第2章
Buteverygentlemanunderstandshisownbusinessbest。"
Theletter，pervadedbythesamespiritofbanterthroughout，istoolongtoquoteatlength，butthefollowingextractscontaintheleadingidea:"Areyousure，andcanyoumakeussure，thattherereallyexistnosuchthingsasGod，afuturestateofrewardsandpunishments？Ifso，alliswell。Letusthen，inourlasthours，readLucian，andplayatwhist，anddrolluponCharonandhisboat；letusdieasfoolishandinsensible，asmuchlikeourbrotherphilosophersthecalvesofthefieldandtheassesofthedesert，aswecan，forthelifeofus……Uponthewhole，doctor，yourmeaningisgood；butIthinkyouwillnotsucceedthistime。Youwouldpersuadeus，bytheexampleofDavidHume，Esq。，thatatheismistheonlycordialforlowspirits，andtheproperantidoteagainstthefearofdeath。"
Itisdifficulttosaywhetherthepuerilityortheignorancedisplayedinthisletteristhegreater。EitherthewriterhadneverreadtheTheoryofMoralSentimentsatall，orhewasso1ittleversedinphilosophyastoseenodifferencebetweenDeismandAtheism，twodistinctlogicalcontradictories。Thereis，moreover，notawordinAdamSmith"slettertojustifyanyreferencetoreligiousquestionsatall；andsub-sequentquotationsfromtheMoralSentimentswillabundantlydemonstratethetotalfalsityofthechurchman"sassumptions。AdamSmithtreatedhisletterwiththecontemptuoussilenceitsowelldeserved。ThestoryquotedbySirWalterScott，inanarticleintheQuarterly，thatJohnsongrosslyinsultedAdamSmithataliterarymeetinginGlasgow，byreasonofhisdislikeforhim，astheeulogizerofHume，iseasilyshowntorestonnofoundation。Humedidnotdietill1776，anditwasthreeyearsearlierthatJohnsonvisitedGlasgow。
ThetwoyearsafterthepublicationofhisgreatestworkAdamSmithspentinLondon，inthemidstofthatliterarysocietywhichweknowsowellthroughthepagesofBoswell。Then，attherequestoftheDukeofBuceleuch，hewasmadeoneoftheCommissionersofCustominScotland，andinthisoccupationspentthelasttwelveyearsofhislife，inthemidstofasocietywhichmusthaveformedanagreeablecontrasttothelongyearsofhisretirementandsolitude。Thelightdutiesofhisofficethepleasuresoffriendship；thelossofhismotherandcousin，andincreasingillhealth，allcombinedtopreventthecompletionofanymoreofhisliteraryprojects。Afewdaysbeforehisdeathheorderedallhismanuscriptstobeburnt，withtheexceptionofafewessays，whichmaystillberead。
TheyconsistofaHistoryofAstronomy，aHistoryofAncientPhysics，aHistoryofAncientLogicandMetaphysics，anEssayontheImitativeArts，oncertainEnglishandItalianverses，andontheExternalSenses。ThedestroyedmanuscriptsaresupposedtohavecomprisedthelecturesonRhetoric，readatEdinburghforty-twoyearsbefore，andthelecturesonNaturalTheologyandonJurisprudence，whichformedpartofhislecturesatGlasgow。TheadditionswhichliemadetotheMoralSentiments，inthelastwinterofhislife，helivedtoseepublishedbeforehisdeath。
OftheTheoryofMoralSentimentsSirJamesMackintoshsays:
"PerhapsthereisnoethicalworksinceCicero"sOffices，ofwhichanabridgmentenablesthereadersoinadequatelytoestimatethemerit，astheTheoryofMoralSentiments。Thisisnotchieflyowingtothebeautyofdiction，asinthecaseofCicero，buttothevarietyofexplanationsoflifeandmannerswhichembellishthebookmorethantheyilluminatethetheory。Yet，ontheotherhand，itmustbeownedthat，forphilosophicalpurposes，fewbooksmoreneedabridgment；forthemostcarefulreaderfrequentlylosessightofprinciplesburiedunderillustrations。
