第12章
Thereis，however，arestrictiononthispoint，whichmustbenoticed。Nostatecanbeformedorerectedwithinthejurisdictionofanyotherstate，norcananystatebeformedbythejunctionoftwoormorestatesorpartsofstates，withouttheconsentofthelegislaturesofthestatesconcernedaswellasofcongress。
4。ItiswithgreatdeferencethattheauthorventurestodissentfromthispartoftheopinionofthelearnedchiefjusticeoftheSupremeCourtinthe，caseofCohenv。Virginia，6Wheaton，390。itwasnotthepointincontroversy，andseemstohavebeenintroducedinthatflowofluminousdiscussionforwhichheissoremarkable，bywayofanswertopartoftheargumentsofcounsel。Everythingthatfallsfromsuchaquarterexcitestoreflection，andtheopinionhavinggoneforthtotheworld；itseemsadutyonhimwhoprofessestotakeageneralviewoftheConstitution，tonoticewhatevermayinhisapprehensionamounttotheslightesterrorinprinciple。
5。Somedoubtshavingbeenentertainedwhetherthisaddresswasnotwrittenbyanotherhand，itisduetothememoryofthisgreatmantomention，thatbytheresearchesofThePennsylvaniaHistoricalsociety，ithasbeenfullyascertainedthatitwastheentireworkofthepresident。
WilliamRawle:AViewoftheConstitution:AppendixIAPPENDIX，NO。I。PERHAPSthefollowingviewoftheelectionsofpresidentandvicepresident，sincetheretirementofPresidentWashington，maynotbeuninteresting。
In1796，thevotesweregivenunderthefirstsystem，asheretoforeexplained。Thehighestinvotesbecamethepresident，andthenexthighest，thevicepresident。
JohnAdams，whohadbeenvicepresidenteightyears，had71votes。
TheequalityofthevotesforMr。JeffersonandMr。Burrproducedanarduouscontestinthehouse，thehistoryofwhichisworthpreservation。
Thedeclarationofthevotestookplaceinthesenatechamber，onWednesday，the11thofFebruary。Afterthedeclarationthatachoicehadnotbeenmadebytheelectors，andthatitdevolvedonthehouseofrepresentatives，thehouseconvenedinitsownchamber，andfurnishedseatsforthesenate，aswitnesses。Thehousehadpreviouslyadoptedrules，thatitshouldcontinuetoballot，withoutinterruptionbyotherbusiness，andshouldnotadjourn，buthaveapermanentsessionuntilthechoicebemade；andthatthedoorsofthehouseshallbeclosedduringtheballoting，exceptagainsttheofficersofthehouse。
Thefollowingwasdirectedtobethemodeofballoting:
Eachstatehadaballotboxinwhichthemembersbelongingtoit，havingpreviouslyappointedateller，putthevotesofthestate，thetelleronthepartoftheUnitedStateshavingthencountedthevotes，duplicatesoftherestwereputbyhimintotwogeneralballotboxes。Tellersbeingnominatedbyeachstateforthepurposeofexaminingthegeneralballotboxes，theyweredividedintotwoparts，ofwhomoneexaminedoneofthegeneralballotboxes，andtheotherexaminedtheother。Uponcomparingtheresult，andfindingthemtoagree，thevoteswerestatedtothespeaker，whodeclaredthemtothehouse。
Thenumberofstateswasatthattime16?ninewerenecessarytoachoice。OnthefirstballotMr。Jeffersonhadeightstates，Mr。Burrsix，andtwoweredivided。
Thefirstballottookplaceabout4o"clock，P。M。Sevenotherballots，withsimilarresultssucceeded，whenarespitetookplace，duringwhichthemembersretiredtothelobbiesandtookrefreshment。Atthreeo"clockinthemorningofthe12th，twootherballotstookplace，andat4o"clockinthemorning，thetwenty-firsttrial。At12atnoon，ofthe12th，thetwenty-eighthballottookplace，whenthehouseadjournedtothenextday，havingprobably，insecretsession，dispensedwiththeruleforthepermanentsession。OnFriday，the13th，thehouseproceededtothethirtiethballotwithoutachoice，andagainadjournedtothenextday。OnSaturday，the14th，theballotingshadthesameresult。OnTuesday，the17th，atthethirty-sixthballot，thespeakerdeclaredatoneo"clock，thatMr。Jeffersonwaselected，havingthevotesofNewYork，NewJersey，Pennsylvania，Virginia，Kentucky，Georgia，Tennessee，NorthCarolina，Maryland，fourvotesforJeffersonandfourblanks，andVermontonevoteforJeffersonandoneblankvote。Thusendedthecontest，anditmeritstheattentionoftheenemiesofrepublicaninstitutions，whoarefondofanticipatingtheoccurrenceoftumultandviolenceonsuchoccasions。Thedecorumwithwhichthewholewasconducted，andthereadyandpeaceableacquiescenceoftheminority，evinceboththesoundtextureoftheConstitution，andthetruecharacteroftheAmericanpeople。Theelectionin1804，wasunderthepresentsystem?
