第5章

UptothispointwehavetriedtoshowthatduringtheMiddleAgesRussiawasaloosefederationofprincipalities，inwhichthepeoplewerewonttoexercise，onalargerorsmallerscale，legislative，executive，judicial，andevenpoliticalpower。BypoliticalpowerImeantherightofelectinganddismissingtheruler，ofdeclaringwarandmakingpeace。Thepeopleexercisedtheirrightsidebysidewiththeprince，the"knias，"whograduallyincreasedhisownpowertotheprejudiceofthepowerofthefolkmoteorveche。AttheendofthefifteenthcenturyNovgorodandPscovalonemaintainedtheprimitiverelationsbetweentheprinceandthepopularassembly，fortheystillkeptthepowerofelectinganddismissingthechiefmagistrateofthestate，aswellasthehighestofficials，theposadnik，andthe"headofthousands。"Inthesouth-westernpartofRussiathepopularassemblybecame，duringthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturies，alocaladministrative，financial，andjudicialbody，butitlostallpoliticalpower。Inthenorthernprincipalities，andespeciallyinVladimirandMoscow，thefolkmotestotallyceasedtoexist。ThegrowthfirstofVladimirandthenofMoscowwasfollowedbythecompleteannihilationofthepoliticalrightsofthepeople，andthisseemstohavebeenrecognisedbythewritersoftheday。DescribingtheproceedingsbywhichtherepublicofNovgorodwassubjectedbytheTzar，IvantheThird，thechronicle，knownunderthenameofthePatriarchNikon，says：

"Intheyear1478theTzardeclaredtotherepublic"thathewantedNovgorodtobeintheexerciseofthesamepowerasthatwhichhepossessedatMoscow。"Theinhabitantsagreedtocomplywithhiswishesoncertainterms，wherebyhisautocracywouldbelimited。TheTzarimmediatelysentthefollowingreply："ItoldyouthatIwantedinNovgorodastatesimilartothatofMoscow；

andinsteadofthatIhearyouteachingmehowIoughttoorganisemystateinawaydifferentfromwhatitisatpresent。"

Onhearingthis，thecitizenssentanotherembassytoaskwhattheTzarmeantbysayingthathewantedinNovgorodagovernmentlikethatofMoscow。Heanswered："Nopopularassembly，veche；noelectedmagistrate；andthewholestateinthepoweroftheTzar。"（2*）ThisanswerleftnodoubtastohisautocraticintentionsandtheiraccomplishmentintheMoscovitestate。

Letusnowinquireintothecauseswhichproducedthisincreaseofmonarchicalpower。ThefirstseemstohavebeenthegreatchangewhichhadbeenbroughtaboutintherelationsbetweentheprinceandthepopularassemblybythesubjectionoftheprincetothepoweroftheKhans。ItiswellknownthattheTartars，afterhavingestablishedthecentreoftheirEuropeanempireontheshoresoftheVolga，notfarfromwhereitjoinstheCaspianSea，intheneighbourhoodofthemoderncityofAstrachan，reducedthedifferentprincipalitiesofRussiatotheconditionofvassalstates。LeavingthegovernmentinthehandsofthedynastyofRuriktheyforcedtheRussianprincestoreceiveinvestitureatthehandsoftheirkhans。InsuchastateofthingstheprincehadnolongeranyneedtotroublehimselfabouthisacceptationbythepopularassemblyoftheprincipalitythatheintendedtogovernInordertosecurethethronetohimselfandhisheirs，allthathehadtodowastoundertakeajourneytothesouthernpartsoftheVolgaandmakehisappearanceatthecourtofhissuzerain——theKhan。Herehehadtolayoutlargesumsofmoneyinpresentsandbribes，untilatlasttheKhanwasinducedtograntacharter，"jarlik，"

acknowledgingtherightoftheclaimanttooccupythethroneofhisancestors。FromthebeginningofthefourteenthcenturytheMoscoviteprinceshadnolonger。toundertakethejourneyinperson，asthekhanshadconsentedtoforwardthecharterofconfirmationdirecttoMoscowonconditionthattheyfirstreceivedlargesumsofmoneyfromtheprincewhoclaimedthethrone。Thesuccessionwassettledateachvacancybyanagreementbetweenthesuzerainandthevassal，andthepopularassemblyhadnoopportunityofinterfering。

Foreignevents，especiallytheriseoftheFlorentineUnionandthecaptureofConstantinoplebytheTurks，alsolargelycontributedtotheincreaseoftheMoscoviteautocracy。

DuringtheperiodwhichbeganwiththeacceptanceofthetenetsoftheGreekChurchbytheRussianduke，Vladimir，attheendoftheeleventhcentury，andwhichendedwiththedecisionoftheByzantineEmperortosubscribetheactofunionwiththeRomanChurch，theRussianStateaswellastheRussianChurchremainedtoacertainextentdependentontheGreekPatriarchandEmperoratConstantinople。InecclesiasticalmattersthisdependencewasmanifestedinthedirectnominationoftheRussianMetropolitanbytheByzantinePatriarch，veryoftennotwithoutinterferenceonthepartoftheEmperor。Insecularmattersitwasrathertheoreticalthanpractical。TheRussianclergymorethanonceadvisedtheGrandDukeofMoscovytorecognisethe"TzaroftheGreeks"ashislordparamount，andeachtimetheyrepeatedthepopulartheorythattheByzantineEmperorwasthechiefofthewholeChristianworldandthereforethesovereignlordofallChristiankingsandpotentates。ThistheoryhadbeenfirstbroughtforwardbyByzantinewriters，whoactuallydeclaredthatConstantinetheGreathadconferredthetitleofTabulariusontherulerofRussiaasarecompenseforhisallegiancetotheGreekEmpire。Uptotheendofthefourteenthcenturythetitleof"Tzar"wasexclusivelyappliedinRussiatotheEmperorofConstantinople，andnoRussianprincewasallowedtodignifyhimselfwithit。TheRussianclergy，inofferingpublicprayerforthehealthoftheEmperoratConstantinople，spokeofhimasof"theEmperoroftheRomansandRuleroftheUniverse。"（3*）

TheattitudeofBasileusIII，GrandDukeofRussia，duringthetimeoftheFlorentineUnion，hisboldoppositiontothePatriarchPhotiusandtoanycompromisewiththeRomishChurch，ledtheRussianclergytolookuponhimandhisheirsasthechampionsoforthodoxyinreligion。WhiletheDukeofMoscovywasconsideredthesoleprotectoroftheGreekChurch，theEmperoratConstantinoplehadbecome，intheeyesoftheRussians，aschismatic。ItwasinordertofreeMoscovyfromalldependenceonaschismaticEmperorthattheaccountoftheconversionoftheEasternSlavstoChristianitywasaltered。TheapostleSt。