Thenaturallycopiousandflowingstyleoftheauthorisgenerallyredundant，andtherepetitionofcertainformulariesofthesystemis，inthelatereditions，sofrequentastobewearisome，andsometimesludicrous。"
ThejusticeofthiscriticismhasbeentheguidingprincipleintheattemptmadeinthefollowingchapterstogiveanaccountofAdamSmith"ssystemofmoralphilosophy，theaimhavingbeentoavoidsacrificingthemaintheorytothesuper-abundanceofillustrationwhichsomewhatobscuresitintheoriginal，whileatthesametimedoingjusticetotheminorsubjectstreatedof，which，thoughtheyhavelittleornothingtodowithAdamSmith"sleadingprinciples，yetformadistinctivefeatureinhiswork，andareinmanyrespectsthemostinterestingpartofit；forcriticswhohaverejectedthe
Theoryasawhole，havebeenuniformlyloudintheirpraisesofitsminordetailsandillustrations。Brown，forinstance，whohasbeenthemostsuccessfulperhapsofalltheadversecriticsoftheTheory，speaksofitaspresentingintheserespects"amodelofphilosophicbeauty。"Jouffroy，too，allowsthatthebookisoneofthemostusefulinmoralscience，becauseAdamSmith，"deceivedasheundoubtedlywasastotheprincipleofmorality，"broughttolightandanalyzedsomanyofthefactsofhumannature。DugaldStewartandMackintoshbothsaymuchthesamething；sothatitisevidentnoaccountofAdamSmith"sworkcanbecompletewhichomitsfromconsiderationallthecollateralinquirieshepursuesoralltheillustrationshedraws，eitherfromhistoryorfromhisimagination。Topreserve，asfaraspossible，theproportionwhichthesecollateralinquiriesbeartooneanotherandtothemaintheory，aswellastoretainwhatismostcharacteristicoftheoriginalinpointofillustrationandstyle，havingbeenthereforetheendinview，ithasbeenfoundbesttoalterthearrangementinsomedegree，andtodividethewholeintochapters，therelationsofwhichtothedivisionsoftheoriginalwillbebestunderstoodbyabriefreferencetothestructureofthelatter。
AdamSmithdivideshisworkintosevenParts，whichprecedeoneanotherinthefollowingorder:——
I。OftheProprietyofAction。
II。OfMeritandDemerit；ortheobjectsofRewardandPunishment。
III。OftheFoundationofourjudgmentsconcerningourownSentimentsandConduct，andoftheSenseofDuty。
IV。OftheEffectofUtilityuponthesentimentofApprobation。
V。OftheinfluenceofCustomandFashionuponthesentimentsofMoralApprobationandDisapprobation。
VI。OfthecharacterofVirtue。
VII。OfsystemsofMoralPhilosophy。
Theexcellenceofthisarrangement，however，isconsiderablymarredbythedivisionofthesePartsintoSections，andbythefrequentfurthersubdivisonoftheSectionsthemselvesintoChapters。Aninstancewillillustratehowdetrimentalthisistotheclearnessofthemainargument。ThefirstthreePartsexhaustthemaintheory，orthatdoctrineofSympathy，whichisAdamSmith"sownspecialcreation，andonwhichhisrankasamoralphilosopherdepends；theotherfourPartshavingonlytodowithitincidentallyorbyaccident。ButinfollowingthefirstthreePartsinwhichthedoctrineofSympathyisexpounded，wecomeacrosssectionswhichalsoareonlyconnectedincidentallywiththeleadingargument，andarereallybranchesoffthemainline。ThusinthePartdevotedtotheexplanationofourideasofProprietyinActionthereoccursasectionontheeffectofprosperityoradversityininfluencingourjudgment；intheParttreatingofMeritandDemeritthereisasectionontheinfluenceoffortuneoraccidentonoursentimentsofmen"smeritorthecontrary；andthereis，lastly，adistinctPart(PartV。)allottedtotheconsiderationoftheinfluenceofCustomandFashiononoursentimentsofmoralapprobationordisapprobation。
