第7章

ThisdescriptionmaybeappliedequallytoAthensandRome，toLondonandParis。Therudeorthesimpleobserverwouldremarkthevarietyhesawinthedwellingsandintheoccupationsofdifferentmen，notintheaspectofdifferentnations。Hewouldfind，inthestreetsofthesamecity，asgreatadiversity，asintheterritoryofaseparatepeople。Hecouldnotpiercethroughthecloudthatwasgatheredbeforehim，norseehowthetradesman，mechanic，orscholar，ofonecountry，shoulddifferfromthoseofanother。Butthenativeofeveryprovincecandistinguishtheforeigner；andwhenhehimselftravels，isstruckwiththeaspectofastrangecountry，themomenthepassestheboundsofhisown，Theairoftheperson，thetoneofthevoice，theidiomoflanguage，andthestrainofconversation，whetherpatheticorlanguid，gayorsevere，arenolongerthesame。

Manysuchdifferencesmayariseamongpolishednations，fromtheeffectsofclimate，orfromsourcesoffashion，thatarestillmoreunaccountableandobscure；buttheprincipaldistinctionsonwhichwecanrest，arederivedfromthepartapeopleareobligedtoactintheirnationalcapacity；fromtheobjectsplacedintheirviewbythestate；orfromtheconstitutionofgovernment，whichprescribingthetermsofsocietytoitssubjects，hasagreatinfluenceinformingtheirapprehensionsandhabits。

TheRomanpeople，destinedtoacquirewealthbyconquest，andbythespoilofprovinces；theCarthaginians，intentonthereturnsofmerchandise，andtheproduceofcommercialsettlements，musthavefilledthestreetsoftheirseveralcapitalswithmenofadifferentdispositionandaspect。TheRomanlaidholdofhisswordwhenhewishedtobegreat，andthestatefoundherarmiespreparedinthedwellingsofherpeople。

TheCarthaginianretiredtohiscounteronasimilarproject；

and，whenthestatewasalarmed，orhadresolvedonawar，lentofhisprofitstopurchaseanarmyabroad。

Thememberofarepublic，andthesubjectofamonarchy，mustdiffer，becausetheyhavedifferentpartsassignedtothembytheformsoftheircountry……theonedestinedtolivewithhisequals，or，byhispersonaltalentsandcharacter，tocontendforpre-eminence；theother，borntoadeterminatestation，whereanypretencetoequalitycreatesaconfusion，andwherenoughtbutprecedenceisstudied。Each，whentheinstitutionsofhiscountryaremature，mayfindinthelawsaprotectiontohispersonalrights；butthoserightsthemselvesaredifferentlyunderstood，andwithadifferentsetofopinions，giverisetoadifferenttemperofmind。Therepublicanmustactinthestate，tosustainhispretensions；hemustjoinaparty，inordertobesafe；hemustformone，inordertobegreat。Thesubjectofmonarchyreferstohisbirthforthehonourheclaims；hewaitsonacourt，toshewhisimportance；andholdsouttheensignsofdependenceandfavour，togainhimesteemwiththepublic。

Ifnationalinstitutions，calculatedforthepreservationofliberty，insteadofcallinguponthecitizentoactforhimself，andtomaintainhisrights，shouldgiveasecurity，requiring，onhispart，nopersonalattentionoreffort；thisseemingperfectionofgovernmentmightweakenthebandsofsociety，and，uponmaximsofindependence，separateandestrangethedifferentranksitwasmeanttoreconcile。Neitherthepartiesformedinrepublics，northecourtlyassemblieswhichmeetinmonarchicalgovernments，couldtakeplace，wherethesenseofamutualdependenceshouldceasetosummontheirmemberstogether。Theresortsforcommercemightbefrequented，andmereamusementmightbepursuedinthecroud，whiletheprivatedwellingbecamearetreatforreserve，aversetothetroublearisingfromregardsandattentions，whichitmightbepartofthepoliticalcreedtobelieveofnoconsequence，andapointofhonourtoholdincontempt。

Thishumourisnotlikelytogroweitherinrepublicsormonarchies:itbelongsmoreproperlytoamixtureofboth；wheretheadministrationofjusticemaybebettersecured；wherethesubjectistemptedtolookforequality，butwherehefindsonlyindependenceinitsplace；andwherehelearns，fromaspiritofequality，tohatetheverydistinctionstowhich，onaccountoftheirrealimportance，hepaysaremarkabledeference。

Ineitheroftheseparateformsofrepublicormonarchy，orinactingontheprinciplesofeither，menareobligedtocourttheirfellow-citizens，andtoemploypartsandaddresstoimprovetheirfortunes，oreventobesafe。Theyfindinbothaschoolfordiscernmentandpenetration；butintheone，aretaughttooverlookthemeritsofaprivatecharacter，forthesakeofabilitiesthathaveweightwiththepublic；andintheother，tooverlookgreatandrespectabletalents，forthesakeofqualitiesengagingorpleasantinthesceneofentertainment，andprivatesociety，Theyareobliged，inboth，toadaptthemselveswithcaretothefashionandmannersoftheircountry。Theyfindnoplaceforcapriceorsingularhumours。Therepublicanmustbepopular，andthecourtierpolite。Thefirstmustthinkhimselfwellplacedineverycompany；theothermustchusehisresorts，anddesiretobedistinguishedonlywherethesocietyitselfisesteemed。Withhisinferiors，hetakesanairofprotection；andsuffers，inhisturn，thesameairtobetakenwithhimself。Itdidnot，perhaps，requireinaSpartan，whofearednothingbutafailureinhisduty，wholovednothingbuthisfriendandthestate，soconstantaguardonhimselftosupporthischaracter，asitfrequentlydoesinthesubjectofamonarchy，toadjusthisexpenceandhisfortunetothedesiresofhisvanity，andtoappearinarankashighashisbirth，orambition，canpossiblyreach。

Thereisnoparticular，inthemeantime，inwhichwearemorefrequentlyunjust，thaninapplyingtotheindividualthesupposedcharacterofhiscountry；ormorefrequentlymisled，thanintakingournotionofapeoplefromtheexampleofone，orafewoftheirmembers。ItbelongedtotheconstitutionofAthens，tohaveproducedaCleon，andaPericles；butalltheAthenianswerenot，therefore，likeCleon，orPericles。

ThemistoclesandAristideslivedinthesameage；theoneadvisedwhatwasprofitable；theothertoldhiscountrywhatwasjust。

SectionIV。

TheSamesubjectcontinuedThelawofNature，withrespecttonations，isthesamethatitiswithrespecttoindividuals。itgivestothecollectivebodyarighttopreservethemselves；toemploy，undisturbed，themeansoflife；toretainthefruitsoflabour；todemandtheobservanceofstipulationsandcontracts。Inthecaseofviolence，itcondemnstheaggressor，andestablishes，onthepartoftheinjured，therightofdefence，andaclaimtoretribution。

Itsapplications，however，admitofdisputes，andgiverisetovarietyintheapprehension，aswellasthepracticeofmankind。

Nationshaveagreeduniversally，indistinguishingrightfromwrong；inexactingthereparationofinjuriesbyconsentorbyforce。Theyhavealwaysreposed，inacertaindegree，onthefaithoftreaties；buthaveactedasifforceweretheultimatearbiterinalltheirdisputes，andthepowertodefendthemselves，thesurestpledgeoftheirsafety。Guidedbythesecommonapprehensions，theyhavedifferedfromoneanother，notmerelyinpointsofform，butinpointsofthegreatestimportance，respectingtheusageofwar，theeffectsofcaptivity，andtherightsofconquestandvictory。

Whenanumberofindependentcommunitieshavebeenfrequentlyinvolvedinwars，andhavehadtheirstatedalliancesandoppositions，theyadoptcustomswhichtheymakethefoundationofrules，oroflaws，tobeobserved，oralledged，inalltheirmutualtransactions。Eveninwaritself，theywouldfollowasystem，andpleadfortheobservanceofformsintheirveryoperationsformutualdestruction。

TheancientstatesofGreeceandItalyderivedtheirmannersinwarfromthenatureoftheirrepublicangovernment；thoseofmodernEurope，fromtheinfluenceofmonarchy，which，byitsprevalenceinthispartoftheworld，hasagreateffectonnations，evenwhereitisnottheformestablished，Uponthemaximsofthisgovernment，weapprehendadistinctionbetweenthestateanditsmembers，asthatbetweentheKingandthepeople，whichrenderswaranoperationofpolicy，notofpopularanimosity。Whilewestrikeatthepublicinterest，wewouldsparetheprivate；andwecarryarespectandconsiderationforindividuals，whichoftenstopstheissuesofbloodintheardourofvictory，andprocurestotheprisonerofwarahospitablereceptionintheverycitywhichhecametodestroy。Thesepracticesaresowellestablished，thatscarcelyanyprovocationonthepartofanenemy，oranyexigenceofservice，canexcuseatrespassonthesupposedrulesofhumanity，orsavetheleaderwhocommitsitfrombecominganobjectofdetestationandhorror。

Tothis，thegeneralpracticeoftheGreeksandtheRomanswasopposite。Theyendeavouredtowoundthestatebydestroyingitsmembers，bydesolatingitsterritory，andbyruiningthepossessionsofitssubjects。Theygrantedquarteronlytoinslave，ortobringtheprisonertoamoresolemnexecution；andanenemy，whendisarmed，was，forthemostpart，eithersoldinthemarket，orkilled，thathemightneverreturntostrengthenhisparty。Whenthiswastheissueofwar，itwasnowonder，thatbattleswerefoughtwithdesperation，andthateveryfortresswasdefendedtothelastextremity。Thegameofhumanlifewentuponahighstake，andwasplayedwithaproportionalzeal。