Andrew，who，accordingtoArmenianandGeorgiantraditionshadbeenthefirsttopreachtheGospelintheCaucasus，wasofficiallydeclaredtohavebeentheSt。JohntheBaptistoftheRussians；Constantinople，beingthusdeprivedofthehonourofbeingthebirthplaceofRussianChristianity，wasaccordinglydispossessedofanyrighttoexerciseecclesiasticalsupremacyovertheRussianChurch。

ThefallofConstantinople，whichcloselyfollowedtheFlorentineUnion，settledthequestionoftheecclesiasticalautonomyofRussia，andcontributedatthesametimetostrengthenthepoweroftheMoscoviteDuke。TheGreekChurchhadlosthersecularheadinthepersonofthelastEmperorofConstantinople，andtheSlavonicprincipalitiesoftheBalkanPeninsula，aswellasthesubjugatedGreeks，naturallyturnedtheireyestowardsthemostpowerfuloftheOrthodoxrulers。ThiswastheGrandDukeofMoscovy，whosefirmallegiancetotheancientcreed，anduncompromisingattitudetowardstheFlorentineUnion，contrastedfavourablywiththeattitudeofthelastEmperorstowardsthePopesofRome。PeoplewereledtoacknowledgethatthefallofConstantinoplewasawell-deservedpunishmentonaschismaticruler，andtheywerealsoinducedtobelievethattheconquestofthatcitybytheTurksoughttobetheoccasionforthetransferofcivilsupremacyovertheGreekChurchfromConstantinopletoMoscovy，fromtheEmperortotheGrandDuke。

TheseideasgrewinstrengthwhenthelastEmperor’ssister，SophiaPalaeologus，becamebymarriagethewifeandmotherofMoscovitePrinces。AreportwasspreadthattheimperialtitlehadbeentransferredtotheGrandDukeIvanbynolessapersonthanhiswife’sbrother，thelegalheiroftheByzantineEmpire。

TheGrandDukewasanointedwithgreatsolemnity，andreceivedthetitleof"Tzar，"atitlewhich，aswehaveseen，hadhithertobeenexclusivelygiventotheGreekEmperors。AnofferwhichtheGermanEmperormadethroughhisspecialenvoy，Herbertstein，tograntthetitleof"king"totheMoscoviteGrandDukeonconditionofhisrecognisinghisdependenceupontheHolyRomanEmpire，wassolemnlyrejected；andinordertoconfirmthenewtheoryofthecompleteautonomyoftheRussiantzardom，agenealogywasinvented，showingthedirectdescentofthehouseofRurikfromAugustusandhissupposedbrotherPruss，themythicalfounderofPrussia。Onefact，however，stoodinthewayofauniversalrecognitionofthesenewpretensionstocompleteautonomy；thatwasthecontinueddependenceoftheMoscoviterulersonthekhansoftheTartars。ButthiswasputanendtobyIvanIII，whowasconsequentlythefirsttoadornhimselfwiththetitleof"Autocrat"（Samoderjez），whichtothisdaycontinuestobethetitleoftheRussianTzars。

AsGreekmonks，andamongthemthewell-knownMaxime，begantosettleinRussia，ByzantineideasaboutthederivationofmonarchicalpowerfromGod，whichwerealreadyentertainedbysomeofourmonkishwriters，wererapidlyspreadamongthepeople。ItisnotwithoutgoodreasonthatthecelebratedantagonistofIvantheTerrible，PrinceKourbsky，accusesthemonksofhavingbeenthechiefsourceoftheserviletheory，accordingtowhich"theTzar，inordertopreservehisindependence，oughttohavenocounsellorsmoreintelligentthanhimself。"ThistheorywasacceptedwithaviditybysuchtyrantsasIvantheCruel，whoreferstoitmorethanonceinhiscorrespondencewiththePolishking，StephenBathory。Thefactthatthisprincewassurroundedbyasortofparliament，thePolishSeim，wasdeclaredbytheRussianTzartobeamanifestproofofhispoliticalinferiority。"Autocracy（samoderjavsto），"

accordingtoIvan’sidea，"wasimpossiblewithanelectivecouncil；theautocratmustdoeverythingbyhimself；hehastogiveorderstohissubjects，andthese，lastmustobeylikeserfs，andthataccordingtothecommandofGod。"

Theseideas，whichhadbeenexpressedcenturiesbeforebymonkishwriters，whohadfoundthemsetforthinByzantinetreatises，werefarfrombeingthoseofthegeneralityofRussianstatesmenandthinkers。WhenPrinceKourbskyadvisedthetyrantIvantoseekgoodandusefulcounsel，notonlyamongthemembersofhisdouma，asortofcuriaregis——butalsoamongtherepresentativesofthepeople——vsenarodnichchelovok——hegaveutterancetoanoldpoliticaldesire。Anothercontemporarywriter，theunknownauthorofTheSermonoftheSaintsofWalaam，giveswaytothesamefeelinginthefollowingterms："TheclergyoughttoadvisetheTzartokeepaconstantgeneralcouncil，composedofpersonscomingfromallthecitiesanddistrictsofhisdominions。Suchacouncilmustbekept，andtheiradvicetakendaybydayoneveryquestionwhichmayoccur。"TwodifferentinstitutionsweremeantbythosewhoadvisedtheCzartorulebytheadviceofhiscouncillors。Onewasasoldasthemonarchyitself，andbelongedtothoseoldcustoms，which，accordingtocontemporarywriters，hadbeenscrupulouslymaintainedbyformerpotentates。IrefertothecounciloftheBoyars——theDouma。Theotherinstitution。thehistoryofwhichwillformtheprincipalsubjectofournextlecture，was，onthecontrary，quiterecent——theStates-GeneralofMoscovy，theZemskiiSobor。

IwillconcludewhatIhavetosayonthepoliticalorganisationofRussiaduringthatintermediateperiodwhichlastedfromthefalloftheancientfolkmotestotheconvocationoftheStates-Generalbyadescriptionofthefirst-namedcouncil，theDouma。（4*）ThestudyoftheinternalconstitutionoftheDoumaisindispensableforthecomprehensionofthePartwhichthehighernobilitywerecalledupontoplayinthemanagementoftheMoscoviteState。ItwillshowthatthepoweroftheMoscoviteprinces，absoluteasitwas，wasyettoacertainextentlimitedbythepowerofthenobility。UptothemiddleofthesixteenthcenturytheBoyarsweretheonlypersonsadmittedtotheexerciseofexecutive，military，andjudicialauthority。

Underthenameofvoevodswefindthemattheheadofprovinces，commandingtheirmilitaryforcesandmanagingtheiradministrativeinterests。AsmembersoftheDouma，theyhadtoadvisetheTzaronallkindsofpolitical，executive，military，andfinancialquestions。NolawwaspromulgateduntilafterpreviousdeliberationonitbytheDouma。ThesameDoumafurnishedthechiefrulersoftheStateduringtheminorityoftheTzar，anditwasinthiswaythatthepoweroftheBoyarsmadeitselffeltamongthelowerclassesofthepopulation，whosooncametolookuponthemasthechiefcauseoftheirmisery。

