefromhisluxuryandcapricethatshareofthenecessariesoflifewhichtheywouldinvainhaveexpectedfromhishumanityorhisjustice。Theproduceofthesoilmaintainsatalltimesnearlythatnumberofinhabitantswhichitiscapableofmaintaining。Therichonlyselectfromtheheapwhatismostpreciousandagreeable。Theyconsumelittlemorethanthepoor；andinspiteoftheirnaturalselfishnessandrapacity，thoughtheymeanonlytheirownconveniency，thoughthesoleendwhichtheyproposefromthelaboursofallthethousandswhomtheyemploybethegratificationoftheirownvainandinsatiabledesires，theydividewiththepoortheproduceofalltheirimprovements。Theyareledbyaninvisiblehandtomakenearlythesamedistributionofthenecessariesoflifewhichwouldhavebeenmadehadtheearthbeendividedintoequalportionsamongallitsinhabitants……

WhenProvidencedividedtheearthamongafewlordlymasters，itneitherforgotnorabandonedthosewhoseemedtohavebeenleftoutinthepartition。

Theselast，too，enjoytheirshareofallthatitproduces。Inwhatconstitutestherealhappinessofhumanlife，theyareinnorespectinferiortothosewhowouldseemsomuchabovethem。"

AdamSmithappliesthesameargumenttotheconditionofchildren。Nature，hemaintains，hasforthewisestpurposesrenderedparentaltendernessinallormostmenmuchstrongerthanfilialaffection。Forthecontinuanceofthespeciesdependsupontheformer，notuponthelatter；andwhilsttheexistenceandpreservationofachilddependsaltogetheronthecareofitsparents，theexistenceoftheparentsisquiteindependentofthechild。IntheDecalogue，thoughwearecommandedtohonourourfathersandmothers，thereisnomentionofloveforourchildren，Naturehavingsufficientlyprovidedforthat。"IntheeyeofNature，itwouldseem，achildisamoreimportantobjectthananoldman，andexcitesamuchmorelivelyaswellasamoreuniversalsympathy。"Thus，again，withregardtotheexcessivecredulityofchildren，andtheirdispositiontobelievewhatevertheyaretold，"natureseemstohavejudgeditnecessaryfortheirpreservationthattheyshould，forsometimeatleast，putimplicitconfidenceinthosetowhomthecareoftheirchildhood，andoftheearliestandmostnecessarypartsoftheireducation，isentrusted。"

Theloveofourcountry，again，isbynatureendearedtous，notonlybyallourselfish，butbyallourprivatebenevolentaffections；forinitswelfareiscomprehendedourown，andthatofallourfriendsandrelations。

Wedonotthereforeloveourcountrymerelyasapartofthegreatsocietyofmankind，butforitsownsake，andindependentlyofotherconsiderations。

"Thatwisdomwhichcontrivedthesystemofhumanaffections，aswellasthatofeveryotherpartofnature，seemstohavejudgedthattheinterestofthegreatsocietyofmankindwouldbebestpromotedbydirectingtheprincipalattentionofeachindividualtothatparticularportionofitwhichwasmostwithinthespherebothofhisabilitiesandofhisunderstanding。"

Tosumupourauthor"sapplicationofhistheorytohisgeneralschemeofethics。Man，havingbeenintendedbynatureforsociety，wasfittedbyherforthatsituation。Hencesheendowedhimwithanoriginaldesiretoplease，andanoriginalaversiontooffend，hisbrethren。Byteachinghimtofeelpleasureintheirfavourable，andpainintheirunfavourableregards，shelaid，intherewardoftheirapprobation，orthepunishmentoftheirdisapproval，thefoundationofhumanethics。Intherespectwhichshehastaughthimtofeelfortheirjudgmentandsentiments，shehasraisedinhismindasenseofDuty，andgirtherlawsforhisconductwiththesanctionofobligatorymorality。Andsohappilyhassheadjustedthesentimentsofapprobationanddisapprobationtotheadvantagebothoftheindividualandofsociety，thatitispreciselythosequalitieswhichareusefuloradvantageoustotheindividualhimself，ortoothers，whicharealwaysaccountedvirtuousorthecontrary。