JohnC。Calhounwaselectedvicepresidentbyagreatmajorityoftheelectoralcolleges。
Intheelectionof1828，thegreatmajorityofvotes，infavourofAndrewJackson，renderedarecoursetothehouseofrepresentativesunnecessary。
Ofthe261electors，178votedforGeneralJacksonand83forMr。Adams。
JohnC。Calhounobtained171votesforvicepresident，83weregivenforRichardRush，and7forWilliamSmithofSouthCarolina。
WilliamRawle:AViewoftheConstitution:AppendixIIAPPENDIX，NO。II。INpage75noticeistakenofthedifficultiesunderwhichCongresslabouredduringtheconfederation，inrespecttoenforcingtheobservanceoftreaties，andtheletterfromcongresstotheseveralstatespreparedbyMr。Jayisreferredto。
Asanhistoricaldocumentvaluableineveryrespect，wehereinsertit:?"Friday，April13，1787。
"Thesecretaryforforeignaffairs，havinginpursuanceofanorderofcongress，reportedthedraughtofalettertothestates，toaccompanytheresolutionspassedthe21stdayofMarch，1787:thesamewastakenintoconsideration，andunanimouslyagreedtoasfollows:
"SIR?Oursecretaryforforeignaffairshastransmittedtoyoucopiesof，alettertohim，fromourministeratthecourtofLondon，ofthe4thdayofMarch，1786，andofthepapersmentionedtohavebeenenclosedwithit。
"WehavedeliberatelyanddispassionatelyexaminedandconsideredtheseveralfactsandmattersurgedbyBritain，asinfractionsofthetreatyofpeaceonthepartofAmerica，andweregretthatinsomeofthestates，toolittleattentionappearstohavebeenpaidtothepublicfaithpledgedbythattreaty。
"Notonlytheobviousdictatesofreligion，moralityandnationalhonour，butalsothefirstprinciplesofgoodpolicy，demandacandidandpunctualcompliancewithengagementsconstitutionallyandfairlymade。
"OurnationalConstitutionhavingcommittedtousthemanagementofthenationalconcernswithforeignstatesandpowers，itisourdutytotakecarethatalltherightswhichtheyoughttoenjoywithinourjurisdictionbythelawsofnationsandthefaithoftreaties，remaininviolate。Anditisalsoourdutytoprovidethattheessentialinterestsandpeaceofthewholeconfederacy，benotimpairedorendangeredbydeviationsfromthelineofpublicfaith，intowhichanyofitsmembersmayfromwhatevercausebeunadvisedlydrawn。
"Letitberemembered，thatthethirteenindependentsovereignstateshave，byexpressdelegationofpower，formedandvestedinusageneralthoughlimitedsovereignty，forthegeneralandnationalpurposesspecifiedintheconfederation。Inthissovereigntytheycannotseverallyparticipate，(exceptbytheirdelegates，)norwithithaveconcurrentjurisdiction；
forthenintharticleoftheconfederationmostexpresslyconveystousthesoleandexclusiverightandpowerofdeterminingonwarandpeace，andofenteringintotreatiesandalliances，&；c。
"Whenthereforeatreatyisconstitutionallymade，ratifiedandpublishedbyus，itimmediatelybecomesbindingonthewholenation，andsuperaddedtothelawsoftheland，withouttheinterventionofstatelegislatures。
Treatiesderivetheirobligationfrombeingcompactsbetweenthesovereignofthisandthesovereignofanothernation；whereaslawsorstatutesderivetheirforcefrombeingtheactsofalegislaturecompetenttothepassingofthem。Henceitisclearthattreatiesmustbeimplicitlyreceivedandobservedbyeverymemberofthenation；forasstatelegislaturesarenotcompetenttothemakingofsuchcompactsortreaties，soneitheraretheycompetentinthatcapacity，authoritativelytodecideon，orascertaintheconstructionandsenseofthem。Whendoubtsariserespectingtheconstructionofstatelaws，itisnotunusualnorimproperforstatelegislatures，byexplanatoryordeclaratoryacts，toremovethosedoubts:but，thecasebetweenlawsandcompactsortreatiesisinthiswidelydifferent；forwhendoubtsariserespectingthesenseandmeaningofatreaty，theyaresofarfrombeingcognizablebyastatelegislature，thattheUnitedStatesincongressassembled，havenoauthoritytosettleanddeterminethem:
forasthelegislatureonly，whichconstitutionallypassesalaw，haspowertoreviseandamendit，sothesovereignsonly，whoarepartiestothetreaty，havepowerbymutualconsentandposteriorarticles，tocorrectorexplainit。
"Incasesbetweenindividuals，alldoubtsrespectingthemeaningofatreaty，likealldoubtsrespectingthemeaningofalaw，areinthefirstinstancemerejudicialquestions，andaretobeheardanddecidedinthecourtsofjusticehavingcognizanceofthecausesinwhichtheyarise，andwhosedutyitistodeterminethemaccordingtotherulesandmaximsestablishedbythelawsofnationsfortheinterpretationoftreaties。
Fromtheseprinciplesitfollowsofnecessaryconsequence，thatnoindividualstatehasarightbylegislativeactstodecideandpointoutthesenseinwhichtheirparticularcitizensandcourtsshallunderstandthisorthatarticleofatreaty。
"Itisevidentthatacontrarydoctrinewouldnotonlymilitateagainstthecommonandestablishedmaximsandideasrelativetothissubject，butwouldprovenolessinconvenientinpracticethanitisirrationalintheory；
forinthatcasethesamearticleofthesametreatymightbylawbemadetomeanonethinginNewHampshire，anotherthinginNewYork，andneithertheonenortheotheroftheminGeorgia。
"Howfarsuchlegislativeactswouldbevalidandobligatoryevenwithinthelimitsofthestatepassingthem，isaquestionwhichwehopenevertohaveoccasiontodiscuss。Certain，howeveritis，thatsuchactscannotbindeitherofthecontractingsovereigns，andconsequentlycannotbeobligatoryontheirrespectivenations。
"Butiftreaties，andeveryarticleinthembe，(astheyare，andoughttobe，)bindingonthewholenation，ifindividualstateshavenorighttoacceptsomearticlesandrejectothers，andiftheimproprietyofstateactstointerpretanddecidethesenseandconstructionofthem，beapparent，stillmoremanifestmustbetheimproprietyofstateactstocontrol，delayormodifytheoperationandexecutionofthesenationalcompacts。
"Whenitisconsideredthattheseveralstatesassembledbytheirdelegatesincongress，haveexpresspowertoformtreaties，surelythetreatiessoformedarenotafterwardstobesubjecttosuchalterationsasthisorthatstatelegislaturemaythinkexpedienttomake，andthattoowithouttheconsentofeitherofthepartiestoit；thatisinthepresentcasewithouttheconsentofalltheUnitedStates，whocollectivelyarepartiestothistreatyontheoneside，andhisBritannicmajestyontheother。
Werethelegislaturestopossessandtoexercisesuchpower，weshouldsoonbeinvolvedasanation，inanarchyandconfusionathome，andindisputeswhichwouldprobablyterminateinhostilitiesandwar，withthenationswithwhomwemayhaveformedtreaties。Instanceswouldthenbefrequent，oftreatiesfullyexecutedinonestate，andonlypartlyexecutedinanother；andofthesamearticlebeingexecutedinonemannerinonestate，andinadifferentmanner，ornotatall，inanotherstate。Historyfurnishesnoprecedentofsuchlibertiestakenwithtreatiesunderformoflawinanynation。
"Contractsbetweennations，likecontractsbetweenindividuals，shouldbefaithfullyexecuted，eventhoughtheswordintheonecase，andthelawintheother，didnotcompelit。Honestnations，likehonestmen，requirenoconstrainttodojustice；andthoughimpunityandthenecessityofaffairs，maysometimesaffordtemptationstoparedowncontractstothemeasureofconvenience，yetitisneverdonebutattheexpenseofthatesteem，andconfidenceandcredit，whichareofinfinitelymoreworth，thanallthemomentaryadvantageswhichsuchexpedientscanextort。