Thetermbarbarian，inthisstateofmanners，couldnotbeemployedbytheGreeksortheRomansinthatsenseinwhichweuseit；tocharacteriseapeopleregardlessofcommercialarts；

profuseoftheirownlives，andofthoseofothers；vehementintheirattachmenttoonesociety，andimplacableintheirantipathytoanother。This，inagreatandshiningpartoftheirhistory，wastheirowncharacter，aswellasthatofsomeothernations，whom，uponthisveryaccount，wedistinguishbytheappellationsofbarbarousorrude。

Ithasbeenobserved，thatthosecelebratednationsareindebted，foragreatpartoftheirestimation，nottothematteroftheirhistory，buttothemannerinwhichithasbeendelivered，andtothecapacityoftheirhistorians，andotherwriters。Theirstoryhasbeentoldbymenwhoknewhowtodrawourattentionontheproceedingsoftheunderstandingandoftheheart，morethanonthedetailoffacts；andwhocouldexhibitcharacterstobeadmiredandloved，inthemidstofactionswhichweshouldnowuniversallyhateorcondemn。LikeHomer，themodelofGrecianliterature，theycouldmakeusforgetthehorrorsofavindictive，cruel，andremorselessproceedingtowardsanenemy，inbehalfofthestrenuousconduct，thecourage，andvehementaffections，withwhichtheheromaintainedthecauseofhisfriendandofhiscountry。

Ourmannersaresodifferent，andthesystemuponwhichweregulateourapprehensions，inmanythings，soopposite，thatnolesscouldmakeusendurethepracticeofancientnations。Werethatpracticerecordedbythemerejournalist，whoretainsonlythedetailofevents，withoutthrowinganylightonthecharacteroftheactors；who，liketheTartarhistorian，tellsonlywhatbloodwasspiltinthefield，andhowmanyinhabitantsweremassacredinthecity；weshouldneverhavedistinguishedtheGreeksfromtheirbarbarousneighbours，norhavethought，thatthecharacterofcivilitypertainedeventotheRomans，tillverylateintheirhistory，andinthedeclineoftheirempire。

Itwould，nodoubt，bepleasanttoseetheremarksofsuchatravelleraswesometimessendabroadtoinspectthemannersofmankind，left，unassistedbyhistory，tocollectthecharacteroftheGreeksfromthestateoftheircountry，orfromtheirpracticeinwar。’Thiscountry，’hemightsay，’comparedtoours，hasanairofbarrennessanddesolation。Isawupontheroadtroopsoflabourers，whowereemployedinthefields；butnowherethehabitationsofthemasterandthelandlord。Itwasunsafe，Iwastold，toresideinthecountry；andthepeopleofeverydistrictcroudedintotownstofindaplaceofdefence。Itisindeedimpossible，thattheycanbemorecivilized，tilltheyhaveestablishedsomeregulargovernment，andhavecourtsofjusticetoheartheircomplaints。Atpresent，everytown，nay，I

maysay，everyvillage，actsforitself，andthegreatestdisordersprevail。Iwasnotindeedmolested；foryoumustknow，thattheycallthemselvesnations，anddoalltheirmischiefunderthepretenceofwar。

’Idonotmeantotakeanyofthelibertiesoftravellers，nortoviewiththecelebratedauthorofthevoyagetoLilliput；

butcannothelpendeavouringtocommunicatewhatIfeltonhearingthemspeakoftheirterritory，theirarmies，theirrevenue，treaties，andalliances。Onlyimaginethechurch-wardensandconstablesofHighgateorHampsteadturnedstatesmenandgenerals，andyouwillhaveatolerableconceptionofthissingularcountry。Ipassedthroughonestate，wherethebesthouseinthecapitalwouldnotlodgethemeanestofyourlabourers，andwhereyourverybeggarswouldnotchusetodinewiththeKing；andyettheyarethoughtagreatnation，andhavenolessthantwokings。Isawoneofthem；butsuchapotentate！

hehadscarcelycloathstohisback；andforhisMajesty’stable，hewasobligedtogototheeating-housewithhissubjects。Theyhavenotasinglefarthingofmoney；andIwasobligedtogetfoodatthepublicexpence，therebeingnonetobehadinthemarket。Youwillimagine，thattheremusthavebeenaserviceofplate，andgreatattendance，towaitupontheillustriousstranger；butmyfarewasamessofsorrypottage，broughtmebyanakedslave，wholeftmetodealwithitasIthoughtproper:

andeventhisIwasincontinualdangerofhavingstolnfrommebythechildren，whoareasvigilanttoseizeopportunities，andasdextrousinsnatchingtheirfood，asanystarvedgreyhoundyoueversaw。Themiseryofthewholepeople，inshort，aswellasmyown，whileIstaidthere，wasbeyonddescription。Youwouldthinkthattheirwholeattentionweretotormentthemselvesasmuchastheycan:theyareevendispleasedwithoneoftheirkingsforbeingwellliked。Hehadmadeapresent，whileIwasthere，ofacowtoonefavourite，andofawaistcoattoanother；(1*)anditwaspubliclysaid，thatthismethodofgainingfriendswasrobbingthepublic。Mylandlordtoldmeverygravely，thatamanshouldcomeundernoobligationthatmightweakenthelovewhichheowestohiscountry；norformanypersonalattachmentbeyondthemerehabitoflivingwithhisfriend，andofdoinghimakindnesswhenhecan。

’Iaskedhimonce，Whytheydidnot，fortheirownsakes，enabletheirkingstoassumealittlemorestate？Because，sayshe，weintendthemthehappinessoflivingwithmen。WhenIfoundfaultwiththeirhouses，andsaidinparticular，thatIwassurprisedtheydidnotbuildbetterchurches；Whatwouldyoubethen，sayshe，ifyoufoundreligioninstonewalls？Thiswillsufficeforasampleofourconversation；andsententiousasitwas，youmaybelieveIdidnotstaylongtoprofitbyit。

’Thepeopleofthisplacearenotquitesostupid。Thereisaprettylargesquareofamarket-place，andsometolerablebuildings；and，Iamtold，theyhavesomebarksandlightersemployedintrade，whichtheylikewise，uponoccasion，musterintoafleet，likemyLordMayor’sshew。Butwhatpleasesmemost，is，thatIamlikelytogetapassagefromhence，andbidfarewelltothiswretchedcountry。Ihavebeenatsomepainstoobservetheirceremoniesofreligion，andtopickupcuriosities。

Ihavecopiedsomeinscriptions，asyouwillseewhenyoucometoperusemyjournal，andwillthenjudge，whetherIhavemetwithenoughtocompensatethefatiguesandbadentertainmenttowhichIhavesubmitted。Asforthepeople，youwillbelieve，fromthespecimenIhavegivenyou，thattheycouldnotbeveryengagingcompany:thoughpooranddirty，theystillpretendtobeproud；

andafellowwhoisnotworthagroat，isaboveworkingforhislivelihood。Theycomeabroadbarefooted，andwithoutanycovertothehead，wraptupinthecoverletsunderwhichyouwouldimaginetheyhadslept。Theythrowalloff，andappearlikesomanynakedcannibals，whentheygotoviolentsportsandexercises；atwhichtheyhighlyvaluefeatsofdexterityandstrength。Brawnylimbs，andmusculararms，thefacultyofsleepingoutallnights，offastinglong，andofputtingupwithanykindoffood，arethoughtgenteelaccomplishments。TheyhavenosettledgovernmentthatIcouldlearn；sometimesthemob，andsometimesthebettersort，dowhattheyplease:theymeetingreatcroudsintheopenair，andseldomagreeaboutanything。Ifafellowhaspresumptionenough，andaloudvoice，hecanmakeagreatfigure。

Therewasatannerhere，sometimeago，who，forawhile，carriedeverythingbeforehim。Hecensuredsoloudlywhatothershaddone，andtalkedsobigofwhatmightbeperformed，thathewassentoutatlasttomakegoodhiswords，andtocurrytheenemyinsteadofhisleather。(2*)Youwillimagine，perhaps，thathewaspressedforarecruit；no；——hewassenttocommandthearmy。Theyareindeedseldomlongofonemind，exceptintheirreadinesstoharasstheirneighbours。Theygooutinbodies，androb，pillage，andmurderwhere-evertheycome。’Sofarmaywesupposeourtravellertohavewritten；anduponarecollectionofthereputationwhichthosenationshaveacquiredatadistance，hemighthaveadded，perhaps，’Thathecouldnotunderstandhowscholars，finegentlemen，andevenwomen，shouldcombinetoadmireapeople，whosolittleresemblethemselves。’

Toformajudgementofthecharacterfromwhichtheyactedinthefield，andintheircompetitionswithneighbouringnations，wemustobservethemathome。Theywereboldandfearlessintheircivildissensions；readytoproceedtoextremities，andtocarrytheirdebatestothedecisionofforce。Individualsstooddistinguishedbytheirpersonalspiritandvigour，notbythevaluationoftheirestates，Ortherankoftheirbirth。Theyhadapersonalelevationfoundedonthesenseofequality，notofprecedence。Thegeneralofonecampaignwas，duringthenext，aprivatesoldier，andservedintheranks。Theyweresolicitoustoacquirebodilystrength；because，intheuseoftheirweapons，battleswereatrialofthesoldier’sstrength，aswellasoftheleader’sconduct，Theremainsoftheirstatuary，shewsamanlygrace，anairofsimplicityandease，whichbeingfrequentinnature，werefamiliartotheartist。Themind，perhaps，borrowedaConfidenceandforce，fromthevigourandaddressofthebody；

theireloquenceandstyleborearesemblancetothecarriageoftheperson。Theunderstandingwaschieflycultivatedinthepracticeofaffairs。Themostrespectablepersonageswereobligedtomixwiththecroud，andderivedtheirdegreeofascendency，onlyfromtheirconduct，theireloquence，andpersonalvigour。