CHAPTERXII。ADAMSMITH"STHEORYOFUTILITY。

TheinfluencewhichHume"sphilosophyexercisedoverthatofAdamSmithhasalreadybeennoticedwithrespecttothefundamentalfactsofsympathy，andthepartplayedbythemintheformationofourmoralsentiments。ButitischieflywithrespecttothepositionofUtilityinmoralphilosophythatAdamSmith"stheoryisaffectedbyHume"scelebratedInquiryconcerning，thePrinciplesofMorals。Notonlyareallhisspeculationscolouredbyconsiderationsofutility，butbedevotesaspecialdivisionofhisbooktothe"EffectofUtilityupontheSentimentofApprobation。"

InAdamSmith"stheory，thetendencyofanyaffectiontoproducebeneficialorhurtfulresultsisonlyonepartofthephenomenonofmoralapprobation，constitutingoursenseofmeritordemerit，whiletheotherpartconsistsinourperceptionoftheproprietyorimproprietyoftheaffectiontotheobjectwhichexcitesit。Andasthesenseofthemeritordemeritofanyactionorconductismuchstrongerthanoursenseoftheproprietyorimproprietyofaffections；stimulatingus，notmerelytoapassivefeelingofapprobationorthecontrary，buttoadesiretoconferactualrewardorpunishmentontheagent，itisevidentthatthegreaterpartofmoralapprobationconsistsintheperceptionofutilityoftendency。

Sofar，AdamSmithagreeswiththeutilitariantheorybutherefusesaltogethertoassenttothedoctrine，thattheperceptionoftheutilityofvirtueisitsprimaryrecommendation，orthatasenseoftheevilresultsofviceistheoriginofourhatredagainstit。Itistruethatthetendencyofvirtuetopromote，andofvicetodisturbtheorderofsociety，istoreflectaverygreatbeautyontheone，andaverygreatdeformityontheother。Butboththebeautyandthedeformityareadditionaltoanalreadyexistentbeautyanddeformity，andabeautyanddeformityinherentintheobjectsthemselves。Humansocietymaybecomparedto"animmensemachine，whoseregularandharmoniousmovementsproduceathousandagreeableeffects。

Asinanyotherbeautifulandnoblemachinethatwastheproductionofhumanart，whatevertendedtorenderitsmovementsmoresmoothandeasy，wouldderiveabeautyfromthiseffect；andonthecontrary，whatevertendedtoobstructthem，woulddispleaseuponthataccount；sovirtue，whichis，asitwere，thefinepolishtothewheelsofsociety，necessarilypleases；

whilevice，likethevilerust，whichmakesthemjarandgrateupononeanother，isasnecessarilyoffensive。"

AccordingtoHume，thewholeapprobationofvirtuemayberesolvedintotheperceptionofbeautywhichresultsfromtheappearanceofitsutility，noqualitiesofthemindbeingeverapprovedofasvirtuous，ordisapprovedofasvicious，butsuchasareeitherusefuloragreeabletothepersonhimself，ortoothers，orelsehaveacontrarytendency。AdamSmithfullyadmitsthefact，thatthecharactersofmenmaybefittedeithertopromoteortodisturbthehappinessbothoftheindividualhimselfandofthesocietytowhichhebelongs，andthatthereisacertainanalogybetweenourapprobationofausefulmachineandausefulcourseofconduct。Thecharacterofprudence，equity，activity，andresolution，holdsouttheprospectofprosperityandsatisfactionbothtothepersonhimselfandtoeveryoneconnectedwithhim；whilsttherash，insolent，slothful，oreffeminatecharacter，portendsruintotheindividual，andmisfortunetoallwhohaveanythingtodowithhim。Intheformercharacterthereisallthebeautywhichcanbelongtothemostperfectmachineeverinventedforpromotingthemostagreeablepurpose；intheotherthereisallthedeformityofanawkwardandclumsycontrivance。

Butthisperceptionofbeautyinvirtue，orofdeformityinvice，thoughitenhancesandenlivensourfeelingswithregardtoboth，isnotthefirstorprincipalsourceofourapprobationoftheone，orofourdislikefortheother。

