第5章

Weimagine，perhaps，thatrudenationsmusthavesostrongasenseofthedefectsunderwhichtheylabour，andbesoconsciousthatreformationsarerequisiteintheirmanners，thattheymustbereadytoadopt，withjoy，everyplanofimprovement，andtoreceiveeveryplausibleproposalwithimplicitcompliance。Andwearethusinclinedtobelieve，thattheharpofOrpheuscouldeffect，inoneage，whattheeloquenceofPlatocouldnotproduceinanother。Wemistake，however，thecharacteristicofsimpleages:mankindthenappeartofeelthefewestdefects，andarethenleastdesiroustoenteronreformations。

Thereality，inthemeantime，ofcertainestablishmentsatRomeandatSparta，cannotbedisputed:butitisprobable，thatthegovernmentofboththesestatestookitsrisefromthesituationandgeniusofthepeople，notfromtheprojectsofsinglemen；thatthecelebratedwarriorandstatesman，whoareconsideredasthefoundersofthosenations，onlyactedasuperiorpartamongnumberswhoweredisposedtothesameinstitutions；andthattheylefttoposterityarenown，pointingthemoutastheinventorsofmanypracticeswhichhadbeenalreadyinuse，andwhichhelpedtoformtheirownmannersandgenius，aswellasthoseoftheircountrymen。

Ithasbeenformerlyobserved，that，inmanyparticulars，thecustomsofsimplenationscoincidewithwhatisascribedtotheinventionofearlystatesmen；thatthemodelofrepublicangovernment，thesenate，andtheassemblyofthepeople；thateventheequalityofproperty，orthecommunityofgoods，werenotreservedtotheinventionorcontrivanceofsingularmen。IfweconsiderRomulusasthefounderoftheRomanstate，certainlyhewhokilledhisbrotherthathemightreignalone，didnotdesiretocomeunderrestraintsfromthecontroulingpowerofthesenate，nortoreferthecouncilsofhissovereigntytothedecisionofacollectivebody。Loveofdominionis，byitsnature，aversetoconstraint；andthischieftain，likeeveryleaderinarudeage，probablyfoundaclassofmenreadytointrudeonhiscouncils，andwithoutwhomhecouldnotproceed。

Hemetwithoccasions，Onwhich，asatthesoundofatrumpet，thebodyofthepeopleassembled，andtookresolutions，whichanyindividualmightinvaindispute，orattempttocontroul；andRome，whichcommencedonthegeneralplanofeveryartlesssociety，foundlastingimprovementsinthepursuitoftemporaryexpedients，anddigestedherpoliticalframeinadjustingthepretensionsofpartieswhicharoseinthestate。

Mankind，inveryearlyagesofsociety，learntocovetriches，andtoadmiredistinction:theyhaveavariceandambition，andareoccasionallyledbythemtodepredationandconquest:butintheirordinaryconduct，thesemotivesarebalancedorrestrainedbyotherhabitsandotherpursuits；bysloth，orintemperance；bypersonalattachments，orpersonalanimosities；whichmisleadfromtheattentiontointerest。Thesecircumstancesrendermankind，attimes，remissoroutrageous:

theyprovethesourceofcivilpeaceordisorder，butdisqualifythosewhoareactuatedbythem，frommaintaininganyfixedusurpation；slaveryandrapinearefirstthreatenedfromabroad，andwar，eitheroffensiveordefensive，isthegreatbusinessofeverytribe。Theenemyoccupytheirthoughts；theyhavenoleisurefordomesticdissensions。Itisthedesireofeveryseparatecommunity，however，tosecureitself；andinproportionasitgainsthisobject，bystrengtheningitsbarrier，byweakeningitsenemy，orbyprocuringallies，theindividualathomebethinkshimofwhathemaygainorloseforhimself:theleaderisdisposedtoenlargetheadvantageswhichbelongtohisstation；thefollowerbecomesjealousofrightswhichareopentoincroachment；andpartieswhounitedbefore，fromaffectionandhabit，orfromaregardtotheircommonpreservation，disagreeinsupportingtheirseveralclaimstoprecedenceorprofit。

Whentheanimositiesoffactionarethusawakenedathome，andthepretensionsoffreedomareopposedtothoseofdominion，themembersofeverysocietyfindanewsceneuponwhichtoexerttheiractivity。Theyhadquarrelled，perhaps，onpointsofinterest；theyhadbalancedbetweendifferentleaders；buttheyhadneverunitedascitizens，towithstandtheencroachmentsofsovereignty，ortomaintaintheircommonrightsasapeople。Iftheprince，inthiscontest，findsnumberstosupport，aswellastoopposehispretensions，theswordwhichwaswhettedagainstforeignenemies，maybepointedatthebosomoffellow-subjects，andeveryintervalofpeacefromabroad，befilledwithdomesticwar。ThesacrednamesofLiberty，Justice，andCivilOrder，aremadetoresoundinpublicassemblies；and，duringtheabsenceofotheralarms，giveasociety，withinitself，anabundantsubjectoffermentandanimosity。