Theyhadnoformsofexpression，tomarkaceremoniousandguardedrespect。Invectiveproceededtorailing，andthegrossesttermswereoftenemployedbythemostadmiredandaccomplishedorators。Quarrellinghadnorulesbuttheimmediatedictatesofpassion，whichendedinwordsofreproach，inviolence，andblows。Theyfortunatelywentalwaysunarmed；andtowearaswordintimesofpeace，wasamongthemthemarkofabarbarian。Whentheytookarmsinthedivisionsoffaction，theprevailingpartysupporteditselfbyexpellingtheiropponents，byproscriptions，andbloodshed。Theusurperendeavouredtomaintainhisstationbythemostviolentandpromptexecutions。Hewasopposed，inhisturn，byconspiraciesandassassinations，inwhichthemostrespectablecitizenswerereadytousethedagger。

Suchwasthecharacteroftheirspirit，initsoccasionalfermentsathome；anditburstcommonlywithasuitableviolenceandforce，againsttheirforeignrivalsandenemies。Theamiablepleaofhumanitywaslittleregardedbythemintheoperationsofwar。Citieswererazed，orinslaved；thecaptivesold，mutilated，orcondemnedtodie。

Whenviewedonthisside，theancientnationshavebutasorrypleaforesteemwiththeinhabitantsofmodernEurope，whoprofesstocarrythecivilitiesofpeaceintothepracticeofwar；andwhovaluethepraiseofindiscriminatelenityatahigherratethaneventhatofmilitaryprowess，ortheloveoftheircountry。Andyettheyhave，inotherrespects，meritedandobtainedourpraise。Theirardentattachmenttotheircountry；

theircontemptofsuffering，andofdeath，initscause。theirmanlyapprehensionsofpersonalindependence，whichrenderedeveryindividual，evenundertotteringestablishments，andimperfectlaws，theguardianoffreedomtohisfellow-citizens；

theiractivityofmind；inshort，theirpenetration，theabilityoftheirconduct，andforceoftheirspirit，havegainedthemthefirstrankamongnations。

Iftheiranimositiesweregreat，theiraffectionswereproportionate:they，perhaps，loved，whereweonlypity；andweresternandinexorable，wherewearenotmerciful，butonlyirresolute。Afterall，themeritofamanisdeterminedbyhiscandourandgenerositytohisassociates，byhiszealfornationalobjects，andbyhisvigourinmaintainingpoliticalrights；notbymoderationalone，whichproceedsfrequentlyfromindifferencetonationalandpublicinterests，andwhichservestorelaxthenervesonwhichtheforceofaprivateaswellasapubliccharacterdepends。

WhenundertheMacedonianandtheRomanmonarchies，anationcametobeconsideredastheestateofaprince，andtheinhabitantsofaprovincetoberegardedasalucrativeproperty，thepossessionofterritory，notthedestructionofitspeople，becametheobjectofconquest。Thepacificcitizenhadlittleconcerninthequarrelsofsovereigns；theviolenceofthesoldierwasrestrainedbydiscipline。Hefought，becausehewastaughttocarryarms，andtoobey:hesometimesshedunnecessarybloodintheardourofvictory；but，exceptinthecaseofcivilwars，hadnopassionstoexcitehisanimositybeyondthefieldandthedayofbattle。Leadersjudgedoftheobjectsofanenterprise，andtheyarrestedtheswordwhenthesewereobtained。

InthemodernnationsofEurope，whereextentofterritoryadmitsofadistinctionbetweenthestateanditssubjects，weareaccustomedtothinkoftheindividualwithcompassion，seldomofthepublicwithzeal。Wehaveimprovedonthelawsofwar，andonthelenitiveswhichhavebeendevisedtosoftenitsrigours；

wehavemingledpolitenesswiththeuseofthesword；wehavelearnedtomakewarunderthestipulationsoftreatiesandcartels，andtrusttothefaithofanenemywhoseruinwemeditate。Gloryismoresuccessfullyobtainedbysavingandprotecting，thanbydestroyingthevanquished:andthemostamiableofallobjectsis，inappearance，attained；theemployingofforce，onlyfortheobtainingofjustice，andforthepreservationofnationalrights。

Thisis，perhaps，theprincipalcharacteristic，onwhich，amongmodernnations，webestowtheepithetsofcivilizedorofpolished。Butwehaveseen，thatitdidnotaccompanytheprogressofartsamongtheGreeks，norkeeppacewiththeadvancementofpolicy，literature，andphilosophy。itdidnotawaitthereturnsoflearningandpolitenessamongthemoderns；

itwasfoundinearlyperiodsofourhistory，anddistinguished，perhaps，morethanatpresent，themannersofagesotherwiserudeandundisciplined。AKingofFrance，prisonerinthehandsofhisenemies，wastreated，aboutfourhundredyearsago，withasmuchdistinctionandcourtesy，asacrownedhead，inthelikecircumstances，couldpossiblyexpectinthisageofpoliteness。(3*)ThePrinceofConde，defeatedandtakeninthebattleofDreux，sleptatnightinthesamebedwithhisenemytheDukeofGuise。(4*)

Ifthemoralofpopulartraditions，andthetasteoffabulouslegends，whicharetheproductionorentertainmentofparticularages，arelikewisesureindicationsoftheirnotionsandcharacters，wemaypresume，thatthefoundationofwhatisnowheldtobethelawofwar，andofnations，waslaidinthemannersofEurope，togetherwiththesentimentswhichareexpressedinthetalesofchivalry，andofgallantry。OursystemofwardiffersnotmorefromthatoftheGreeks，thanthefavouritecharactersofourearlyromancedifferedfromthoseoftheiliad，andofeveryancientpoem。TheherooftheGreekfable，enduedwithsuperiorforce，courage，andaddress，takeseveryadvantageofanenemy，tokillwithsafetytohimself；andactuatedbyadesireofspoil，orbyaprincipleofrevenge，isneverstayedinhisprogressbyinterruptionsofremorseorcompassion。Homer，who，ofallpoets，knewbesthowtoexhibittheemotionsofavehementaffection，seldomattemptstoexcitecommiseration。Hectorfallsunpitied，andhisbodyisinsultedbyeveryGreek。

Ourmodernfable，orromance，onthecontrary，generallycouplesanobjectofpity，weak，oppressed，anddefenceless，withanobjectofadmiration，brave，generous，andvictorious；orsendstheheroabroadinsearchofmeredanger，andofoccasionstoprovehisvalour。Chargedwiththemaximsofarefinedcourtesy，tobeobservedeventowardsanenemy；andofascrupuloushonour，whichwillnotsufferhimtotakeanyadvantagesbyartificeorsurprise；indifferenttospoil，hecontendsonlyforrenown，andemployshisvalourtorescuethedistressed，andtoprotecttheinnocent。Ifvictorious，heismadetoriseabovenatureasmuchinhisgenerosityandgentleness，asinhismilitaryprowessandvalour。

Itmaybedifficult，uponstatingthiscontrastbetweenthesystemofancientandmodernfable，toassign，amongnationsequallyrude，equallyaddictedtowar，andequallyfondofmilitaryglory，theoriginofapprehensionsonthepointofhonour，sodifferent，andsoopposite。TheheroofGreekpoetryproceedsonthemaximsofanimosityandhostilepassion。HismaximsinwararelikethosewhichprevailinthewoodsofAmerica。Theyrequirehimtobebrave，buttheyallowhimtopractiseagainsthisenemyeverysortofdeception。Theheroofmodernromanceprofessesacontemptofstratagem，aswellasofdanger，andunitesinthesameperson，charactersanddispositionsseeminglyopposite；ferocitywithgentleness，andtheloveofbloodwithsentimentsoftendernessandpity。

Thesystemofchivalry，whencompletelyformed，proceededonamarvellousrespectandvenerationtothefairsex，onformsofcombatestablished，andonasupposedjunctionoftheheroicandsanctifiedcharacter。Theformalitiesoftheduel，andakindofjudicialchallenge，wereknownamongtheancientCelticnationsofEurope。TheGermans，evenintheirnativeforests，paidakindofdevotiontothefemalesex。TheChristianreligioninjoinedmeeknessandcompassiontobarbarousages。Thesedifferentprinciplescombinedtogether，mayhaveservedasthefoundationofasystem，inwhichcouragewasdirectedbyreligionandlove，andthewarlikeandgentlewereunitedtogether。Whenthecharactersoftheheroandthesaintweremixed，themildspiritofChristianity，thoughoftenturnedintovenombythebigotryofoppositeparties，thoughitcouldnotalwayssubduetheferocityofthewarrior，norsuppresstheadmirationofcourageandforce，mayhaveconfirmedtheapprehensionsofmeninwhatwastobeheldmeritoriousandsplendidintheconductoftheirquarrels。