"For，inthefirstplace，itseemsimpossiblethattheapprobationofvirtueshouldbeasentimentofthesamekindwiththatbywhichweapproveofaconvenientandwell-contrivedbuilding；or，thatweshouldhavenootherreasonforpraisingamanthanthatforwhichwecommendachestofdrawers。"

"And，secondly，itwillbefound，uponexamination，thattheusefulnessofanydispositionofmindisseldomthefirstgroundofourapprobation；

andthatthesentimentofapprobationalwaysinvolvesinitasenseofproprietyquitedistinctfromtheperceptionofutility。"

Forinstance，superiorreasonandunderstandingisaqualitymostusefultoourselves，asenablingustodiscerntheremoteconsequencesofouractions，andtoforeseetheadvantageordisadvantagelikelytoresultfromthem；butitisaqualityoriginallyapprovedofasjustandright，andaccurate，andnotmerelyasusefuloradvantageous。Self-command，also，isavirtuewequiteasmuchapproveofundertheaspectofpropriety，asunderthatofutility。Itisthecorrespondenceoftheagent"ssentimentswithourown，thatisthesourceofourapprobationofthem；anditisonlybecausehispleasureaweekorayearhenceisjustasinterestingorindifferenttous，asspectators，asthepleasurethattemptshimatthismoment，thatweapproveofhissacrificeofpresenttofutureenjoyment。

Weapproveofhisactingasiftheremoteobjectinterestedhimasmuchasthefutureone，becausethenhisaffectionscorrespondexactlywithourown，andwerecognizetheperfectproprietyofhisconduct……

Withrespectagaintosuchqualitieswhicharemostusefultoothersashumanity，justice，generosity，andpublicspirittheesteemandapprobationpaidtothemdependsinthe，samewayontheconcordbetweentheaffectionsoftheagentandthoseofthespectator。Theproprietyofanactofgenerosity，aswhenamansacrificessomegreatinterestofhisowntothatofafriendorasuperior，orpreferssomeotherpersontohimself，liesnotintheconsiderationofthegoodeffectofsuchanactiononsocietyatlarge，butintheagreementoftheindividual"spointofviewwiththatoftheimpartialspectator。Thus，ifamangivesuphisownclaimstoanofficewhichhadbeenagreatobjectofhisambition，becauseheimaginesthatanotherman"sservicesarebetterentitledtoit，orifheexposeshislifetodefendthatofafriendwhichheconsidersofmoreimportance，itisbecauseheconsidersthepointofviewofdisinterestedpersons，whowouldpreferthatothermanorfriendtohimself，thathisconductseemsclothedwiththatappearanceofproprietywhichconstitutestheapprobationbestowedonit。Itistheaccommodationofthefeelingsoftheindividualtothoseoftheimpartialbystander，whichisthesourceoftheadmirationbestowedonasoldier，whothrowsawayhislifetodefendthatofhisofficer，andwhodeservesandwinsapplause，notfromanyfeelingofconcernforhisofficer，butfromtheadjustmentofhisownfeelingstothoseofeveryoneelsewhoconsiderhislifeasnothingwhencomparedwiththatofhissuperior。

Sowithregardtopublicspirit，thefirstsourceofouradmirationofitisnotfoundedsomuchonasenseofitsutilityasuponthegreatandexaltedproprietyoftheactionstowhichitprompts。Take，forinstance，thecaseofBrutus，leadinghisownsonstocapitalpunishmentfortheircon-spiracyagainsttherisinglibertyofRome。NaturallyheoughttohavefeltmuchmoreforthedeathofhisownsonsthanforallthatRomecouldhavesufferedfromthewantoftheexample。Butheviewedthem，notasafather，butasaRomancitizen；thatistosay，heenteredsothoroughlyintothesentimentsoftheimpartialspectator，oroftheordinaryRomancitizen，thatevenhisownsonsweighedasnothinginthebalancewiththesmallestinterestofRome。Theproprietyoftheaction，ortheperfectsympathyoffeelingbetweentheagentandthespectator，isthecauseofouradmirationofit。Itsutilitycertainlybestowsuponitanewbeauty，andsostillfurtherrecommendsittoourapprobation。Butsuchbeauty"ischieflyperceivedbymenofreflectionandspeculation，andisbynomeansthequalitywhichfirstrecommendssuchactionstothenaturalsentimentsofthebulkofmankind。"