Thesesubjectsareobviouslysonearlyallied，thattheymightallhavebeentreatedtogether，apartfromthedoctrineofsympathyofwhichtheyarequiteindependent；andaccordinglyinthesequelthedissertationsconcerningthemintheoriginalarecollectedintoasinglechapter，thefifth，ontheinfluenceofProsperityandAdversity，ChanceandCustom，onourmoralsentiments。
Consistentlywiththeprinciplesalreadyexplained，theorderoftheoriginalhasbeenfollowedascloselyaspossible。Thesecond，third，andfourthchapterscomprisePartsI。andII。PartV。，andthesectionsrelatingtothesamesubjectinPartsI。andII。，makeupthefifthchapter。ThenPartIII。isdividedforclearness"sakeintotwochapters，explainingtheauthor"sTheoryofConscienceandTheoryofMoralPrinciples；andtheendofthesetwochapters，thesixthandseventh，concludesthemostimportanthalfofAdamSmith"streatise。
PartVI。，ontheCharacterofVirtue，whichformssolargeadivisionintheoriginal，andwhichwasonlyaddedtothesixthedition，correspondswithchapterIX。，underthesametitle。PartIV。，ontheeffectofUtilityonourmoralsentiments，formschapterXII。，inwhichallthatissaidonthesubjectindifferentpassagesisbroughttogether。PartVII。，orSystemsofMoralPhilosophy，helpsinthethirteenthchaptertothrowintoclearlighttherelationofAdamSmith"stheorytoothertheoriesofmoralphilosophy。Thethreechaptersontherelationofreligiontomorality，onthetheoryofhappiness，andonfinalcausesinethics，correspondwithnosimilardivisionsintheoriginal，butareseverallycollectedfromdifferentpassagesinthebook，which，scatteredthroughthework，impressuponitadistinctivecharacter，andconstitutethechiefpartofitscolouring。
ThelastchapterofallservestoillustratethehistoricalimportanceofAdamSmith"sworkbyshowingthelargepartwhichitfillsinthecriticismsofsubsequentwriters。
AnaccidentalcoincidencebetweenAdamSmith"stheoryandapassageinPolybiushasunnecessarilybeenconsideredtheoriginalsourceoftheTheoryofMoralSentiments。TheverysamepassageisreferredtobyHume，asshowingthatPolybius，likemanyotherancientmoralists，tracedourideasofmoralitytoaselfishorigin。YetthereisnothingAdamSmithresentedmorestronglythananyidentificationofhistheorywiththeselfishsystemofmorality。Thecoincidenceisthereforeprobablyaccidental；butthepassageisworthquoting，ascontaininginafewlinesthecentralideaofthedoctrineabouttobeconsidered。Polybiusisspeakingofthedispleasurefeltbypeopleforthosewho，insteadofmakingsuitablereturnsofgratitudeandassistancefortheirparents，injurethembywordsoractions；andheproceedstosaythat"man，whoamongallthevariouskindsofanimalsisaloneendowedwiththefacultyofreason，cannot，liketherest，passoversuchactions，butwillmakereflectiononwhatliesees；
andcomparinglikewisethefuturewiththepresent，willnotfailtoexpresshisindignationatthisinjurioustreatment，towhich，asheforesees，hemayalsoatsometimebeexposed。Thusagain，whenanyonewhohasbeensuccouredbyanotherintimeofdanger，insteadofshowingthelikekindnesstothisbenefactor，endeavoursatanytimetodestroyorhurthim；itiscertainthatallmenmustbeshockedbysuchingratitude，throughsympathywiththeresentmentoftheirneighbour；andfromanapprehensionalsothatthecasemaybetheirown。Andfromhencearises，inthemindofeveryman，acertainnotionofthenatureandforceofduty，inwhichconsistsboththebeginningandendofjustice。Inlikemanner，themanwho，indefenceofothersisseentothrowhimselftheforemostintoeverydanger，neverfailstoobtaintheloudestacclamationsofapplauseandvenerationfromthemultitude；whilehewhoshowsadifferentconductispursuedwithcensureandreproach。Andthusitisthatthepeoplebegintodiscernthenatureofthingshonourableandbase，andinwhatconsiststhedifferencebetweenthem；andtoperceivethattheformer，onaccountoftheadvantagethatattendsthem，aretobeadmiredandimitated，andthelattertobedetestedandavoided。"