IntheearlyandtraditionaryhistoryoftheGreeksandtheRomans，rapeswereassignedasthemostfrequentoccasionsofwar；andthesexeswere，nodoubt，atalltimes，equallyimportanttoeachother。TheenthusiasmofloveismostpowerfulintheneighbourhoodofAsiaandAfrica；andbeauty，asapossession，wasprobablymorevaluedbythecountrymenofHomer，thanitwasbythoseofAmadisdeGaul，orbytheauthorsofmoderngallantry。’Whatwonder，saystheoldPriam，whenHelenappeared，’thatnationsshouldcontendforthepossessionofsomuchbeauty？’Thisbeauty，indeed，waspossessedbydifferentlovers；asubjectonwhichthemodernherohadmanyrefinements，andseemedtosoarintheclouds。Headoredatarespectfuldistance，andemployedhisvalourtocaptivatetheadmiration，nottogainthepossessionofhismistress。Acoldandunconquerablechastitywassetup，asanidoltobeworshipped，inthetoils，thesufferings，andthecombatsoftheheroandthelover。

Thefeudalestablishments，bythehighranktowhichtheyelevatedcertainfamilies，nodoubtgreatlyfavouredthisromanticsystem。Notonlythelustreofanobledescent，butthestatelycastlebesetwithbattlementsandtowers，servedtoinflametheimagination，andcreateavenerationforthedaughterandthesisterofgallantchiefs，whosepointofhonouritwastobeinaccessibleandchaste，andwhocouldperceivenomeritbutthatofthehigh-mindedandthebrave，norbeapproachedinanyotheraccentsthanthoseofgentlenessandrespect。

Whatwasoriginallysingularintheseapprehensions，was，bythewriterofromance，turnedtoextravagance；andunderthetitleofchivalrywasofferedasamodelofconduct，evenincommonaffairs:thefortunesofnationsweredirectedbygallantry；andhumanlife，onitsgreatestoccasions，becameasceneofaffectationandfolly。Warriorswentforthtorealizethelegendstheyhadstudied；princesandleadersofarmiesdedicatedtheirmostseriousexploitstoarealortoafanciedmistress。

Butwhateverwastheoriginofnotions，oftensoloftyandsoridiculous，wecannotdoubtoftheirlastingeffectsonourmanners。Thepointofhonour，theprevalenceofgallantryinourconversations，andonourtheatres，manyoftheopinionswhichthevulgarapplyeventotheconductofwar；theirnotion，thattheleaderofanarmy，beingofferedbattleuponequalterms，isdishonouredbydecliningit，areundoubtedlyremainsofthisantiquatedsystem:andchivalry，unitingwiththegeniusofourpolicy，hasprobablysuggestedthosepeculiaritiesinthelawofnations，bywhichmodernstatesaredistinguishedfromtheancient。Andifourruleinmeasuringdegreesofpolitenessandcivilizationistobetakenfromhence，orfromtheadvancementofcommercialarts，weshallbefoundtohavegreatlyexcelledanyofthecelebratednationsofantiquity。

NOTES:

1。Plutarch，intheLifeofAgesilaus。

2。Thucydides，lib。4——Aristophanes。

3。Hume’sHistoryofEngland。

4。Davila。

PartFifth。

OftheDeclineofNations。

SectionI

OfsupposedNationalEminenceandoftheVicissitudesofHumanAffairsNonationissounfortunateastothinkitselfinferiortotherestofmankind:fewareevenwillingtoputupwiththeclaimtoequality。Thegreaterparthavingchosenthemselves，asatonce，thejudgesandthemodelsofwhatisexcellentintheirkind，arefirstintheirownopinion，andgivetoothersconsiderationoreminence，sofaronlyastheyapproachtotheirowncondition。Onenationisvainofthepersonalcharacter，orofthelearning，ofafewofitsmembers；another，ofitspolicy，itswealth，itstradesmen，itsgardens，anditsbuildings；andtheywhohavenothingtoboast，arevain，becausetheyareignorant。TheRussians，beforethereignofPetertheGreat，thoughtthemselvespossessedofeverynationalhonour，andheldtheNenei，ordumbnations，(thenamewhichtheybestowedontheirwesternneighboursofEurope)，inaproportionaldegreeofcontempt。(1*)Themapoftheworld，inChina，wasasquareplate，thegreaterpartofwhichwasoccupiedbytheprovincesofthisgreatempire，leavingonitsskirtsafewobscurecorners，intowhichthewretchedremainderofmankindweresupposedtobedriven。’Ifyouhavenottheuseofourletters，northeknowledgeofourbooks，’saidthelearnedChinesetotheEuropeanmissionary，’whatliterature，orwhatscience，canyouhave？(2*)

Thetermpolished，ifwemayjudgefromitsetymology，originallyreferredtothestateofnationsinrespecttotheirlawsandgovernment。Initslaterapplications，itrefersnolesstotheirproficiencyintheliberalandmechanicalarts，inliterature，andincommerce。Butwhatevermaybeitsapplication，itappears，thatiftherewereanamestillmorerespectablethanthis，everynation，eventhemostbarbarous，orthemostcorrupted，wouldassumeit；andbestowitsreversewheretheyconceivedadislike，orapprehendedadifference。Thenamesofalien，orforeigner，areseldompronouncedwithoutsomedegreeofintendedreproach。Thatofbarbarian，inusewithonearrogantpeople，andthatofgentil，withanother，onlyservedtodistinguishthestranger，whoselanguageandpedigreedifferedfromtheirs。

Evenwherewepretendtofoundouropinionsonreason，andtojustifyourpreferenceofonenationtoanother，wefrequentlybestowouresteemoncircumstanceswhichdonotrelatetonationalcharacter，andwhichhavelittletendencytopromotethewelfareofmankind。Conquest，orgreatextentofterritory，howeverpeopled，andgreatwealth，howeverdistributedoremployed，aretitlesuponwhichweindulgeourown，andthevanityofothernations，aswedothatofprivatemenonthescoreoftheirfortunesandhonours。Weevensometimescontend，whosecapitalisthemostovergrown；whosekinghasthemostabsolutepower；andatwhosecourtthebreadofthesubjectisconsumedinthemostsenselessriot。Theseindeedarethenotionsofvulgarminds；butitisimpossibletodetermine，howfarthenotionsofvulgarmindsmayleadmankind。

Therehavecertainlybeenveryfewexamplesofstates，whohave，byartsorpolicy，improvedtheoriginaldispositionsofhumannature，orendeavoured，bywiseandeffectualprecautions，topreventitscorruption。Affection，andforceofmind，whicharethebandandthestrengthofcommunities，weretheinspirationofGod，andoriginalattributesinthenatureofman。

Thewisestpolicyofnations，exceptinaveryfewinstances，hastended，wemaysuspect，rathertomaintainthepeaceofsociety，andtorepresstheexternaleffectsofbadpassions，thantostrengthenthedispositionoftheheartitselftojusticeandgoodness。Ithastended，byintroducingavarietyofarts，toexercisetheingenuityofmen，andbyengagingtheminavarietyofpursuits，inquiries，andstudies，toinform，butfrequentlytocorruptthemind。Ithastendedtofurnishmatterofdistinctionandvanity；andbyincumberingtheindividualwithnewsubjectsofpersonalcare，tosubstitutetheanxietyheentertainsforhimself，insteadoftheconfidenceandtheaffectionheshouldentertainforhisfellow-creatures。

Whetherthissuspicionbejustorno，wearecometopointatcircumstancestendingtoverify，ortodisproveit:andiftounderstandtherealfelicityofnationsbeofimportance，itiscertainlysolikewise，toknowwhatarethoseweaknesses，andthosevices，bywhichmennotonlymarthisfelicity，butinoneageforfeitalltheexternaladvantagestheyhadgainedinaformer。

Thewealth，theaggrandizementandpowerofnations，arecommonlytheeffectsofvirtue；thelossoftheseadvantages，isoftenaconsequenceofvice。

Werewetosupposementohavesucceededinthediscoveryandapplicationofeveryartbywhichstatesarepreserved，andgoverned；tohaveattained，byeffortsofwisdomandmagnanimity，theadmiredestablishmentsandadvantagesofacivilizedandflourishingpeople；thesubsequentpartoftheirhistory，containing，accordingtovulgarapprehension，afulldisplayofthosefruitsinmaturity，ofwhichtheyhadtillthencarriedonlytheblossom，andthefirstformation，should，stillmorethantheformer，meritourattention，andexciteouradmiration。

Theevent，however，hasnotcorrespondedtothisexpectation。

Thevirtuesofmenhaveshonemostduringtheirstruggles，notaftertheattainmentoftheirends。Thoseendsthemselves，thoughattainedbyvirtue，arefrequentlythecausesofcorruptionandvice。Mankind，inaspiringtonationalfelicity，havesubstitutedartswhichincreasetheirriches，insteadofthosewhichimprovetheirnature。Theyhaveentertainedadmirationofthemselves，underthetitlesofcivilizedandofpolished，wheretheyshouldhavebeenaffectedwithshame；andevenwheretheyhaveforawhileactedonmaximstendingtoraise，toinvigorate，andtopreservethenationalcharacter，theyhave，soonerorlater，beendivertedfromtheirobject，andfallenapreytomisfortune，ortotheneglectswhichprosperityitselfhadencouraged。

War，whichfurnishesmankindwithaprincipaloccupationoftheirrestlessspirit，serves，bythevarietyofitsevents，todiversifytheirfortunes。Whileitopenstoonetribeorsociety，thewaytoeminence，andleadstodominion，itbringsanothertosubjection，andclosesthesceneoftheirnationalefforts。ThecelebratedrivalshipofCarthageandRomewas，inbothparties，thenaturalexerciseofanambitiousspirit，impatientofopposition，orevenofequality。Theconductandthefortuneofleaders，heldthebalanceforsometimeinsuspense；buttowhicheversideithadinclined，agreatnationwastofall；aseatofempire，andofpolicy，wastoberemovedfromitsplace；

anditwasthentobedetermined，whethertheSyriacortheLatinshouldcontaintheeruditionthatwas，infutureages，tooccupythestudiesofthelearned。