ThecompositionoftheMoscovitecouncilwasatthebeginningverylikethatwhichwefindinFranceundertheearlyCapetiankings。Thecuriaregiswaschieflyformedfromamongthehighcourtofficials，suchasthemajordome，themarshal，theconstable，thechancellororcancellarius，thecamererorcamerarius，etc。ThesamemaybesaidoftheMoscoviteDoumaofthefourteenthcentury，aswellasoftheprivycouncilofeachandeveryoftheprincipalitiesintowhichmedievalRussiawasdividedanteriortothecentralisinggrowthoftheMoscovitepower。ThebusinesstransactedatthecourtofaRussianprincebeingdistributedamongdifferentdepartments，theheadsofthesedepartmentsweresummonedtositinthecouncilandreceivedthenameofboyars。Moneybeingscarce，theboyarswerepaidfortheirservicesbythedonationofcrownlands，andthismodeofpaymentbeingknownunderthenameof"pont，"thesurnameoftheboyarswas"pouteviiboyari。"MostoftheboyarssummonedtositintheDoumawereexemptedfrommilitaryservice，andespeciallyfromthedutyofopposingtheenemyattheheadoftheirownretainers，notsomuchintheopencountryasintheirowncastles。Hencetheoriginofanothersurname"wedenniiboiari"

whichdistinguishedthemostpowerfulmembersoftheRussianmedievalnobility。Ifweinquireintotheoriginofthoseadmittedtotheprincelycouncil，weshallseethattheybelongedtothesameclassasthatwhichfurnishedofficerstothearmyandthechiefsofthecentralandprovincialadministration。ThisclassispreciselythatknowntotheAnglo-SaxonsasThanes，andtotheMerovingiankingsunderthetitleofAntrustions。ThepeculiarityofmedievalRussiaconsistedinthis，that，beingdividedintoagreatnumberofprincipalities，itlefttotheknightlyclassthelibertyoffreelychoosingtheprincewhomtheywouldliketofollow。TheRussianknightlyclass，correspondingtothe"ministeriels"offeudalGermany，theso-called"slougililiudi"or"menofservice，"wereauthorisedbycustomtoremainintheserviceofanyprinceaslongastheypleased，andtochangefromoneprincetoanotheraccordingtotheirownpleasure。Beforeattachinghimselftoanyprincethe"manofservice"signedasortofcontractwiththepoliticalheadofthecountryinwhichheintendedtosettle。Ontakingservice，acharterwasdeliveredtotheknightinwhichhisdutiesandrightswerepreciselystated，andtheprincehadnorighttoinfringetheseconditions。Incaseofbadtreatment，theknightfoundnodifficultyinleavingtheprincewhomhewasservingandinenteringintosimilarrelationswithsomeotherofthenumerouspettypotentates，whoruledovermedievalRussia。

ThisrightoffreelypassingfromtheserviceofoneprincetothatofanotherwasclearlyrecognisedbythefollowingsentenceinatreatysignedbytheprinceofTverwiththeGrandDukeofLithuania，Kasimir，aslateasthemiddleofthefifteenthcentury，1449；"Ourbovarsandmenofservicemayfreelywithdrawfromoneofustotheother。"Thisdocumentisprobablythelastrecognitionofthelibertyofremovalonceenjoyedbytheknightlyclass。

TheincreasingpoweroftheGrandDukeofMoscovycouldnottoleratethissurvivaloffederalautonomy。ThisprincedidnotobjecttothelibertyofremovalaslongasitservedhisownpurposesbyincreasingthenumberofpersonsseekingserviceintheMoscovitearmyandMoscovitecivilservice，butassoonasthetyrannyofsomeoftheGrandDukescausedtheirownknightstowithdrawtoPolandandLithuania，severemeasuresweretakentoputastoptothismovementofemigration。TheGrandDukebegantoconfiscatethegrantsofland（"pomestie"）ofthedepartingknights，andeverytimehecouldlayhandsononeofthesesecedershewassuretothrowhimintoprison，veryoftentogetherwithhiswifeandchildren。Theclergy，alwaysonthesideofthesecularpower，morethanoncelikenedthebehaviourofasecedingknighttotheconductofJudas，anddeclaredittobenotonlytreasonagainsttheStatebutalsoasinintheeyesofGod。

Keepinginmindthefactsjustmentioned，weshallhavenodifficultyinexplainingtheConcourseofknightsandmenoftheswordinthegrandduchyofMoscovy。Theterritorialextensionoftheduchyhadnecessitatedtheabolitionofagreatnumberofsmallprincipalities，andpersonsformerlybelongingtotherulingdynastiesandunitedbytiesofbloodtotheTzar，wereanxioustoenterhisservice。InthismannertheknightlyclassbegantonumberinitsranksawholegroupofprincelyfamilieswhowerethedescendantsofthosepotentateswhosedominionshadbeenconqueredandannexedbyMoscow。BeforelongthenumberofpersonsdesirousoftakingserviceundertheGrandDuketotallyexcludedthepossibilityofpersonalandseparateconventions，suchasthosewhichsettledthemutualrightsanddutiesofprinceandknightintheotherprincipalitiesofRussia。Thesepersonalagreementsweresupersededbyageneralenactment，whichdeclaredthatthemanofserviceoccupiedahigherorlowerrankinthepoliticalhierarchyaccording，first，tothedignityofthefamilytowhichhebelonged，and，secondly，tothenumberofyearshisfamilyhadbeenengagedintheMoscoviteservice。

Itwasgenerallyacknowledgedthataprincelyfamily——thatis，afamilythathadoncebelongedtothenumberofrulingdynasties，oughttohaveprecedenceoverallothersamonguntitlednobles。Whoevercouldshowamonghisancestorspersonsinahighofficialposthadtherighttorefuseanyinferiorsituation，especiallyinthosecasesinwhichapersonofacomparativelynewfamilywastobesetoverhimashissuperior。

Thisorderofprecedencewasmorethanoncesetasideinconsequenceofthelowconditiontowhichthisorthatwealthyfamilyhadbeenreducedbythelossofitsestates。ARussiannobleinamiserablestateofpovertywasaslittleentitledtooccupyahighofficialposition，aswasapennilessEnglishduke，orearl，totakehisseatintheHouseofLordsinthefifteenthcentury，inthereignofEdwardIV。

Therulesofprecedence，constitutingwhatourancestorsofthefifteenthandsixteenthcenturiescalled"mestnichestro，"

werescrupulouslyobservedbothinthearmyandinthecivilservice。TheyalsofoundexpressionintheconstitutionoftheCouncilorDouma。Thetitlednobility，theprincelyfamilies，asarule，occupiedthehighestrankinthehierarchyofthecouncillors，therankof"doumniboyars，"orboyarsoftheCouncil。