Ifwhatisrelatedofthelittleprincipalitieswhich，inancienttimes，wereformedinGreece，inItaly，andoverallEurope，agreeswiththecharacterwehavegivenofmankindunderthefirstimpressionsofproperty，ofinterest，andofhereditarydistinctions；theseditionsanddomesticwarswhichfollowedinthoseverystates，theexpulsionoftheirkings，orthequestionswhicharoseconcerningtheprerogativesofthesovereign，orprivilegeofthesubject，areagreeabletotherepresentationwhichwenowgiveofthefirststeptowardpoliticalestablishment，andthedesireofalegalconstitution。

Whatthisconstitutionmaybeinitsearliestform，dependsonavarietyofcircumstancesintheconditionofnations:Itdependsontheextentoftheprincipalityinitsrudestate；onthedegreeofdisparitytowhichmankindhadsubmittedbeforetheybegantodisputeitsabuses:itdependslikewiseonwhatwetermaccidents，thepersonalcharacterofanindividual，ortheeventsofawar。

Everycommunityisoriginallyasmallone。Thatpropensitybywhichmankindatfirstunite，isnottheprinciplefromwhichtheyafterwardsactinextendingthelimitsofempire。Smalltribes，wheretheyarenotassembledbycommonobjectsofconquestorsafety，areevenaversetoacoalition。If，liketherealorfabulousconfederacyoftheGreeksforthedestructionofTroy，manynationscombineinpursuitofasingleobject，theyeasilyseparateagain，andactanewonthemaximsofrivalstates。

Thereis，perhaps，acertainnationalextent，withinwhichthepassionsofmenareeasilycommunicatedfromone，orafew，tothewhole；andtherearecertainnumbersofmenwhocanbeassembled，andactinabody。If，whilethesocietyisnotenlargedbeyondthisdimension，andwhileitsmembersareeasilyassembled，politicalcontentionsarise，thestateseldomfailstoproceedonrepublicanmaxims，andtoestablishdemocracy。Inmostrudeprincipalities，theleaderderivedhisprerogativefromthelustreofhisrace，andfromthevoluntaryattachmentofhistribe:thepeoplehecommanded，werehisfriends，hissubjects，andhistroops。Ifwesuppose，uponanychangeintheirmanners，thattheyceasetoreverehisdignity，thattheypretendtoequalityamongthemselves，orareseizedwithajealousyofhisassumingtoomuch，thefoundationsofhispowerarealreadywithdrawn。Whenthevoluntarysubjectbecomesrefractory；whenconsiderableparties，orthecollectivebody，chusetoactforthemselves；thesmallkingdom，likethatofAthens，becomesofcoursearepublic。

Thechangesofcondition，andofmanners，which，intheprogressofmankind，raiseuptonationsaleaderandaprince，create，atthesametime，anobility，andavarietyofranks，whohave，inasubordinatedegree，theirclaimtodistinction。

Superstition，too，maycreateanorderofmen，who，underthetitleofpriesthood，engageinthepursuitofaseparateinterest；who，bytheirunionandfirmnessasabody，andbytheirincessantambition，deservetobereckonedinthelistofpretenderstopower。Thesedifferentordersofmenaretheelementsofwhosemixturethepoliticalbodyisgenerallyformed；

eachdrawstoitssidesomepartfromthemassofthepeople。Thepeoplethemselvesareapartyuponoccasion；andnumbersofmen，howeverclassedanddistinguished，become，bytheirjarringpretensionsandseparateviews，mutualinterruptionsandchecks；

andhave，bybringingtothenationalcouncilsthemaximsandapprehensionsofaparticularorder，andbyguardingaparticularinterest，ashareinadjustingorpreservingthepoliticalformofthestate。

Thepretensionsofanyparticularorder，ifnotcheckedbysomecollateralpower，wouldterminateintyranny；thoseofaprince，indespotism；thoseofanobilityorpriesthood，intheabusesofaristocracy；ofapopulace，intheconfusionsofanarchy。Theseterminations，astheyarenevertheprofessed，soaretheyseldomeventhedisguised，objectofparty:butthemeasureswhichanypartypursues，ifsufferedtoprevail，willlead，bydegrees，toeveryextreme。