Stateshavebeenthusconqueredfromabroad，beforetheygaveanysignsofinternaldecay，eveninthemidstofprosperity，andintheperiodoftheirgreatestardourfornationalobjects。

Athens，intheheightofherambition，andofherglory，receivedafatalwound，instrivingtoextendhermaritimepowerbeyondtheGrecianseas。Andnationsofeverydescription，formidablebytheirrudeferocity，respectedfortheirdisciplineandmilitaryexperience，whenadvancing，aswellaswhendeclining，intheirstrength，fellaprey，byturns，totheambitionandarrogantspiritoftheRomans。Suchexamplesmayexciteandalarmthejealousyandcautionofstates；thepresenceofsimilardangersmayexercisethetalentsofpoliticiansandstatesmen；butmerereversesoffortunearethecommonmaterialsofhistory，andmustlongsincehaveceasedtocreateoursurprise。

Didwefind，thatnationsadvancingfromsmallbeginnings，andarrivedatthepossessionofartswhichleadtodominion，becamesecureoftheiradvantages，inproportionastheywerequalifiedtogainthem；thattheyproceededinacourseofun。

interruptedfelicity，tilltheywerebrokebyexternalcalamities；andthattheyretainedtheirforce，tillamorefortunateorvigorouspowerarosetodepressthem；thesubjectinspeculationcouldnotbeattendedwithmanydifficulties，norgiverisetomanyreflections。Butwhenweobserveamongnationsakindofspontaneousreturntoobscurityandweakness；when，inspiteofperpetualadmonitionsofthedangertheyrun，theysufferthemselvestobesubdued，inoneperiod，bypowerswhichcouldnothaveenteredintocompetitionwiththeminaformer，andbyforceswhichtheyhadoftenbaffledanddespised；thesubjectbecomesmorecurious，anditsexplanationmoredifficult。

Thefactitselfisknowninavarietyofdifferentexamples。

TheempireofAsiawas，morethanonce，transferredfromthegreatertotheinferiorpower。ThestatesofGreece，oncesowarlike，feltarelaxationoftheirvigour，andyieldedtheascendanttheyhaddisputedwiththemonarchsoftheeast，totheforcesofanobscureprincipality，becomeformidableinafewyears，andraisedtoeminenceundertheconductofasingleman。

TheRomanempire，whichstoodaloneforages；whichhadbroughteveryrivalundersubjection，andsawnopowerfromwhomacompetitioncouldbefeared，sunkatlastbeforeanartlessandcontemptibleenemy。Abandonedtoinroad，topillage，andatlasttoconquest，onherfrontier，shedecayedinallherextremities，andshrunkoneveryside。Herterritorywasdismembered，andwholeprovincesgaveway，likebranchesfallendownwithage，notviolentlytornbysuperiorforce。ThespiritwithwhichMariushadbaffledandrepelledtheattacksofbarbariansinaformerage，thecivilandmilitaryforcewithwhichtheconsulandhislegionshadextendedthisempire，werenownomore。TheRomangreatness，doomedtosinkasitrose，byslowdegrees，wasimpairedineveryencounter。Itwasreducedtoitsoriginaldimensions，withinthecompassofasinglecity；anddependingforitspreservationonthefortuneofasiege，itwasextinguishedatablow；andthebrand，whichhadfilledtheworldwithitsflames，sunklikeataperinthesocket。

Suchappearanceshavegivenrisetoageneralapprehension，thattheprogressofsocietiestowhatwecalltheheightsofnationalgreatness，isnotmorenatural，thantheirreturntoweaknessandobscurityisnecessaryandunavoidable。Theimagesofyouth，andofoldage，areappliedtonations；andcommunities，likesinglemen，aresupposedtohaveaperiodoflife，andalengthofthread，whichisspunbythefatesinonepartuniformandstrong，inanotherweakenedandshatteredbyuse；tobecut，whenthedestinedaeraiscome，andtomakewayforarenewaloftheembleminthecaseofthosewhoariseinsuccession。Carthage，beingsomucholderthanRome，hadfeltherdecay，saysPolybius，somuchthesooner。andthesurvivortoo，heforesaw，carriedinherbosomtheseedsofmortality。

Theimageindeedisapposite，andthehistoryofmankindrenderstheapplicationfamiliar。Butitmustbeobvious，thatthecaseofnations，andthatofindividuals，areverydifferent。

Thehumanframehasageneralcourse；ithas，ineveryindividual，afrailcontexture，andalimitedduration；itiswornbyexercise，andexhaustedbyarepetitionofitsfunctions。

Butinasociety，whoseconstituentmembersarerenewedineverygeneration，wheretheraceseemstoenjoyperpetuatedyouth，andaccumulatingadvantages，wecannot，byanyparityofreason，expecttofindimbecilitiesconnectedwithmereageandlengthofdays。

Thesubjectisnotnew，andreflectionswillcrouduponeveryreader。Thenotions，inthemeantime，whichweentertain，eveninspeculation，uponasubjectsoimportant，cannotbeentirelyfruitlesstomankind；andhoweverlittlethelaboursofthespeculativemayinfluencetheconductofmen，oneofthemostpardonableerrorsawritercancommit，istobelievethatheisabouttodoagreatdealofgood。Butleavingthecareofeffectstoothers，weproceedtoconsiderthegroundsofinconstancyamongmankind，thesourcesofinternaldecay，andtheruinouscorruptionstowhichnationsareliable，inthesupposedconditionofaccomplishedcivility。

SectionII。

OftheTemporaryEffortsandRelaxationsoftheNationalSpirit。

Fromwhatwehavealreadyobservedonthegeneralcharacteristicsofhumannature，ithasappeared，thatmanisnotmadeforrepose。Inhim，everyamiableandrespectablequalityisanactivepower，andeverysubjectofcommendationaneffort。Ifhiserrorsandhiscrimesarethemovementsofanactivebeing，hisvirtuesandhishappinessconsistlikewiseintheemploymentofhismind；andallthelustrewhichhecastsaroundhim，tocaptivateorengagetheattentionofhisfellow-creatures，liketheflameofameteor，shinesonlywhilehismotioncontinues:

themomentsofrestandofobscurityarethesame。Weknow，thatthetalksassignedhimfrequentlymayexceed，aswellascomeshortofhispowers；thathemaybeagitatedtoomuch，aswellastoolittle；butcannotascertainaprecisemediumbetweenthesituationsinwhichhewouldbeharassed，andthose’inwhichhewouldfallintolanguor。Weknow，thathemaybeemployedonagreatvarietyofsubjects，whichoccupydifferentpassions；andthat，inconsequenceofhabit，hebecomesreconciledtoverydifferentscenes。Allwecandetermineingeneralis，thatwhateverbethesubjectswithwhichheisengaged，theframeofhisnaturerequireshimtobeoccupied，andhishappinessrequireshimtobejust。

Wearenowtoinquire，whynationsceasetobeeminent；andwhysocietieswhichhavedrawntheattentionofmankindbygreatexamplesofmagnanimity，conduct，andnationalsuccess，shouldsinkfromtheheightoftheirhonours，andyield，inoneage，thepalmwhichtheyhadwoninaformer。Manyreasonswillprobablyoccur。Onemaybetakenfromtheficklenessandinconstancyofmankind，whobecometiredoftheirpursuitsandexertions，evenwhiletheoccasionsthatgaverisetothosepursuits，insomemeasurecontinue:Another，fromthechangeofsituations，andtheremovalofobjectswhichservedtoexcitetheirspirit。

Thepublicsafety，andtherelativeinterestsofstates；

politicalestablishments，thepretensionsofparty，commerce，andarts，aresubjectswhichengagetheattentionofnations。Theadvantagesgainedinsomeoftheseparticulars，determinethedegreeofnationalprosperity。Theardourandvigourwithwhichtheyareatanyonetimepursued，isthemeasureofanationalspirit。Whenthoseobjectsceasetoanimate，nationsmaybesaidtolanguish；whentheyareduringanyconsiderabletimeneglected，statesmustdecline，andtheirpeopledegenerate。

Inthemostforward，enterprising，inventive，andindustriousnations，thisspiritisfluctuating；andtheywhocontinuelongesttogainadvantages，ortopreservethem，haveperiodsofremissness，aswellasofardour。Thedesireofpublicsafety，is，atalltimes，apowerfulmotiveofconduct；butitoperatesmost，whencombinedwithoccasionalpassions，whenprovocationsinflame，whensuccessesencourage，ormortificationsexasperate。

Awholepeople，liketheindividualsofwhomtheyarecomposed，actundertheinfluenceoftemporaryhumours，sanguinehopes，orvehementanimosities。Theyaredisposed，atonetime，toenteronnationalstruggleswithvehemence；atanother，todropthemfrommerelassitudeanddisgust。Intheircivildebatesandcontentionsathome，theyareoccasionallyardentorremiss。

Epidemicalpassionsariseorsubside，ontrivial，aswellasimportant，grounds。Partiesareready，atonetime，totaketheirnames，andthepretenceoftheiroppositions，frommerecapriceoraccident；atanothertime，theysufferthemostseriousoccasionstopassinsilence。Ifaveinofliterarygeniusbecasuallyopened，oranewsubjectofdisquisitionbestarted，realorpretendeddiscoveriessuddenlymultiply，andeveryconversationisinquisitiveandanimated。Ifanewsourceofwealthbefound，oraprospectofconquestbeoffered，theimaginationsofmenareinflamed，andwholequartersoftheglobearesuddenlyengagedinruinousorinsuccessfuladventures。