AcertainnumberoftheoldMoscovitenobilitywereallowedtoretaintheiroriginalrank，buttherestofthenobleswerebydegreesloweredtothatofpersonswhoseonlydistinctionwastobe"thechildrenofancientboyars。"Thedocumentsofthetimespeakoftheminpreciselytheseterms，callingthem"boiarskidieti，"childrenoftheboyars。

ThesecondrankamongthemembersoftheDoumawasoccupiedbythoseknownunderthenameof"ocolnichii，"orpersonslivingimmediatelyabouttheDuke。ThisrankintheDoumabelonged，asarule，tomembersoftheoldMoscovitenobility，aswellastosomeofthesmallerprincelyfamilies。TheDukehadtherighttoconferonhis"ocolnichy"thehighertitleofboyarasarecompenseforhisservices。TherestoftheknightlyclasswereeitherentirelyunconnectedwiththeCouncilorweresimplysummonedtobepresentatsomeofitssittings。Theywereknownunderthegeneralnameof"noblemenbelongingtotheDouma，"

"dumniidvoriani，"andformedthethirdrankofCouncillors。

ThefourthorlowestrankintheCouncilwascomposedofthosemembersoftheknightlyclasswhocondescendedtoholdsecond-ratepostsinthedifferentexecutivebodiesoftheduchy，suchastheForeignOffice（"Posolskyprikaz"），ortheboardpresidingovertemporaryorlifegrantsofland（Pomesiniprikaz）。Thesesecond-ratebureaucrats，knownunderthenameofsecretaries，diaki，wereregularlyadmittedtothesittingsoftheCouncil，wheretheyformedthelowestbutbynomeanstheleastinfluentialorder。

FromwhathasbeensaiditwillbeseenthatautocraticpowerinRussiahadtodealwithcertaincounterpoisesandmoderatinginfluencesinthepoliticalconstitutionofthecountryevenafterthefalloftheancientfolkmotes。ThesechecksandrestraintshadtheirrootsintheoldpoliticalrightsexercisedbythechiefsofthealmostindependentprincipalitieswhichconstitutedtheunorganisedfederacyofRussianstates。WhilstsubmittingtothepoweroftheMoscoviteprince，theseonceindependentchiefsinsistedontherecognitionoftheirprivilegetobenextaftertheTzar，theprincipalrulerofthecountry。

Theso-calledmestnichestvowas，therefore，asortofunwrittenconstitution，recognisingineachofthemembersofthehighernobilityhisdistinctrighttoaplaceinthemachineryoftheState。Theloverclassesalonehadnopartintheconductofpublicaffairs。AnendwasputtothisanomaloussituationbytheconvocationoftheStates-General。TheoriginoftheseStates-General，orSobors，andtheirfurtherdevelopment，willformthesubjectofournextlecture。

NOTES：

1。Herbord，ii。15-30。

2。"CompleteCollectionofRussianChronicles，"vi。213。

3。CompareDiakonov，"TheSupremePoweroftheMoscoviteTsars，"

Petersburg，1889。

4。ThissubjecthasbeenveryablydiscussedbyProfessorKluchovsky。

ModernCustomsandAncientLawsofRussiabyMaximeKovalevsky1891

Lecture5。

OldRussianParliaments。

InourlastlectureweshowedwhatcausesproducedtheriseofmonarchicalpowerinRussia，andtriedtoprovethat，powerfulaswastheautocracyoftheCzarsofMoscovy，itwaslimitedbythepoliticalrightsofthehighernobility。TheexerciseoftheserightswasentrustedtotheDoumaorCouncil，andsimilarpowersinmattersecclesiasticalwerevestedinaHighCommission，oftenmentionedbytheauthorsofthetimeunderthenameoftheconsecratedSobor。ThisbodywascomposedoftheMetropolitan，Archbishops，Bishops，Archimandritesorvicarsofthebishops，andtheheadsoftheblackclergy，theabbotsorchiefsofmonasticcongregations。

Intheyear1550thesetwoassembliesofwhichtheonewasanalmostcompleterepresentationofthehighernobilityandbureaucracy，andthesecondofthehigherclergy，werechangedintoamoredemocraticparliamentbytheadditionofrepresentativesofthelowernobility，theregularmilitaryforce，andtheinhabitantsofcitiesandruraldistricts。WehaveverylittleinformationastothereasonwhichinducedtheGovernmenttoappealtothese"menofthepeople，"asthemembersofthisassemblyweregalledbycontemporarywriters。Wearetotallyignorantofitscomposition，andofthenatureofthebusinessitwascalledupontoperform。ThespeechwhichIvantheTerribledeliveredinitsfirstsessionis，however，wellknown。

Initheaccusestheboyarsofthemisgovernmentwhichcharacterisedthefirstyearsofhisreignandthrowsonthemthewholeresponsibilityforthemiseriesofthepeople。Heacknowledgedatthesametimetheimpossibilityofredressingoldwrongsbyjudicialmeansandentreatedallclassesofthepeopletocompoundforthembymeansofcompromises。Themeaningofthiswasthatallthejudgeswhowereaccusedofillegaldecisions，andofficialsresponsibleforadministrativewrongs，wereauthorisedtotreatwithinafixedtimedirectlywiththosewhohadcomplainedtotheCzaroftheirmisrule。SofarasappearsfromlaterdocumentsthewishoftheCzarwascompliedwithbyallclassesofthepeople。Vastreformsfollowedthisfirstessayofrepresentativeassemblies；theprincipleofelection，whichhadformerlyprevailedintheorganisationofthecommuneandthelowercourtsofjustice，wasreintroducedintheformofelectedjudgesandaldermen（goubniistarostiandzelovalniki）。ItisveryprobablethatthosemenwereconvenedtothefirstRussianparliamentwhohadacknowledgedthenecessityforsuchreforms，althoughwehavenocontemporarydocumentstoestablishthisfact。

TheamountofinformationwepossessaboutthesecondRussianparliament，whichwassummonedintheyear1566ismuchgreater。