CHAPTERI。HISTORICALINTRODUCTION。
Toexplaintheoriginofourideasofrightandwrong，andtofindforthem，ifpossible，asolidbasisofauthority，apartfromtheircoincidencewiththedogmasoftheology，wastheproblemofmoralphilosophywhichchieflyoccupiedthespeculationofthelastcentury，andtowhichAdamSmith"sTheoryofMoralSentimentswasoneofthemostimportantcontributions。Histheory，likeallothers，mustbeunderstoodasananswertothequestion:Howdowecometoregardcertainactionsorstatesofmindwithapprovalandtocondemntheircontraries，andonwhatgroundscanwejustifyourjudgmentsinsuchmattersandholdthemtoaccorduniversallywiththemoraljudgmentsofmankind？
ButinordertounderstandAdamSmith"sanswertothisquestion，andhispositioninthehistoryofthought，itisnecessarytoreferbrieflytothetheoriesofhispredecessorsdowntothetimewhenhetookupthethreadofthespeculationandofferedhissolutionoftheproblemstheyhaddealtwith。
FromthetimewhensuchproblemsfirstbecamepopularinEngland，twomaincurrentsofthoughtmaybedetectedrunningsidebysideinmutualantagonismtooneanother；andwhilstaccordingtotheteachingoftheoneschooltheultimatestandardofmoralitywastheinterestoftheindividualhimselforthecommunityhebelongedto，theaimoftheoppositeschoolwastofindsomebasisformoralitywhichshouldmakeitlessdependentonchangesofcircumstanceandgivetoitsmaximstheauthorityofpropositionsthatshouldholdtrueofalltimesandplaces。
ThenamesofLocke，Hobbes，Mandeville，andHume，areassociatedwiththeformerschool；thoseofClarke，Price，LordShaftesbury，BishopButler，andHutcheson，withthelatter；andthedifferencebetweenthemisgenerallyex-pressedbyclassingtheformertogetherastheUtilitarian，Selfish，orScepticalSchool，andthelatterastheschoolofIntuitionalists。
ThedoctrineofHobbes，thatmoralitywasidenticalwiththepositivecommandsandprohibitionsofthelawgiver，andthatthelawwasthustherealultimatesourceandstandardofallrightandwrong，gaverisetoseveralsystemswhichsoughtindifferentwaystofindforourmoralsentimentsalessvariableandunstablefoundationthanwasimpliedbysuchanhypothesis。
ItwasinoppositiontosuchatheorythatClarkeandPrice，andotheradvocatesoftheso-calledRationalorIntellectualsystem，attributedourperceptionofmoraldistinctionstointuitionsofourintellect，sothatthetruthsofmoralitymightappear，likethoseofmathematics，eternalandimmutable，independentofpeculiaritiesoftimeandplace，andwithanexistenceapartfromanyparticularmanorcountry，justasthedefinitionsofgeometryareindependentofanyparticularstraightlinesortriangles。
Todeny，forexample，thatamanshoulddoforotherswhathewouldwishdoneforhimselfwas，accordingtoClarke，equivalenttoacontentionthat，thoughtwoandthreeareequaltofive，yetfiveisnotequaltotwoandthree。