Couldwerecallthespiritthatwasexerted，orenterintotheviewsthatwereentertained，byourancestors，whentheyburst，likeadeluge，fromtheirancientseats，andpouredintotheRomanempire，weshouldprobably，aftertheirfirstsuccesses，atleast，findafermentinthemindsofmen，forwhichnoattemptwastooarduous，nodifficultiesinsurmountable。

ThesubsequentagesofenterpriseinEurope，werethoseinwhichthealarmofenthusiasmwasrung，andthefollowersofthecrossinvadedtheEast，toplunderacountry，andtorecoverasepulchre；thoseinwhichthepeopleindifferentstatescontendedforfreedom，andassaultedthefabricofcivilorreligioususurpation；thatinwhichhavingfoundmeanstocrosstheAtlantic，andtodoublethecapeofGoodHope，theinhabitantsofonehalftheworldwereletlooseontheother，andpartiesfromeveryquarter，wadinginblood，andattheexpenceofeverycrime，andofeverydanger，traversedtheearthinsearchofgold。

Eventheweakandtheremissarerousedtoenterprise，bythecontagionofsuchremarkableages；andstateswhichhavenotintheirformtheprinciplesofacontinuedexertion，eitherfavourableoradversetothewelfareofmankind，mayhaveparoxysmsofardour，andatemporaryappearanceofnationalvigour。Inthecaseofsuchnations，indeed，thereturnsofmoderationarebutarelapsetoobscurity，andthepresumptionofoneageisturnedtodejectioninthatwhichsucceeds。

Butinthecaseofstatesthatarefortunateintheirdomesticpolicy，evenmadnessitselfmay，intheresultofviolentconvulsions，subsideintowisdom；andapeoplereturntotheirordinarymood，curedoftheirfollies，andwiserbyexperience:or，withtalentsimproved，inconductingtheverysceneswhichfrenzyhadopened，theymaythenappearbestqualifiedtopursuewithsuccesstheobjectofnations。Liketheancientrepublics，immediatelyaftersomealarmingsedition，orlikethekingdomofGreatBritain，atthecloseofitscivilwars，theyretainthespiritofactivity，whichwasrecentlyawakened，andareequallyvigorousineverypursuit，whetherofpolicy，learning，orarts。Fromhavingappearedonthebrinkofruin，theypasstothegreatestprosperity。

Menengageinpursuitswithdegreesofardournotproportionedtotheimportanceoftheirobject。Whentheyarestatedinopposition，orjoinedinconfederacy，theyonlywishforpretencestoact。Theyforget，intheheatoftheiranimosities，thesubjectoftheircontroversy；ortheyseek，intheirformalreasoningsconcerningit，onlyadisguisefortheirpassions。Whentheheartisinflamed，noconsiderationcanrepressitsardour；whenitsfervoursubsides，noreasoningcanexcite，andnoeloquenceawaken，itsformeremotions。

Thecontinuanceofemulationamongstates，mustdependonthedegreeofequalitybywhichtheirforcesarebalanced；orontheincentivesbywhicheitherparty，orall，areurgedtocontinuetheirstruggles。Longintermissionsofwar，suffer，equallyineveryperiodofcivilsociety，themilitaryspirittolanguish。

ThereductionofAthensbyLysander，struckafatalblowattheinstitutionsofLycurgus；andthequietpossessionofItaly，happily，perhaps，formankind，hadalmostputanendtothemilitaryprogressoftheRomans。Aftersomeyearsofrepose，HannibalfoundItalyunpreparedforhisonset，andtheRomansinadispositionlikelytodrop，onthebanksofthePo，thatmartialambition，which，beingrousedbythesenseofanewdanger，afterwardscarriedthemtotheEuphratesandtheRhine。

Statesevendistinguishedformilitaryprowess，sometimeslaydowntheirarmsfromlassitude，andarewearyoffruitlesscontentions:butiftheymaintainthestationofindependentcommunities，theywillhavefrequentoccasionstorecall，andexerttheirvigour。Evenunderpopulargovernments，mensometimesdroptheconsiderationoftheirpoliticalrights，andappearattimesremissorsupine；butiftheyhavereservedthepowertodefendthemselves，theintermissionofitsexercisecannotbeoflongduration。Politicalrights，whenneglected，arealwaysinvaded；andalarmsfromthisquartermustfrequentlycometorenewtheattentionofparties。Theloveoflearning，andofarts，maychangeitspursuits，ordroopforaseason；butwhilemenarepossessedoffreedom，andwhiletheexercisesofingenuityarenotsuperseded，thepublicmayproceed，atdifferenttimes，withunequalfervour；butitsprogressisseldomaltogetherdiscontinued，ortheadvantagesgainedinoneageareseldomentirelylosttothefollowing。

Ifwewouldfindthecausesoffinalcorruption，wemustexaminethoserevolutionsofstatethatremoveorwith-holdtheobjectsofeveryingeniousstudy，orliberalpursuit；thatdeprivethecitizenofoccasionstoactasthememberofapublic；thatcrushhisspirit；thatdebasehissentiments，anddisqualifyhismindforaffairs。

SectionIII。

OfRelaxationsintheNationalSpiritincidenttoPolishedNations。

Improvingnations，inthecourseoftheiradvancement，havetostrugglewithforeignenemies，towhomtheybearanextremeanimosity，andwithwhom，inmanyconflicts，theycontendfortheirexistenceasapeople。Incertainperiodstoo，theyfeelintheirdomesticpolicyinconvenienciesandgrievances，whichbegetaneagerimpatience；andtheyapprehendreformationsandnewestablishments，fromwhichtheyhavesanguinehopesofnationalhappiness。Inearlyages，everyartisimperfect，andsusceptibleofmanyimprovements。Thefirstprinciplesofeveryscienceareyetsecretstobediscovered，andtobesuccessivelypublishedwithapplauseandtriumph。

Wemayfancytoourselves，thatinagesofprogress，thehumanrace，likescoutsgoneabroadonthediscoveryoffertilelands，havingtheworldopenbeforethem，arepresentedateverystepwiththeappearanceofnovelty。Theyenteroneverynewgroundwithexpectationandjoy:Theyengageineveryenterprisewiththeardourofmen，whobelievetheyaregoingtoarriveatnationalfelicity，andpermanentglory；andforgetpastdisappointmentsamidstthehopesoffuturesuccess。Frommereignorance；rudemindsareintoxicatedwitheverypassion；andpartialtotheirowncondition，andtotheirownpursuits，theythinkthateverysceneisinferiortothatinwhichtheyareplaced。Rousedalikebysuccess，andbymisfortune，theyaresanguine，ardent，andprecipitant；andleavetothemoreknowingageswhichsucceedthem，monumentsofimperfectskill，andofrudeexecutionineveryart；buttheyleavelikewisethemarksofavigorousandardentspirit，whichtheirsuccessorsarenotalwaysqualifiedtosustain，ortoimitate。

Thismaybeadmitted，perhaps，asafairdescriptionofprosperoussocieties，atleastduringcertainperiodsoftheirprogress。Thespiritwithwhichtheyadvancemaybeunequal，indifferentages，andmayhaveitsparoxysms，andintermissions，arisingfromtheinconstancyofhumanpassions，andfromthecasualappearanceorremovalofoccasionsthatexcitethem。Butdoesthisspirit，whichforatimecontinuestocarryontheprojectofcivilandcommercialarts，findanaturalpauseintheterminationofitsownpursuits？Maythebusinessofcivilsocietybeaccomplished，andmaytheoccasionoffartherexertionberemoved？Docontinueddisappointmentsreducesanguinehopes，andfamiliaritywithobjectsblunttheedgeofnovelty？Doesexperienceitselfcooltheardourofthemind？Maythesocietybeagaincomparedtotheindividual？Andmayitbesuspected，althoughthevigourofanation，likethatofanaturalbody，doesnotwastebyaphysicaldecay，thatyetitmaysickenforwantofexercise，anddieinthecloseofitsownexertions？Maysocieties，inthecompletionofalltheirdesigns，likemeninyears，whodisregardtheamusements，andareinsensibletothepassions，ofyouth，becomecoldandindifferenttoobjectsthatusedtoanimateinaruderage？Andmayapolishedcommunitybecomparedtoaman，whohavingexecutedhisplan，builthishouse，andmadehissettlement；whohaving，inshort，exhaustedthecharmsofeverysubject，andwastedallhisardour，sinksintolanguorandlistlessindifference？Ifso，wehavefoundatleastanothersimiletoourpurpose。Butitisprobable，thatheretoo，theresemblanceisimperfect；andtheinferencethatwouldfollow，likethatofmostargumentsdrawnfromanalogy，tendsrathertoamusethefancy，thantogiveanyrealinformationonthesubjecttowhichitrefers。

Thematerialsofhumanartareneverentirelyexhausted，andtheapplicationsofindustryareneveratanend。Thenationalardourisnot，atanyparticulartime，proportionedtotheoccasionthereisforactivity；norcuriositytotheextentofsubjectthatremainstobestudied。

Theignorantandtheartless，towhomobjectsofsciencearenew，andwhoareworstfurnishedwiththeconvenienciesoflife，insteadofbeingmoreactive，andmorecurious，arecommonlymorequiescent，andlessinquisitive，thantheknowingandthepolished。Whenwecomparetheparticularswhichoccupymankindintheirrudeandintheirpolishedcondition，theywillbefoundgreatlymultipliedandenlargedinthelast。Thequestionswehaveput，however，deservetobeanswered；andif，intheadvancedagesofsociety，wedonotfindtheobjectsofhumanpursuitremoved，orgreatlydiminished，wemayfindthematleastchanged；andinestimatingthenationalspirit，wemayfindanegligenceinonepart，butillcompensatedbythegrowingattentionwhichispaidtoanother。