Weknowthenumberofpersonsconvenedtoit，thedifferentclassesofthepeopletowhichtheybelonged，andthekindofbusinesstheyhadtoperform。Wemayevenguesswithacertaindegreeofprobabilitythewayinwhichtheyexercisedtheirconsultativeanddeliberativefunctions。Intheyear1558theRussianmilitaryforceswereengagedinawarwithPoland。ThiswarhaditsriseinthedisputesoftheTeutonicKnightssettledinLivonia，withthegrowingpowerofRussia。Losingoneafteranothertheirchieffortresses，theOrder，throughtheirGrandMasterGotthardKettler，enteredintocorrespondencewiththePolishking，Sigismund，andproposedtoaccepthissuzeraintyonconditionthatheshouldwithhisarmyopposethefurtherencroachmentsofRussia。Thisofferwasaccepted，andRussiahadtodecidewhethersheshouldwithdrawfromtheLivonianstrongholdswhichwerealreadyinherpowerorgotowarwithPoland。UnderthesecircumstancesIvantheTerrible，beforecomingtoadecision，wishedtotaketheadvicenotonlyofthehigherclergy，themembersofhisDouma，andthehighofficersofState，withthetreasurersandsecretariesattheirhead。butalsoofthelowernobility，theclassdirectlyengagedinmilitaryservice，andthoseofthethirdestate，whosebusinessitwastocollectthetaxesfromtheurbanpopulation。

IfwescrutinisethecompositionofthissecondRussianParliament，wearestartledbythefactthatwiththeexceptionofthreegentlemenfromToropeczk，sixfromLouczk，andtwenty-twocitizensfromthecityofSmolensk，allitsmemberswerepersonsresidinginMoscowRussianhistorianshavegenerallyexplainedthisanomalybysayingthattheGovernment，havingnotimetoawaitthearrivalofdeputiesfromtheprovinces，contenteditselfwithconsultingsuchmilitarymenaswerethenpresentatMoscow，exceptionbeingmadeonlyastotheinhabitantsofsomewesterncitiesanddistrictswhoseinterestsweredirectlyengagedintheimpendingwar。SuchwasthecasewithSmolensk，Louczk，andToropeczk。Ifthiswasso，theAssemblyof1566wouldhavenorighttofigureinthelistofRussianParliaments，beingnothingbutalocalAssembly，somethinglikethose"etatsgenerauxfractionnes，"whichwereknowninFranceduringagreatpartofthefourteenthandfifteenthcenturies。Butsuchisnotreallythecase。（1*）ThewayinwhichthemilitaryclasswasrepresentedattheParliamentof1566findsitsexplanationintheorganisationofthearmyatthattime。Itwasthencomposedoffiveregiments，quarteredindifferentprovinces，eachregimentcontainingagreaterorsmallernumberof"districthundreds。"Thehundredwasnotanumerical，butalocaldivision。Asarule，theheadshipofeveryhundredwasentrusted，nottoalocalmilitaryman，buttosomeMoscovitenobleman，residinginthemetropolis，butpossessingestatesinthedistricttowhichthehundredbelonged。UnderthecircumstancesIhavedescribed，theCzar，beforegoingintothenewwar，wasnaturallydesirousofconsultingthemenwhohadthelocalcommandofhisarmy，thoseMoscovitenoblemenwhowereplacedattheheadofthelocalhundreds。Theirusualplaceofabodebeingthemetropolis，itiseasytounderstandwhyinhabitantsofMoscowwerealmosttheonlymensummonedtoattendtheParliament。WhentheSoborwasconvenedthearmyhadjustreturnedfromitslastexpeditionagainstLithuaniaandallthemilitarychiefswouldthenbeinMoscow。Thesechiefs，ashasbeenalreadymentioned，werepaidfortheirservicesnotbyafixedsalary，butbydonationsoflandgrantedforthetermofservice，whichpracticallyamountedtoalifetenure，andwereknownbythenameofpomestie。（2*）Thequantityoflandcorrespondedtothepositionheldintheranksofthearmy。Somereceivedonlyonehundredandfiftydesiatin，（3*）sometwohundredandtwenty-five，someeventhreehundred，andthesedifferencesledtothedivisionofthemilitaryclassesintothreegroupscalledstatii。TheSoborof1566containedninety-sevenmembersfromthefirstclassandninety-nineofthesecond；amongthelowergroupwefindonlythirty-fivefromToropeczkandsixfromLouzck。

Astothethirdestate，itwasrepresentedbyseventy-fivemen，allbelongingtotheMoscovitetradingclass。ThereasonofthismustbesoughtinthecontemporaryorganisationoftheRussianbourgeoisie。DuringthesecondpartofthesixteenthcenturywefindinMoscowtwodifferentclassesoftradesmen：oneknownunderthenameof"hosts"（gosti），theotherunderthatof"merchants"（koupzi）。BothclassescontainedintheirranksnotonlyMoscovitetradesmen，butalsotradesmenfromothercities。

Thewealthyandinfluentialmerchantsofthewholeempirewereinscribedinthelistofthe"hosts，"therestcomposedthatofthe"merchants。"Thislatterclasswassub-dividedintoMoscoviteandSmolenskmerchants，thelatterbeingthose，whosecommercewaschieflyconfinedtothewesternprovincesofRussiaanditsnaturalheadSmolensk。Inthesixteenthcenturythesesamesub-divisionsre-appearundersomewhatdifferentnames，theonebeingcalledthehundredof"hosts"（gostinnaiasotnia）andtheotherthehundredof"drapers"（soukonnaiasotnia）。ThedivisionsIhavementionedweretheworkofthecentralgovernment，whichregardedthewealthiermerchantsasitsdirecthelpersinthedifficulttaskofcollectingcustomsandexciseduties。

NopersonbelongingtotheGuildof"hosts"couldrefusetoperformtheseheavyandresponsibleduties。Theman，onwhomthechoiceofhiscompanionsfell，wasobligedtoremovetothecitywhosetaxeshehadtocollect。Sothattheexerciseofsuchfunctionsmightbeentrustedtopersonsofgreatlocalinfluence，theelectionfell，asarule，onamerchantpossessingestatesorlargestocksofmerchandiseinthecitywhichhewascalledtoadminister。Liketheguildofhosts，theguildsofMoscoviteandSmolenskmerchantswerecalledupontoassisttheGovernmentintheexerciseofitsfinancialauthorityandaccordinglyelectedamongthemselvestheofficersoftheexciseandcustomsadministrationofthesmallerurbandistricts。

Itiseasytounderstandthatbeforeengaginginanewwar，whichwouldnecessarilycausenewandheavyexpenses，theCzarwoulddesiretoobtaininformationastothepecuniaryresourcesofthecountryfromthosepersonswhosedutyitwouldbetocollectthetaxes。He，therefore，summonedtotheSoborthetradesmenoftheGuildofhostsandalsotheMoscoviteandSmolenskmerchants，or，inotherwords，allthosewhohadthechargeofcollectingtherevenuesofindirecttaxation，notonlyinthemetropolis，butthroughouttheempire。Composedasitwasofthehighofficials，themembersofthecouncil，thearchbishops，bishops，archimandrites，abbots，andthelocalheadsofthemilitaryandfinancialadministration，theSoborof1566

wasnotsomuchtherepresentativeofthepeopleasofthegoverningclass。Itis，therefore，difficulttospeakofitsanalogywiththerepresentativeassembliesofWesternEurope，thoughsomeoftheelementsofwhichitwascomposed，aretobefoundbothintheSwedishandtheGermanparliaments。InSwedenthearmywascalledupontosenditsgenerals，colonels，andevenitsmajorstothesittings，atleastfrom1598to1778。（4*）IntheGermanLandestande，aswellasintheSwedishStates-General，thecitieswereregularlyrepresentedbytheirofficers，theRathmanner，membersofthecitycouncil，orRattaborgare，astheywerecalledinSweden，justastheFrenchcitiesandboroughswereusuallyrepresentedintheEtatsGeneraux，notbyelecteddeputies，butbytheirmaires，echevinsandconsuls。（5*）