Intheirwaytotheascendanttheyendeavourtogain，andinthemidstofinterruptionswhichoppositeinterestsmutuallygive，libertymayhaveapermanentoratransientexistence；andtheconstitutionmaybearaformandacharacterasvariousasthecasualcombinationofsuchmultipliedpartscaneffect。

Tobestowoncommunitiessomedegreeofpoliticalfreedom，itisperhapssufficient，thattheirmembers，eithersingly，orastheyareinvolvedwiththeirseveralorders，shouldinsistontheirrights；thatunderrepublics，thecitizenshouldeithermaintainhisownequalitywithfirmness，orrestraintheambitionofhisfellow-citizenwithinmoderatebounds:thatundermonarchy，menofeveryrankshouldmaintainthehonoursoftheirprivateortheirpublicstations；andsacrifice，neithertotheimpositionsofacourt，nortotheclaimsofapopulace，thosedignitieswhicharedestined，insomemeasure，independentoffortune，togivestabilitytothethrone，andtoprocurearespecttothesubject。

Amidstthecontentionsofparty，theinterestsofthepublic，eventhemaximsofjusticeandcandour，aresometimesforgotten；

andyetthosefatalconsequenceswhichsuchameasureofcorruptionseemstoportend，donotunavoidablyfollow。Thepublicinterestisoftensecure，notbecauseindividualsaredisposedtoregarditastheendoftheirconduct，butbecauseeach，inhisplace，isdeterminedtopreservehisown。Libertyismaintainedbythecontinueddifferencesandoppositionsofnumbers，notbytheirconcurringzealinbehalfofequitablegovernment。Infreestates，therefore，thewisestlawsarenever，perhaps，dictatedbytheinterestandspiritofanyorderofmen:

theyaremoved，theyareopposed，oramended，bydifferenthands；

andcomeatlasttoexpressthatmediumandcompositionwhichcontendingpartieshaveforcedoneanothertoadopt。

Whenweconsiderthehistoryofmankindinthisview，wecannotbeatalossforthecauseswhich，insmallcommunities，threwthebalanceonthesideofdemocracy；which，instatesmoreenlargedinrespecttoterritoryandnumbersofpeople，gavetheascendanttomonarchy；andwhich，inavarietyofconditionsandofdifferentages，enabledmankindtoblendandunitethecharactersofdifferentforms；and，insteadofanyofthesimpleconstitutionswehavementioned，(9*)toexhibitamedleyofall。

Inemergingfromastateofrudenessandsimplicity，menmustbeexpectedtoactfromthatspiritofequality，ormoderatesubordination，towhichtheyhavebeenaccustomed。Whencroudedtogetherincities，orwithinthecompassofasmallterritory，theyactbycontagiouspassions，andeveryindividualfeelsadegreeofimportanceproportionedtohisfigureinthecroud，andthesmallnessofitsnumbers。Thepretenderstopoweranddominionappearintoofamiliaralighttoimposeuponthemultitude，andtheyhavenoaidsattheircall，bywhichtheycanbridletherefractoryhumoursofapeoplewhoresisttheirpretensions。Theseus，KingofAttica，wearetold，assembledtheinhabitantsofitstwelvecantonsintoonecity。Inthishetookaneffectualmethodtounitintoonedemocracy，whatwerebeforetheseparatemembersofhismonarchy，andtohastenthedownfalloftheregalpower。

Themonarchofanextensiveterritoryhasmanyadvantagesinmaintaininghisstation。Withoutanygrievancetohissubjects，hecansupportthemagnificenceofaroyalestate，anddazzletheimaginationofhispeople，bythatverywealthwhichthemselveshavebestowed。Hecanemploytheinhabitantsofonedistrictagainstthoseofanother；andwhilethepassionsthatleadtomutinyandrebellion，canatanyonetimeseizeonlyonapartofhissubjects，hefeelshimselfstronginthepossessionofageneralauthority。Eventhedistanceatwhichheresidesfrommanyofthosewhoreceivehiscommands，augmentsthemysteriousaweandrespectwhicharepaidtohisgovernment。

Withthesedifferenttendencies，accidentandcorruption，however，joinedtoavarietyofcircumstances，maythrowparticularstatesfromtheirbias，andproduceexceptionstoeverygeneralrule。ThishasactuallyhappenedinsomeofthelaterprincipalitiesofGreece，andmodernItaly，inSweden，Poland，andtheGermanempire。ButtheunitedstatesoftheNetherlands，andtheSwisscantons，areperhapsthemostextensivecommunities，whichmaintainingtheunionofnations，have，foranyconsiderabletime，resistedthetendencytomonarchicalgovernment；andSwedenistheonlyinstanceofarepublicestablishedinagreatkingdomontheruinsofmonarchy。