"Butalthoughcontractingnationscannot，likeindividuals，availthemselvesofcourtsofjusticetocompelperformanceofcontracts；yetanappealtoheavenandtoarmsisalwaysintheirpower，andoftenintheirinclination。
"Butitistheirdutytotakecarethattheyneverleadtheirpeopletomakeandsupportsuchappeals，unlessthesincerityandproprietyoftheirconductaffordsthemgoodreasontorelywithconfidenceonthejusticeandprotectionofheaven。
"Thusmuchwethinkitusefultoobserve，inordertoexplaintheprinciplesonwhichwehaveunanimouslycometothefollowingresolution，viz。""Resolved，Thatthelegislaturesoftheseveralstatescannotofrightpassanyactoractsforinterpreting，explaining，orconstruinganationaltreaty，oranypartorclauseofit；norforrestraining，limiting，orinanymannerimpeding，retardingorcounteractingtheoperationandexecutionofthesame；forthatonbeingconstitutionallymade，ratifiedandpublished，theybecomeinvirtueoftheconfederation，partofthelawoftheland，andarenotonlyindependentofthewillandpowerofsuchlegislatures，butalsobindingandobligatoryonthem。""Asthetreatyofpeace，sofarasitrespectsthemattersandthingsprovidedforinit，isalawtotheUnitedStateswhichcannotbyalloranyofthembealteredorchanged，allstateactsestablishingprovisionsrelativetothesameobjectswhichareincompatiblewithit，mustineverypointofviewbeimproper。Suchactsdoneverthelessexist；butwedonotthinkitnecessaryeithertoenumeratethemparticularly，ortomakethemseverallythesubjectsofdiscussion。Itappearstoussufficienttoobserveandinsist，thatthetreatyoughttohavefreecourseinitsoperationandexecution，andthatallobstaclesinterposedbystateactsberemoved。
WemeantoactwiththemostscrupulousregardtojusticeandcandourtowardsGreatBritain，andwithanequaldegreeofdelicacy，moderationanddecisiontowardsthestateswhohavegivenoccasiontothesediscussions。
"Forthesereasonswehaveingeneralterms，""Resolved，Thatallsuchactsorpartsofactsasmaybenowexistinginanyofthestates，repugnanttothetreatyofpeace，oughttobeforthwithrepealed；aswelltopreventtheircontinuingtoberegardedasviolationsofthattreaty，astoavoidthedisagreeablenecessitytheremightotherwisebeofraisinganddiscussingquestionstouchingtheirvalidityandobligation。""Althoughthisresolutionappliesstrictlyonlytosuchofthestatesashavepassedtheexceptionableactsalludedto，yettoobviateallfuturedisputesandquestions，aswellastoremovethosewhichnowexist，wethinkitbestthateverystatewithoutexceptionshouldpassalawonthesubject。Wehavetherefore，""Resolved，Thatitberecommendedtotheseveralstatestomakesuchrepeal，ratherbydescribingthanrecitingthesaidacts；
andforthatpurposetopassanactdeclaringingeneraltermsthatallsuchacts，andpartsofactsrepugnanttothetreatyofpeacebetweentheUnitedStatesandhisBritannicmajesty，oranyarticlethereof，shallbe，andtherebyarerepealed；andthatthecourtsoflawandequityinallcausesandquestionscognizablebythemrespectively，andarisingfromortouchingthesaidtreaty，shalldecideandadjudgeaccordingtothetrueintentandmeaningofthesame:anythinginthesaidacts，orpartsofacts，tothecontrarythereofinanywisenotwithstanding。""Suchlawswouldanswereverypurpose，andbeeasilyformed。Themoretheywereoftheliketenorthroughoutthestatesthebetter。Theymighteachrecitethat，"WhereascertainlawsorstatutesmadeandpassedinsomeoftheUnitedStates，areregardedandcomplainedofasrepugnanttothetreatyofpeacewithGreatBritain，byreasonwhereofnotonlythegoodfaithoftheUnitedStatespledgedbythattreaty，hasbeendrawnintoquestion，buttheiressentialinterestsunderthattreatygreatlyaffected。