NowthatweareacquaintedwiththemannerinwhichthefirstSobor，thisrealassemblyofnotables，wascomposed，letustakealookatitsproceedings。ThequestiononwhichtheCzarwantedadvicewaswhetherheshouldengageinanewwarwithPoland，orwhetheritwouldbebetterforhimtorestoretoKasimirthecitieswhichhehadconqueredinLithuania。Eachestatehadtogiveaseparateanswer。Theclergydeclareditselfinfavourofwar。TheymaintainedthatLivoniahadalwaysbelongedtoRussia，apreposterousclaimwhichwasplainlycontradictedbyhistory。

WhilstinsistingontheimpossibilityofconcludingpeaceonthetermsproposedbyKasimir，theydeclaredthemselvesincapableofjudgingwhatmeanstheGovernmentoughttotakeforthesafetyofitsnewconquests。"TheCzaralonemustdecidethematter。Itisnotourbusinesstoadvisehimonsuchquestions，buttoprayGodforthesuccessofhisundertakings。"Thisplainlymeantthattheyfearedanewimpositionofsubsidies，andhadnodesiretotakeonthemselvestheinitiativeofthistaxation。

Theboyarsgaveasimilaranswer。"Itisimpossible，"saidthey，"toleaveinthehandsofthePolishkingthenewlyconqueredGermancities，forinthatcasetheimportantRussianfortressofPolozksituatedontheDvina，wouldremainsurroundedbythelandsoftheenemy。"TheyalsodeclaredthemselvesreadytoservetheCzarwhatevermightbehisdecision。"GodaloneandtheCzar，"suchwastheirconclusion，"oughttohavethelastwordinthismatter。"SomedissentientmembersoftheDoumapresentedtheirownopinioninwriting。Thenoblemenofthefirstandsecondclassorstatii，alsoexpressedtheiropinionsintwodifferentpapersandwereunanimousintheirdesiretoretaintheLivoniancities。ThoseofToropeczkandLouczk，whoweremoredirectlyconcernedinthematter，declaredthattheywouldsacrificetheirlivesforasingle"dessiatine"ofthecitiessurroundingPolozkwhichwereclaimedbythePolishking。ThehostsandmerchantsofMoscowandSmolenskwerenotlesspatrioticintheirsentiments，thelatterparticularlyinsistingontheimpossibilityofleavingPolozkwithoutaterritorialdistrictattachedtoit。"Avillagecannotexistwithoutitsowndistrictandstilllessafortress，"saidthey。"IfthekingofPolandgetstheterritoryofPolozkthatcitywillbeofnousetotheRussians，andnothingwillpreventthekingbuildinganewfortressjustoppositetheRussianfortress。"

ThegeneralresultoftheconferencewasthattheCzardecidedonwar。

WefindnootherGeneralAssemblyinthereignofIvantheTerrible，butwemustnotinferfromthatfactthattheCzaraltogetherforboretoapplytothepeople。OntwodifferentoccasionswefindhimaddressingthemobofMoscow，oncein1564，inordertogettheirapprovaloftheprosecutionoftheboyarsfortheirsupposedtreasonagainsttheStateandopenplunderingofthepeople；andasecondtimetoascertaintheirfeelingsontheoccasionofafreshdiscomfitureoftheRussiantroopsbythePolesandtheloss，notonlyofLivonia，butofPolozkandSmolensk。Thislastconventionwasintheyear1597andwastheoccasionofalongandpatrioticspeechdelivered，inthenameoftheCzar，byhissecretarySchelkalov。Thisspeech，whichannouncedthelossofthousandsofRussiansoldiers，producedagreatimpression，chieflyonthewomen，who，fearingtheirhusbandsweredead，wentcryingthroughthestreetsandaskingfornewones。Whereuponthesecretarymadeasecondspeechinwhichhethreatenedtohavethemfloggediftheydidnotceasetheirlamentations。Wethusfindtheexperimentofadmittingthepeopletothediscussionofpublicaffairsdegenerating，eitherintoappealstotheMoscowmobtosanction，byitsconsent，actsofcrueltytowardsthemembersofthehighernobility，orintothreatsoffloggingmadetopoorweepingwomenintheirbereavement。

ItisdifficulttodiscoverinthefactswhichIhavejustrelatedanyresemblancetoaregularconsultationofthepeopleinParliamentassembled。Themeetingsaremorelikeaparodyoftheancientfolkmotes，theveche。

TherepresentativesystemremainedunknowntoRussiathroughoutthesixteenthcentury。TheAssemblywhichin1584

confirmedtherightoftheeldestsonofIvan，Theodor，tooccupytheRussianthrone，althoughcalled"aparliament"bytheEnglishResidentHoarsavwas，accordingtothesameauthor，composedofnothingbutthechiefclergyandmembersofthehigherandlowernobility。Anotherassembly，thatof1585，calledtodeliberateonthequestionofclericalimmunitiesandthenecessityforsubjectingthelandsofmonasteriestogeneraltaxation，containedinitsranksonlythehigherclergy，thechiefofficersoftheState，andthemembersoftheCouncilorDouma。

TheRurikfamilybecameextinctonthedeathoftheCzarTheodor，andanewdynastyhadtobechosen。ThehighernobilityseizedthisopportunitytoimposecertainlimitationsontheexerciseoftheSovereignpower。Butthenearestcandidatetothethrone，BorisGodounov，notbeingwillingtoconsenttosuchlimitations，refusedtoacceptthethroneofferedhimbytheboyarsandinsistedonthenecessityofsummoningthecitiestodecidewhoshouldoccupythethroneoftheRurikfamily。Hedidthisintheexpectationthatthepeoplewouldopposeanymeasurelimitingtheprincipleofautocracy。TheSobor，whichwascalledtogetheraccordingtohiswish，waswidelydifferentfromtheidealofatrulyNationalAssembly。Ofthe457memberswhowerepresentatitssittings，83belongedtothehigherclergy，and338tothebureaucracyandthehigherandlowernobility。Astothethirdestate，itwascomposedofonly21hosts，oftheheadoftheGuildofhostsandof13deputiesfromtheruraldistricts。ThisassemblywaspresidedoverbythePatriarch，theChiefoftheRussianclergy，andunanimouslyexpresseditselffavourabletoBorisGodounov，towhomtheRussianthronewasofferedunconditionally。