ButthesamefoundationforanimmutablemoralitythatClarkesoughtforinthehumanintellect，otherssoughtforinapeculiarinstinctofournature。ThusLordShaftesburypostulatedtheexistenceofamoralsense，sufficientofitselftomakeuseschewviceandfollowaftervirtue；andthismoralsense，orprimitiveinstinctforgood，wasimplantedinusbynature，andcarrieditsownauthoritywithit。Itjudgedofactionsbyreferencetoacertainharmonybetweenouraffections，andthisharmonyhadarealexistence，independentof"allfashionandcaprice，likeharmonyinmusic。Assymmetryandproportionwerefoundedinnature，howsoeverbarbarousmightbemen"stastesinthearts，so，inmorals，anequallyrealharmonyalwayspresentedafixedstandardforourguidance。
ThisideaofaMoralSenseasthesourceandstandardofourmoralsentimentswassofardevelopedbyHutcheson，thattimeMoralSensetheoryofethicshadbeenmoregenerallyconnectedwithhisnamethanwiththatofitsrealoriginator。Hutchesonarguedthataswehaveexternalsenseswhichperceivesoundsandcolours，sowehaveinternalsenseswhichperceivemoralexcellenceandthecontrary。Thismoralsensehaditsanaloguesinoursenseofbeautyandharmony，oursympatheticsense，oursenseofhonour，ofdecency，andsoforth。Itwasaprimitivefacultyofournature，afactorincapableofresolutionintosimplerelements。Itcouldnot，forinstance，beresolvedintoaperceptionofutility，forbadactionswereoftenasusefulasgoodonesandyetfailedtomeetwithapprobation，norcoulditbeexplainedasamodeofsympathy，forwemightmorallyapproveevenofthevirtueswhichourenemiesmanifested。
BishopButler，likehiscontemporary，Hutcheson，alsofollowedLordShaftesburyinseekinginournaturalinstinctstheoriginofourmoralideas，ConsciencewithhimtakingtheplaceoftheMoralSense，fromitsbeingpossessed，ashethought，ofamoreauthoritativecharacter。Conscience，ac-cordingtoButler，wasafacultynaturaltoman，invirtueofwhichhewasamoralagent；afacultyorprincipleofthehumanheart，inkindandnaturesupremeoverallothers，andbearingitsownauthorityForbeingso。Usinglanguageaboutit，whichwemeetagainintheTheoryofAdamSmith，hespokeofitas"God"sviceroy，""thevoiceofGodwithinus，""theguideassignedtousbytheAuthorofournature。"Theobligationtoobeyitthereforerestedinthefactofitsbeingthelawofournature。
Itcouldnomorebedoubtedthatshamewasgivenustopreventourdoingwrongthanthatoureyesweregivenustoseewith。
ItwasatthispointthatAdamSmithofferedhissolutionofthedifficulty。
ForcallitConscience，MoralSense，orwhatyouwill，suchexpressionsareevidentlyonlyre-statementsoftheproblemtobeexplained。Tocallthefactofmoralapprobationbysuchtermswassimplytogiveitothernames；andtosaythatourconscienceormoralsenseadmittedofnoanalysiswasequivalenttosayingthatourmoralsentimentsadmittedofnoexplanation。
AdamSmith"stheorymustthereforebeunderstoodasanattempttoexplainwhattheIntuitionalistschoolreallygaveupasinexplicable；anditrepresentsthereactionagainstthatapriorimethodwhichtheyhademployedindealingwithmoralproblems。Inthatreaction，andinhisappealtothefactsofexperience，AdamSmithfollowedtheleadofbothHartleyandHume。Tenyearsbeforehim，timeformer，inhisObservationsonMan，hadsoughttoexplaintheexistenceofthemoralsense，bytracingitbacktoitslowesttermsinthepleasuresandpainsofsimplesensation，andmarkingitsgrowthinthegradualassociationofourideas。AndHume，afewyearslater，soughttodiscover"theuniversalprinciplefromwhichallcensureorapprobationwasultimatelyderived"bytheexperimentalmethodofinquiry；bycomparing，thatis，anumberofinstancesofqualitiesheldestimableontheonehandandqualitiesheldblameableontheother，andobservingwhatwasthecommonelementofeach。Fromsuchaninquiryheinferredthatthoseactsweregoodwhichwereusefulandthosebadwhichwereinjurious，andthatthefactoftheirbeingusefulorinjuriouswasthecauseoftheirgoodnessorbadness。