AndwhereasjusticetoGreatBritain，aswellasregardtothehonourandinterestsoftheUnitedStates，requirethatthesaidtreatybefaithfullyexecuted，andthatallobstaclesthereto，andparticularlysuchasdoormaybeconstruedtoproceedfromthelawsofthisstate，beeffectuallyremoved。Therefore，"Beitenactedby___________________anditisherebyenactedbytheauthorityofthesame，thatsuchoftheactsorpartsofactsofthelegislatureofthisstate，asarerepugnanttothetreatyofpeacebetweentheUnitedStatesandhisBritannicmajesty，oranyarticlethereof，shallbe，andherebyarerepealed。Andfurther，thatthecourtsoflawandequitywithinthisstatebe，andtheyherebyaredirectedandrequiredin，allcausesandquestionscognizablebythemrespectively，andarisingfromortouchingthesaidtreaty，todecideandadjudgeaccordingtothetenor，trueintentandmeaningofthesame，anythinginthesaidactsorpartsofacts，tothecontrarythereofinanywisenotwithstanding。
"Suchagenerallawwould，wethink，bepreferabletoonethatshouldminutelyenumeratetheactsandclausesintendedtoberepeated:becauseomissionsmightaccidentallybemadeintheenumeration，orquestionsmightarise，andperhapsnotbesatisfactorilydetermined，respectingparticularactsorclauses，aboutwhich，contraryopinionsmaybeentertained。Byrepealingingeneraltermsallactsandclausesrepugnanttothetreaty，thebusinesswillbeturnedovertoitsproperdepartment，viz。thejudicial；
andthecourtsoflawwillfindnodifficultyindecidingwhetheranyparticularactorclause，is，orisnotcontrarytothetreaty。Besides，whenitisconsideredthatthejudgesingeneral，aremenofcharacterandlearning，andfeelaswellasknowtheobligationsofoffice，andthevalueofreputation，thereisnoreasontodoubtthattheirconductandjudgmentsrelativetothese，aswellasotherjudicialmatters，willbewiseandupright。
"Bepleased，sir，tolaythisletterbeforethelegislatureofyourstate，withoutdelay。Weflatterourselvestheywillconcurwithusinopinion，thatcandourandjusticeareasnecessarytotruepolicyastheyaretosoundmorality，andthatthemosthonourablewayofdeliveringourselvesfromtheembarrassmentofmistakes，isfairlytocorrectthem。Itcertainlyistimethatalldoubtsrespectingthepublicfaithberemoved，andthatallquestionsanddifferencesbetweenusandGreatBritain，beamicablyandfinallysettled。ThestatesareinformedofthereasonswhyhisBritannicmajestystillcontinuestooccupythefrontierposts，whichbythetreatyheagreedtoevacuate；andwehavethestrongestassurancesthatanexactcompliancewiththetreatyonourpart，shallbefollowedbyapunctualperformanceofitonthepartofGreatBritain。
"Itisimportantthattheseverallegislaturesshould，assoonaspossible，takethesemattersintoconsideration；andwerequestthefavourofyoutotransmittousanauthenticatedcopyofsuchactsandproceedingsofthelegislatureofyourstate，asmaytakeplaceonthesubjectandinpursuanceofthisletter。"Byorderofcongress，(Signed)"ARTHURST。
CLAIR，President。"
Noonecanwishtoseethecountryagainreducedtosuchdifficultiesanddisgrace。StilllessthatbyatotaldissolutionoftheUnion，weshouldbeleftwithoutevensuchadefectiveconfederationasthiswas。Butwecannotleavethesubjectwithoutanadditionalremark。
AssoonastheConstitutionwasadopted，alllegislativemeasuresforthepurposeofenforcingexistingtreaties，eitheronthepartoftheUnitedStatesorthestates，becameatonceunnecessary。Theinstitutionofthejudicialpowerwasitselfadequatetothedesiredeffect。Thepartialviewsandlocalinterestswhich。mighthaveinfluencedstatelegislatures，orthehightonewhichmightbejealouslyimputedtothegenerallegislature，wereequallyavoided。Thepeople，bytheadoptionoftheConstitution，hadthemselveslegislatedonthesubject，andthejudicialprinciple，inregularanddignifiedprocedure，carriedtheirlegislationintoeffect。