RepresentativesofthelowerclassesofthecityofMoscowappearedin1605attheSobortowhichthefalseDemetriusentrustedtherightofjudgingtheboyarandfutureCzar，BasiliusSchouisky，onaccountofarebellionwhichhehadinstigated。TheSoborcondemnedSchouiskytodeath，buttheCzarDemetriuscommutedthispunishmenttoperpetualbanishmenttotheCityofViatka，whencehesoonreturnedatthegraciousorderofthemonarch。

TheAssemblywhichin1606，afterthedeathofthefalseDemetrius，electedSchouiskyastheCzarofRussia，wasnotaSoborinthetruesenseoftheword，foritwaschieflycomposedoftheboyars。TheMoscowmobneverthelesssanctionedtheelection，andthenewCzarwaseagerlyproclaimedattheso-called"readplace，"infrontofthepalace。

ThiselectionofSchouiskyhassomeclaimtoourattention，asitwasthefirstatwhichconstitutionallimitswereimposedonRussianautocracy。ThenewlyelectedCzarhadnoimmediaterelationwiththedynastyofRurik，andwasbuttheequaloftheotherboyars。Hewasknowntobevindictiveandtohaveagreatnumberofrelationsandfriendswhowouldbereadyenoughtomakeuseofhispowerfortheirownadvantage。Allthisinducedtheboyarstoprotecttheirowninterestsbythecreationofruleswhichtheirnomineewasobligedtoaccept。AccordingtoStrahlenberg，thewell-knownauthorofthe"historicalandGeographicalDescriptionoftheNorthernandEasternpartsofEuropeandAsia"（abookwritteninGermanandpublishedatStockholmintheyear1703），theconstitutionallimitationsimposedwereasfollows："NonewlawwastobemadeandnoinnovationsweretobeintroducedintheoldlegislationwithouttheconsentoftheDouma。（Strahlenbergcallsitsenatus。）NonewcontributionsweretobeleviedunlesspreviouslydiscussedandacceptedbythesameCouncil。"（6*）Theseconstitutionallimitationsasyoumayeasilyperceive，wereexactlythesameasthoseestablishedinEnglandbytheMagnaChartaandthestatuteofEdwardtheFirst，detallagiononconcedendo，butwhilsttheEnglishpeopleentrustedthecareoftheirlibertytothelords，gentlemen，andcitizensinParliamentassembled，theRussianboyarswantedtokeeptothemselvestheexclusivecontrolofthesovereignpower。Thiscausedthefailureoftheirconstitution，andwasthechiefreasonwhy，ontheoccasionofanewelection，thecontroloftheConstitutionalcompromiseenteredintobythepeopleandtheCzar，wasnolongerentrustedtotheDoumaoftheboyars，buttotherepresentativeAssemblyofthewholenation——

thatistotheSobor。

Schouiskyreignedonlyafewyears。In1610helostthecrownbythedecisionofanewAssemblywhichassumedthetitleofZemskiSobor，althoughitwaschieflycomposedoftheboyarsandtheMoscowmob。ThistookplaceinthemiddleofJuly。AmonthlateratreatywassignedbytheboyarsandthechiefofthePolisharmy，bywhichVladislas，sonofSigismund，kingofPoland，wascalledtothethroneofRussia。Likehispredecessor，thenewCzaracceptedcertainconstitutionallimitations，amongstothersthatofadministeringjusticeaccordingtotheexistingcustomsandtherulesbylawestablished。Noalterationsinthelattercouldbemade，exceptwiththeconsentoftheCouncil（Douma）of"thewholeland。"TheselastwordsmeanttheZemskiSobor，theStates-GeneralorParliamentofRussia。

IshallnotattempttonarratetheeventswhichpreventedtheaccessionofaPolishandCatholicprincetothethroneofRussia。Itwillbeenoughformypurposetostatethatthepeopleandtheclergywereunanimousintheirdisliketothisforeignand"heretical"ruler。Thefolkmotes，orveches，notonlyinNovgorod，butalsointhosepartswheretheyhadhithertobeenquiteunknown，asinKasan，orNijniNovgorod，enteredintocorrespondencewitheachother，localmilitiaunited，andanarmy，calledintoexistencebythepatrioticsentimentsofsimpleburgesseslikeMinin，marchedfromNijniNovgorodtoMoscow，underthecommandofPojarsky。AtthesametimeacorrespondencewasbegunwiththeobjectofforminganewSobor，whichwastobeareallyrepresentativebody，composedofdelegatessentbyalltheestates。Thewritsofsummonssentoutbytheheadofthearmy，Pojarsky，havefortunatelybeenpreserved，sothatwecangetaclearnotionofwhatwasmeantatthattimebytheterm"GeneralCounciloftheland，"atermemployedmorethanonceinthedocumentsofthetime。AddressingthepeopleofPoutivlorofWichegodsk，thecommander-in-chiefinsistsonthenecessityofsendingtoJaroslav，theplaceselectedforthemeetingofthenewAssembly，twoorthreemenfromeachoftheestates（chinov）

ofthenation。FromJaroslavtheSobor，followingthearmy，removedtoMoscow，whereitsatincommonwiththeboyarsofthecouncil，thehighcommissionoftheclergy（osviascheniniSobor），andtherepresentativesoftheregularandirregularmilitaryforces，thatis，theStrelziandtheCossacks。ItwasthisAssemblywhichelectedMichaelTheodorovichRomanovtobeCzarofRussia。

BeforeproceedingtotheelectionoftheCzar，theSoborcalledonalltheinhabitantsofthecountrytofastforthreeconsecutivedays。Itthenpassedalaw，duemainlytotheinfluenceofthepopularsectionoftheAssembly，prohibitingtheelectionofanyforeignprince。ThenobilitywouldhavehadnoobjectiontotheplacingofaSwedishorPolishpretenderonthevacantthrone。ThehigherandlowerordersdifferedwidelyastothemantheywishedtochoosefromamongtheRussianboyars；thenamesofGolitzin，Vorotinsky，Troubezkoy，andeventhatofthedethronedBasiliusSchouisky，were，foratime，tobefoundonthelistofcandidatessupportedbythenobility。ThefirsttodeclarehimselfinfavouroftheyoungRomanovwasoneofhisrelationsnamedScheremetiev，andhisproposalwasfavourablylistenedtobythelowernobility，theCossacksandtheburgesses。Hiselection，however，wassounexpectedaneventthathisownfather，abishopthencloselyimprisonedbythePoles，wasthefirsttosuggest，inaletterwrittentoScheremetiev，thatcertainconstitutionallimitsshouldbeimposedOnthepowerofthefutureCzar。Strahlenberg（7*）isquitecorrectinhisstatementthattheideaoftheselimitationswasborrowedfromPolandwherealreadyinthemiddleofthesixteenthcentury，underStephenBathory，theStates-General，orSeim，andtheCouncilpossessedconsiderablerights。ThereasonswhichoperatedinfavouroftheyoungMichaelRomanovwere，firstofall，hisrelationshipwiththeextinctdynastyofRurikthroughhisgreataunt，AnastasiaRomanov，whowasoneofthewivesofivantheTerrible；secondly，thesmallnumberofrelationswhichwaslookeduponasasafeguardagainstfurtherdepredationsonthedemesnelandsintheformofbeneficiarydonations；andthirdly，thepopularityofhisfamily，whichhadbeenpersecutedbytheboyarsfromthetimeofBorisGodounov。Hisfather，Philarete，whohadbeenforcedtobecomeamonk，wasespeciallyendearedtothenationbyhisvirtues；hehadattainedahighpositionamongtheclergy，havingbeenmadeBishopofJaroslav。