Thesovereignofapettydistrict，orasinglecity，whennotsupported，asinmodernEurope，bythecontagionofmonarchicalmanners，holdsthesceptrebyaprecarioustenure，andisperpetuallyalarmedbythespiritofmutinyinhispeople，isguidedbyjealousy，andsupportshimselfbyseverity，prevention，andforce。

Thepopularandaristocraticalpowersinagreatnation，asinthecaseofGermanyandPoland，maymeetwithequaldifficultyinmaintainingtheirpretensions；andinordertoavoidtheirdangeronthesideofkinglyusurpation，areobligedtowithholdfromthesuprememagistrateeventhenecessarytrustofanexecutivepower。

ThestatesofEurope，inthemanneroftheirfirstsettlement，laidthefoundationsofmonarchy，andwerepreparedtouniteunderregularandextensivegovernments。IftheGreeks，whoseprogressathometerminatedintheestablishmentofsomanyindependentrepublics，hadunderAgamemnoneffectedaconquestandsettlementinAsia，itisprobable，thattheymighthavefurnishedanexampleofthesamekind。Buttheoriginalinhabitantsofanycountry，formingmanyseparatecantons，comebyslowdegreestothatcoalitionandunionintowhichconqueringtribesare，ineffectingtheirconquests，orinsecuringtheirpossessions，hurriedatonce。CaesarencounteredsomehundredsofindependentnationsinGaul，whomeventheircommondangerdidnotsufficientlyunite。TheGermaninvaders，whosettledinthelandsoftheRomans，made，inthesamedistrict，anumberofseparateestablishments，butfarmoreextensivethanwhattheancientGauls，bytheirconjunctionsandtreaties，orintheresultoftheirwars，couldaftermanyageshavereached。

Theseedsofgreatmonarchies，andtherootsofextensivedominion，wereeverywhereplantedwiththecoloniesthatdividedtheRomanempire。Wehavenoexactaccountofthenumbers，who，withaseemingconcert，continued，duringsomeages，toinvadeandtoseizethistemptingprize。Wheretheyexpectedresistance，theyendeavouredtomusterupaproportionableforce；andwhentheyproposedtosettle，entirenationsremovedtoshareinthespoil。Scatteredoveranextensiveprovince，wheretheycouldnotbesecure，withoutmaintainingtheirunion，theycontinuedtoacknowledgetheleaderunderwhomtheyhadfought；and，likeanarmysentbydivisionsintoseparatestations，werepreparedtoassemblewheneveroccasionshouldrequiretheirunitedoperationsorcounsels。

Everyseparatepartyhaditspostassigned，andeverysubordinatechieftainhispossessions，fromwhichhewastoprovidehisownsubsistence，andthatofhisfollowers。Themodelofgovernmentwastakenfromthatofamilitarysubordination，andafiefwasthetemporarypayofanofficerproportionedtohisrank。(10*)Therewasaclassofthepeopledestinedtomilitaryservice，anothertolabour，andtocultivatelandsforthebenefitoftheirmasters。Theofficerimprovedhistenurebydegrees，firstchangingatemporarygrantintoatenureforhislife；andthisalso，upontheobservanceofcertainconditions，intoagrantincludinghisheirs。

Therankofthenoblesbecamehereditaryineveryquarter，andformedapowerfulandpermanentorderofmenineverystate。

Whiletheyheldthepeopleinservitude，theydisputedtheclaimsoftheirsovereign；theywithdrewtheirattendanceuponoccasion，orturnedtheirarmsagainsthim。Theyformedastrongandinsurmountablebarrieragainstageneraldespotisminthestate；

buttheywerethemselves，bymeansoftheirwarlikeretainers，thetyrantsofeverylittledistrict，andpreventedtheestablishmentoforder，oranyregularapplicationsoflaw。Theytooktheadvantageofweakreignsorminorities，topushtheirincroachmentsonthesovereign；orhavingmadethemonarchyelective，theybysuccessivetreatiesandstipulations，ateveryelection，limitedorunderminedthemonarchicalpower。Theprerogativesoftheprincehavebeen，insomeinstances，asinthatoftheGermanempireinparticular，reducedtoameretitle；

andthenationalunionitselfpreservedintheobservanceonlyofafewinsignificantformalities。