Itistrue，ingeneral，thatinallourpursuits，thereisaterminationoftrouble，andapointofreposetowhichweaspire。

Wewouldremovethisinconvenience，orgainthatadvantage，thatourlaboursmaycease。WhenIhaveconqueredItalyandSicily，saysPyrrhus，Ishallthenenjoymyrepose。Thisterminationisproposedinournationalaswellasinourpersonalexertions；

andinspiteoffrequentexperiencetothecontrary，isconsideredatadistanceastheheightoffelicity。Butnaturehaswisely，inmostparticulars，baffledourproject；andplacednowherewithinourreachthisvisionaryblessingofabsoluteease。Theattainmentofoneendisbutthebeginningofanewpursuit；andthediscoveryofoneartisbutaprolongationofthethreadbywhichweareconductedtofurtherinquiries，andonlyhopetoescapefromthelabyrinth。

Amongtheoccupationsthatmaybeenumerated，astendingtoexercisetheinvention，andtocultivatethetalentsofmen，arethepursuitsofaccommodationandwealth，includingallthedifferentcontrivanceswhichservetoincreasemanufactures，andtoperfectthemechanicalarts。Butitmustbeowned，thatasthematerialsofcommercemaycontinuetobeaccumulatedwithoutanydeterminatelimit，sotheartswhichareappliedtoimprovethem，mayadmitofperpetualrefinements。Nomeasureoffortune，ordegreeofskill，isfoundtodiminishthesupposednecessitiesofhumanlife；refinementandplentyfosternewdesires，whiletheyfurnishthemeans，orpractisethemethods，togratifythem。

Intheresultofcommercialarts，inequalitiesoffortunearegreatlyincreased，andthemajorityofeverypeopleareobligedbynecessity，oratleaststronglyincitedbyambitionandavarice，toemployeverytalenttheypossess。Afterahistoryofsomethousandyearsemployedinmanufactureandcommerce，theinhabitantsofChinaarestillthemostlaboriousandindustriousofanypeopleonthesurfaceoftheearth。

Somepartofthisobservationmaybeextendedtotheelegantandliteraryarts。Theytoohavetheirmaterials，whichcannotbeexhausted，andproceedfromdesireswhichcannotbesatiated。Buttherespectpaidtoliterarymeritisfluctuating，andmatteroftransientfashion。Whenlearnedproductionsaccumulate，theacquisitionofknowledgeoccupiesthetimethatmightbebestowedoninvention。Theobjectofmerelearningisattainedwithmoderateorinferiortalents，andthegrowinglistofpretendersdiminishesthelustreofthefewwhoareeminent。Whenweonlymeantolearnwhatothershavetaught，itisprobable，thatevenourknowledgewillbelessthanthatofourmasters。Greatnamescontinuetoberepeatedwithadmiration，afterwehaveceasedtoexaminethefoundationsofourpraise:andnewpretendersarerejected，notbecausetheyfallshortoftheirpredecessors，butbecausetheydonotexcelthem；orbecause，inreality，wehave，withoutexamination，takenforgrantedthemeritofthefirst，andcannotjudgeofeither。

Afterlibrariesarefurnished，andeverypathofingenuityisoccupied，weare，inproportiontoouradmirationofwhatisalreadydone，prepossessedagainstfartherattempts，Webecomestudentsandadmirers，insteadofrivals；andsubstitutetheknowledgeofbooks，insteadoftheinquisitiveoranimatedspiritinwhichtheywerewritten。

Thecommercialandlucrativeartsmaycontinuetoprosper，buttheygainanascendantattheexpenceofotherpursuits。Thedesireofprofitstiflestheloveofperfection。interestcoolstheimagination，andhardenstheheart；and，recommendingemploymentsinproportionastheyarelucrative，andcertainintheirgains，itdrivesingenuity，andambitionitself，tothecounterandtheworkshop。

Butapartfromtheseconsiderations，theseparationofprofessions，whileitseemstopromiseimprovementofskill，andisactuallythecausewhytheproductionsofeveryartbecomemoreperfectascommerceadvances；yetinitstermination，andultimateeffects，serves，insomemeasure，tobreakthebandsofsociety，tosubstituteforminplaceofingenuity，andtowithdrawindividualsfromthecommonsceneofoccupation，onwhichthesentimentsoftheheart，andthemind，aremosthappilyemployed。

Underthedistinctionofcallings，bywhichthemembersofpolishedsocietyareseparatedfromeachother，everyindividualissupposedtopossesshisspeciesoftalent，orhispeculiarskill，inwhichtheothersareconfessedlyignorant；andsocietyismadetoconsistofparts，ofwhichnoneisanimatedwiththespiritofsocietyitself。’Weseeinthesamepersons，’saidPericles，’anequalattentiontoprivateandtopublicaffairs；

andinmenwhohaveturnedtoseparateprofessions，acompetentknowledgeofwhatrelatestothecommunity；forwealoneconsiderthosewhoareinattentivetothestate，asperfectlyinsignificant。’ThisencomiumontheAthenians，wasprobablyofferedunderanapprehension，thatthecontrarywaslikelytobechargedbytheirenemies，ormightsoontakeplace。Ithappenedaccordingly，thatthebusinessofstate，aswellasofwar，cametobeworseadministeredatAthens，whenthese，aswellasotherapplications，becametheobjectsofseparateprofessions；andthehistoryofthispeopleabundantlyshewed，thatmenceasedtobecitizens，eventobegoodpoetsandorators，inproportionastheycametobedistinguishedbytheprofessionofthese，andotherseparatecrafts。

Animalslesshonouredthanwe，havesagacityenoughtoprocuretheirfood，andtofindthemeansoftheirsolitarypleasures；butitisreservedformantoconsult，topersuade，tooppose，tokindleinthesocietyofhisfellow-creatures，andtolosethesenseofhispersonalinterestorsafety，intheardourofhisfriendshipsandhisoppositions。

Whenweareinvolvedinanyofthedivisionsintowhichmankindareseparated，underthedenominationsofacountry，atribe，oranorderofmenanywayaffectedbycommoninterests，andguidedbycommunicatingpassions，themindrecognisesitsnaturalstation；thesentimentsoftheheart，andthetalentsoftheunderstanding，findtheirnaturalexercise。Wisdom，vigilance，fidelity，andfortitude，arethecharactersrequisiteinsuchascene，andthequalitieswhichittendstoimprove。

Insimpleorbarbarousages，whennationsareweak，andbesetwithenemies，theloveofacountry，ofaparty，orafaction，arethesame。Thepublicisaknotoffriends，anditsenemiesaretherestofmankind。Death，orslavery，aretheordinaryevilswhichtheyareconcernedtowardoff；victoryanddominion，theobjectstowhichtheyaspire。Underthesenseofwhattheymaysufferfromforeigninvasions，itisoneobject，ineveryprosperoussociety，toincreaseitsforce，andtoextenditslimits。Inproportionasthisobjectisgained，securityincreases。Theywhopossesstheinteriordistricts，remotefromthefrontier，areunusedtoalarmsfromabroad。Theywhoareplacedontheextremities，remotefromtheseatsofgovernment，areunusedtohearofpoliticalinterests；andthepublicbecomesanobjectperhapstooextensive，fortheconceptionsofeither。

Theyenjoytheprotectionofitslaws，orofitsarmies；andtheyboastofitssplendor，anditspower；buttheglowingsentimentsofpublicaffection，which，insmallstates，minglewiththetendernessoftheparentandthelover，ofthefriendandthecompanion，merelybyhavingtheirobjectenlarged，losegreatpartoftheirforce。

Themannersofrudenationsrequiretobereformed。Theirforeignquarrels，anddomesticdissensions，aretheoperationsofextremeandsanguinarypassions。Astateofgreatertranquillityhathmanyhappyeffects。Butifnationspursuetheplanofenlargementandpacification，tilltheirmemberscannolongerapprehendthecommontiesofsociety，norbeengagedbyaffectioninthecauseoftheircountry，theymusterrontheoppositeside，andbyleavingtoolittletoagitatethespiritsofmen，bringonagesoflanguor，ifnotofdecay。

Themembersofacommunitymay，inthismanner，liketheinhabitantsofaconqueredprovince，bemadetolosethesenseofeveryconnection，butthatofkindredorneighbourhood；andhavenocommonaffairstotransact，butthoseoftrade:Connections，indeed，ortransactions，inwhichprobityandfriendshipmaystilltakeplace；butinwhichthenationalspirit，whoseebbsandflowswearenowconsidering，cannotbeexerted。

Whatweobserve，however，onthetendencyofenlargementtoloosenthebandsofpoliticalunion，cannotbeappliedtonationswho，beingoriginallynarrow，nevergreatlyextendedtheirlimits，nortothosewho，inarudestate，hadalreadytheextensionofagreatkingdom，Interritoriesofconsiderableextent，subjecttoonegovernment，andpossessedoffreedom，thenationalunion，inrudeages，isextremelyimperfect。Everydistrictformsaseparateparty；andthedescendentsofdifferentfamiliesareopposedtooneanother，underthedenominationoftribesorofclans:theyareseldombroughttoactwithasteadyconcert；theirfeudsandanimositiesgivemorefrequentlytheappearanceofsomanynationsatwar，thanofapeopleunitedbyconnectionsofpolicy，Theyacquireaspirit，however，intheirprivatedivisions，andinthemidstofadisorder，otherwisehurtful，ofwhichtheforce，onmanyoccasions，redoundstothepowerofthestate。