ThelatePatriarchGermogen，whohadbeenmuchbelovedbythepeople，hadalsobeenfavourablydisposedtowardstheelectionofyoungRomanov，andthisfactcontributedgreatlytosecurehimthesympathyoftheclergy。AtthetimeofhiselectionMichaelwasbutaboyoffifteen，andhisfatherbeingaprisonerinMagdeburgh，Scheremetievandthemembersofhispartylookeduponitashighlyprobablethattherealgovernmentwouldpassintotheirhands。

TheSovereignpowerwhichwasofferedtoyoungRomanovwasfarfrombeingthesameasthatenjoyedbyIvantheTerrible。

AutocraticpowerhadhadtoyieldbeforethenewtheoriesofconstitutionallimitationsdirectlyimportedfromPoland。ThatMichaelhadtosignacompromiseisafactbrieflymentionedbyRussianeye-witnesses，suchasKotoschichin，aswellasbyforeignersthenresidinginRussia。ThechroniclesofthecityofPskovspeakofitincontemptuousterms。Itwasnotenough，saythey，fortheboyarstohavereducedthecountrytothemiserablestatetowhichtheyhadbroughtit。Theywantedtogooninthesamewayofpillageandoppression；theyhadnoregardfortheCzar，didnotfearhimonaccountofhisyouth，andallthemoresosincetheyhadinducedhim，atthetimeofhisaccessiontothethrone，totakeanoath，bywhichherenouncedtherightofinflictingcapitalpunishmentonpersonsbelongingtothehighernobility。Capitalpunishmentwastobesupersededbycloseimprisonment。NomentionismadeinthechroniclesofanyfurtherlimitationoftheSovereignpoweroftheCzar。

Thewell-knownKotoschichin，whowasaliveatthetime，speakingoftheaccessionoftheCzarAlexis，sonofMichaelRomanov，noticesthefactthat，"contrarytothecustomestablishedbyhispredecessor，thenewCzarsignednocharterbywhichheundertooktoinflictcapitalpunishmentonlyinaccordancewithlawandjustice，andtoconsulttheboyarsandmenoftheDoumaoneachandeveryquestionconcerningthegovernmentoftheland，sothatnodecisionmightbecometowithouttheirassent。"AlthoughKotoschichinspeaksmorepositivelyastotheconstitutionalcharacterofthelimitationsimposedonRussianautocracyinthefirstquarteroftheseventeenthcentury，wemustnoticethefactthathesaysnothingofthepartwhichtheSobororParliamentwascalledupontoplayinthisexperimentinlimitedmonarchy。HementionsonlytheboyarsandthemenoftheDouma，not"thoseoftheland，"aphraseusedatthattimewhenspeakingofthemembersoftheZemskiSobor。

TheSwedishwriter，Fokkerodt，ismoreexplicitwhenheaffirmsthatinthecompromisesignedbyMichael，theyoungCzarpromisedtogivefreecoursetothejudicialproceedingsofthecourts，soastoinflictnopunishmentonhisownauthority，tointroducenonewlawwithouttheconsentoftheSobor，toabstainfromlevyinganytaxwithouttheconsentofthisrepresentativeAssembly，andtobeginnowarwithoutitscounselandapprobation。

AstoStrahlenberg，hisstatementisasfollows：BeforethecoronationMichaelwasforcedtoacceptthefollowingconditions：

Hepromisedto（1）upholdandprotecttheexistingcreedofRussia；（2）tokeepnomemoryofinjuriesinflictedonhisfamily，toforgetandtoforgiveallpastanimosities；（3）Hetookalsotheobligationtomakenonewlawsoralteroldones，andtotakenoimportantmeasurewhichmightcontradicttheexistinglaws，orsuspendthelegalproceedingsofthecourtofjustice。（4）Hepromisedaswelltobeginnowarsandtomakenopeacebyhisownwill。（8*）

ThisviewofthepoweroftheSoborisconfirmedbythefactofitsquasi-permanentpresenceatMoscowduringthewholereignofthefirstRomanov。Thelawsandproclamationsissuedatthattimegenerallycontainthefollowingcharacteristicexpression：

"Accordingtoourorder（oukas）andthedecisionofthewholeland（povseizemliprigovorou）。"ThewholelandcannotmeananythingelsethantherepresentativesinParliamentassembled。

ManyimportantquestionswerediscussedandsettledbytheSobor。InthefirstyearsofthereignwantofmoneyobligedtheCzarmorethanoncetohaverecoursetoforcedloansandbenevolences。Thesewereleviedsidebysidewiththeregulartaxesonthegoodsofmerchantsandpeasants（torgoviiisoschniiliudi）；thetaxesreceivedtheconsentoftheSobor，thebenevolenceswereendorsedbyit。ThenominationofanewPatriarchin1619wasalsotheirwork。Theannalsofthetimetellusthattheboyars，thedignitariesoftheCourt，andallthepeopleofthe"MoscoviteState"calledonMichaelandaskedhimtoinducehisfatherPhilaretetoaccepttheprimacyoftheRussianchurch。Twoyearslater，in1621，anewSoborwasconsultedonthequestionastowhetherRussiashouldgotowarwithPoland。TheEstatesgaveananswerintheaffirmative，butthewantofmoneyandsoldiersforcedtheGovernmenttopostponetheexecutionofthisdecision。

From1622theSoborslosetheircharacterofquasi-constantassemblies，eachremaininginsessionforseveralyearsandbegintobecalledonlyonspecialoccasions，whenevertheirserviceswererequiredforthesettlementofimportantquestionsofState。

In1632warwithPolandnecessitatedthelevyingofnewsubsidies。TheSoborWasaccordinglyassembledandgaveitsconsenttotheimpositionofageneraltaxonalltheestatesoftheempire，onthetradesmenasonthe"menofservice。"Theamountofmoneytobedemandedfromthelatterwasnotfixed；