ThusitwillbeseenthatthequestionofchiefinterestinAdamSmith"stimewaswidelydifferentfromthatwhichhaddividedtheschoolsofantiquity。
Theaimorchiefgoodoflifewhichchieflyoccupiedthemhadrecededintotheback-ground；andthecontroversyconcerned，asHumedeclared，"thegeneralfoundationofmorals，"whethertheywerederivedfromReasonorfromSentiment，whethertheywerearrivedatbyachainofargumentandprocessofreasoningorbyacertainimmediatefeelingandinternalsense。
Butroundthiscentralquestionoftheoriginofourfeelingsofmoralapprobationotherquestionsofconsiderableinterestwerenecessarilygrouped。
Therewasthequestionoftheauthorityandsanctionofourmoralsentiments，independentlyoftheirorigin；andtherewasthequestionoftheultimatestandardortestofmoralactions。Andthesequestionsinvolvedyetothers，asforexample:Whatwastherelationofmoralitytoreligion？Howfardidtheynecessarilycoincide，andhowfarweretheyindependentofeachother？Washumannaturereallycorrupt，andtowhatdegreeweretheordinarysanctionsofthislifeasufficientsafeguardfortheexistenceofmorality？
Didhappinessormisery，goodorevil，reallypredominateintheworld；
andwastheresuchathingasdisinterestedbenevolence，ormightallvirtueberesolvedintoself-loveandbereallyonlyviceundercloakandconcealment？
ThelatteralternativehadbeenthethesiswhichMandevillehadpartlymadeandpartlyfoundpopular。Inhisviewthemostvirtuousactionsmightberesolvedintoselfishness，andself-lovewasthestarting-pointofallmorality。Thisbecametherefore，oneofthefavouritetopicsofspeculation；
butitisonlynecessarytonoticeHume"streatmentofit，inasmuchasitsuppliesthefirstprincipleofAdamSmith"stheory。Humeassumedtheexistenceofadisinterestedprincipleunderlyingallourmoralsentiments。
Hearguedthat"anaturalprincipleofbenevolence，"impellingustoconsidertheinterestsofothers，wasanessentialpartofhumannature。"Theveryaspect，"hesaid，"ofhappiness，joy，prosperity，givespleasure；thatofpain，suffering，sorrowcommunicatesuneasiness。"Andthisfellow-feelingwithothershehadrefusedtoresolveintoanymoregeneralprinciple，ortotreatasotherthananoriginalprincipleofhumannature。
ThisphenomenonofSympathy，orfellow-feeling，whichwehavebynaturewithanypassionwhateverofanotherperson，ismadebyAdamSmiththecardinalpointanddistinctivefeatureofhistheoryoftheoriginofmoralapprobation；andthefirstsentenceofhistreatisecontainsthereforenotonlyhisansweroneofflatcontradictiontoMandeville，butthekey-notetothewholespiritofhisphilosophy。"Howselfishsoever，"hebegins，"manmaybesupposed，thereareevidentlysomeprinciplesinhisnaturewhichinteresthiminthefortuneofothers，andrendertheirhappinessnecessarytohim，thoughhederivesnothingfromit，exceptthepleasureofseeingit。"Sothatpityorcompassion，whichHobbeshadexplainedastheconsciousnessofapossiblemisfortunetoourselvessimilartothatseentobefallanother，is，withAdamSmith，aprimary，notasecondary，emotionofournature，anoriginalandnotaderivativepassion，andonethatispurelydisinterestedinitsmanifestation。
InthenextchapterandthefoursucceedingonesweshallobservehowonthisbasisofanoriginalinstinctofsympathyAdamSmithconstructshisexplanationoftheoriginofourmoralideas。Withregardtotheexplanationsalreadyofferedbypreviouswriters，hebelievedthattheyallcontainedsomeportionofthetruthfromtheparticularpointofviewtakenbyeach；