Whateverbethenationalextent，civilorder，andregulargovernment，areadvantagesofthegreatestimportance；butitdoesnotfollow，thateveryarrangementmadetoobtaintheseends，andwhichmay，inthemaking，exerciseandcultivatethebestqualitiesofmen，isthereforeofanaturetoproducepermanenteffects，andtosecurethepreservationofthatnationalspiritfromwhichitarose。

Wehavereasontodreadthepoliticalrefinementsofordinarymen，whenweconsider，thatrepose，orinactionitself，isinagreatmeasuretheirobject；andthattheywouldfrequentlymodeltheirgovernments，notmerelytopreventinjusticeanderror，buttopreventagitationandbustle；andbythebarrierstheyraiseagainsttheevilactionsofmen，wouldpreventthemfromactingatall。Everydisputeofafreepeople，intheopinionofsuchpoliticians，amountstodisorder，andabreachofthenationalpeace。Whatheart-burnings？Whatdelaytoaffairs？Whatwantofsecrecyanddispatch？Whatdefectofpolice？Menofsuperiorgeniussometimesseemtoimagine，thatthevulgarhavenotitletoact，ortothink。AgreatprinceispleasedtoridiculetheprecautionbywhichjudgesinafreecountryareConfinedtothestrictinterpretationoflaw。(3*)

Weeasilylearntocontractouropinionsofwhatmenmay，inconsistencewithpublicorder，besafelypermittedtodo。Theagitationsofarepublic，andthelicenceofitsmembers，strikethesubjectsofmonarchywithaversionanddisgust。ThefreedomwithwhichtheEuropeanislefttotraversethestreetsandthefields，wouldappeartoaChineseasurepreludetoconfusionandanarchy。’Canmenbeholdtheirsuperiorandnottremble？Cantheyconversewithoutapreciseandwrittenceremonial？Whathopesofpeace，ifthestreetsarenotbarricadedatanhour？Whatwilddisorder，ifmenarepermittedinanythingtodowhattheyplease？’Iftheprecautionswhichmenthustakeagainsteachotherbenecessarytorepresstheircrimes，anddonotarisefromacorruptambition，orfromcrueljealousyintheirrulers，theproceedingitselfmustbeapplauded，asthebestremedyofwhichthevicesofmenwilladmit。Thevipermustbeheldatadistance，andthetygerchained。Butifarigorouspolicy，appliedtoenslave，nottorestrainfromcrimes，hasanactualtendencytocorruptthemanners，andtoextinguishthespiritofnations；ifitsseveritiesbeappliedtoterminatetheagitationsofafreepeople，nottoremedytheircorruptions；ifformsbeoftenapplaudedassalutary，becausetheytendmerelytosilencethevoiceofmankind，orbecondemnedaspernicious，becausetheyallowthisvoicetobeheard；wemayexpectthatmanyoftheboastedimprovementsofcivilsociety，willbemeredevicestolaythepoliticalspiritatrest，andwillchainuptheactivevirtuesmorethantherestlessdisordersofmen。

Iftoanypeopleitbetheavowedobjectofpolicy，inallitsinternalrefinements，tosecurethepersonandthepropertyofthesubject，withoutanyregardtohispoliticalcharacter，theconstitutionindeedmaybefree，butitsmembersmaylikewisebecomeunworthyofthefreedomtheypossess，andunfittopreserveit。Theeffectsofsuchaconstitutionmaybetoimmerseallordersofmenintheirseparatepursuitsofpleasure，whichtheymaynowenjoywithlittledisturbance；orofgain，whichtheymaypreservewithoutanyattentiontotheCommonwealth。Ifthisbetheendofpoliticalstruggles，thedesign，whenexecuted，insecuringtotheindividualhisestate，andthemeansofsubsistence，mayputanendtotheexerciseofthoseveryvirtuesthatwererequiredinconductingitsexecution。Amanwho，inconcertwithhisfellow-subjects，contendswithusurpationindefenceofhisestateorhisperson，mayfindanexertionofgreatgenerosity，andofavigorousspirit；buthewho，underpoliticalestablishments，supposedtobefullyconfirmed，betakeshim，becauseheissafe，tothemereenjoymentoffortune，hasinfactturnedtoasourceofcorruptiontheveryadvantageswhichthevirtuesoftheotherprocured。Individuals，incertainages，derivetheirprotectionchieflyfromthestrengthofthepartytowhichtheyadhere；butintimesofcorruption，theyflatterthemselves，thattheymaycontinuetoderivefromthepublicthatsafetywhich，informerages，theymusthaveowedtotheirownvigilanceandspirit，tothewarmattachmentoftheirfriends，andtotheexerciseofeverytalentwhichcouldrenderthemrespected，feared，orbeloved。Inoneperiod，therefore，merecircumstancesservetoexcitethespirit，andtopreservethemannersofmen；inanother，greatwisdomandzealforthegoodofmankindonthepartoftheirleaders，arerequiredforthesamepurposes。

Rome，itmaybethought，didnotdieofalethargy，norperishbytheremissionofherpoliticalardoursathome。Herdistemperappearedofanaturemoreviolentandacute。YetifthevirtuesofCatoandofBrutusfoundanexerciseinthedyinghouroftherepublic，theneutrality，andthecautiousretirementofAtticus，founditssecurityinthesametempestuousseason；andthegreatbodyofthepeoplelayundisturbed，belowthecurrentofastorm，bywhichthesuperiorranksofmenweredestroyed。Inthemindsofthepeople，thesenseofapublicwasdefaced；andeventheanimosityoffactionhadsubsided:theyonlycouldshareinthecommotion，whowerethesoldiersofalegion，orthepartisansofaleader。Butthisstatefellnotintoobscurityforwantofeminentmen。Ifatthetimeofwhichwespeak，welookonlyforafewnamesdistinguishedinthehistoryofmankind，thereisnoperiodatwhichthelistwasmorenumerous。Butthosenamesbecamedistinguishedinthecontestfordominion，notintheexerciseofequalrights:thepeoplewascorrupted；theempireoftheknownworldstoodinneedofamaster。

Republicangovernments，ingeneral，areinhazardofruinfromtheascendantofparticularfactions，andfromthemutinousspiritofapopulace，whobeingcorrupted，arenolongerfittoshareintheadministrationofstate。Butunderotherestablishments，wherelibertymaybemoresuccessfullyattainedifmenarecorrupted，thenationalvigourdeclinesfromtheabuseofthatverysecuritywhichisprocuredbythesupposedperfectionofpublicorder。

Adistributionofpowerandoffice；anexecutionoflaw，bywhichmutualincroachmentsandmolestationsarebroughttoanend；bywhichthepersonandthepropertyare，withoutfriends，withoutcabal，withoutobligation，perfectlysecuredtoindividuals，doeshonourtothegeniusofanation；andcouldnothavebeenfullyestablished，withoutthoseexertionsofunderstandingandintegrity，thosetrialsofaresoluteandvigorousspirit，whichadorntheannalsofapeople，andleavetofutureagesasubjectofjustadmirationandapplause。Butifwesupposethattheendisattained，andthatmennolongeract，intheenjoymentofliberty，fromliberalsentiments，orwithaviewtothepreservationofpublicmanners；ifindividualsthinkthemselvessecurewithoutanyattentionoreffortoftheirown；

thisboastedadvantagemaybefoundonlytogivethemanopportunityofenjoying，atleisure，theconvenienciesandnecessariesoflife；or，inthelanguageofCato，teachthemtovaluetheirhouses，theirvillas，theirstatues，andtheirpictures，atahigherratethantheydotherepublic。Theymaybefoundtogrowtiredinsecretofafreeconstitution，ofwhichtheyneverceasetoboastintheirconversation，andwhichtheyalwaysneglectintheirconduct。

Thedangerstolibertyarenotthesubjectofourpresentconsideration；buttheycanneverbegreaterfromanycausethantheyarefromthesupposedremissnessofapeople，towhosepersonalvigoureveryconstitution，asitoweditsestablishment，somustcontinuetooweitspreservation。Noristhisblessingeverlesssecurethanitisinthepossessionofmenwhothinkthattheyenjoyitinsafety，andwhothereforeconsiderthepubliconlyasitpresentstotheiravariceanumberoflucrativeemployments；forthesakeofwhichtheymaysacrificethoseveryrightswhichrenderthemselvesobjectsofmanagementorconsideration。

Fromthetendencyofthesereflections，then，itshouldappear，thatanationalspiritisfrequentlytransient，notonaccountofanyincurabledistemperinthenatureofmankind，butonaccountoftheirvoluntaryneglectsandcorruptions。Thisspiritsubsistedsolely，perhaps，intheexecutionofafewprojects，enteredintofortheacquisitionofterritoryorwealth；itcomes，likeauselessweapon，tobelaidasideafteritsendisattained。

Ordinaryestablishmentsterminateinarelaxationofvigour，andareineffectualtothepreservationofstates；becausetheyleadmankindtorelyontheirarts，insteadoftheirvirtues，andtomistakeforanimprovementofhumannature，amereaccessionofaccommodation，orofriches。Institutionsthatfortifythemind，inspirecourage，andpromotenationalfelicity，cannevertendtonationalruin。

Isitnotpossible，amidstouradmirationofarts，tofindsomeplaceforthese？Letstatesmen，whoareintrustedwiththegovernmentofnations，replyforthemselves。Itistheirbusinesstoshew，whethertheyclimbintostationsofeminence，merelytodisplayapassionforinterest，whichtheyhadbetterindulgeinobscurity；andwhethertheyhavecapacitytounderstandthehappinessofapeople，theconductofwhoseaffairstheyaresowillingtoundertake。