Wherethecontestofthesovereign，andofhisvassals，underhereditaryandampleprerogativesannexedtothecrown，hadadifferentissue，thefeudallordshipsweregraduallystriptoftheirpowers，thenobleswerereducedtothestateofsubjects，andobligedtoholdtheirhonours，andexercisetheirjurisdictions，inadependenceontheprince。Itwashissupposedinteresttoreducethemtoastateofequalsubjectionwiththepeople，andtoextendhisownauthority，byrescuingthelabourerandthedependentfromtheoppressionsoftheirimmediatesuperiors。

InthisprojecttheprincesofEuropehavevariouslysucceeded。Whiletheyprotectedthepeople，andtherebyencouragedthepracticeofcommercialandlucrativearts，theypavedthewayfordespotisminthestate；andwiththesamepolicybywhichtheyrelievedthesubjectfrommanyoppressions，theyincreasedthepowersofthecrown。

Butwherethepeoplehadbytheconstitutionarepresentativeinthegovernment，andahead，underwhichtheycouldavailthemselvesofthewealththeyacquired，andofthesenseoftheirpersonalimportance，thispolicyturnedagainstthecrown；itformedanewpowertorestraintheprerogative，toestablishthegovernmentoflaw，andtoexhibitaspectaclenewinthehistoryofmankind；monarchymixedwithrepublic，andextensiveterritory，governed，duringsomeages，withoutmilitaryforce。

SuchwerethestepsbywhichthenationsofEuropehavearrivedattheirpresentestablishments:insomeinstances，theyhavecometothepossessionoflegalconstitutions；inothers，totheexerciseofamitigateddespotism；orcontinuetostrugglewiththetendencywhichtheyseverallyhavetothesedifferentextremes。

Theprogressofempire，intheearlyagesofEurope，threatenedtoberapid，andtoburytheindependentspiritofnationsinthatgravewhichtheOttomanconquerorsfoundforthemselves；andforthewretchedracetheyhadvanquished。TheRomanswereledbyslowdegreestoextendthelimitsoftheirempire；everynewacquisitionwastheresultofatediouswar，andrequiredthesendingofcolonies，andavarietyofmeasures，tosecureanynewpossession。Butthefeudalsuperiorbeinganimated，fromthemomenthehadgainedanestablishment，withadesireofextendinghisterritory，andofenlargingthelistofhisvassals，madefrequentannexationofnewprovinces，merelybybestowinginvestiture，andreceivedindependentstates，withoutanymaterialinnovationintheformoftheirpolicy，asthesubjectsofhisgrowingdominion。

Separateprincipalitieswere，likethepartsofanengine，readytobejoined，and，likethematerialsofabuilding，readytobeerected。Theywereintheresultoftheirstrugglesputtogetherortakenasunderwithfacility。Theindependenceofweakstateswaspreservedonlybythemutualjealousiesofthestrong，orbythegeneralattentionofalltomaintainabalanceofpower。

ThehappysystemofpolicyonwhichEuropeanstateshaveproceededinpreservingthisbalance；thedegreeofmoderationwhichis，inadjustingtheirtreaties，becomehabitualeventovictoriousandpowerfulmonarchies，doeshonourtomankind，andmaygivehopesofalastingfelicitytobederivedfromaprepossession，never，perhaps，equallystronginanyformerperiod，oramonganynumberofnations，thatthefirstconqueringpeoplewillruinthemselves，aswellastheirrivals。

Itisinsuchstates，perhaps，asinafabricofalargedimension，thatwecanperceivemostdistinctlytheseveralpartsofwhichapoliticalbodyconsists；andobservethatconcurrenceoroppositionofinterests，whichservetouniteortoseparatedifferentordersofmen，andleadthem，bymaintainingtheirseveralclaims，toestablishavarietyofpoliticalforms。Thesmallestrepublics，however，consistofpartssimilartothese，andofmemberswhoareactuatedbyasimilarspirit。Theyfurnishexamplesofgovernmentdiversifiedbythecasualcombinationsofparties，andbythedifferentadvantageswithwhichthosepartiesengageintheconflict。

Ineverysocietythereisacasualsubordination，independentofitsformalestablishment，andfrequentlyadversetoitsconstitution。Whiletheadministrationandthepeoplespeakthelanguageofaparticularform，andseemtoadmitnopretensionstopower，withoutalegalnominationinoneinstance，orwithouttheadvantageofhereditaryhonoursinanother，thiscasualsubordination，possiblyarisingfromthedistributionofproperty，orfromsomeothercircumstancethatbestowsunequaldegreesofinfluence，givesthestateitstone，andfixesitscharacter。

TheplebeianorderatRomehavingbeenlongconsideredasofaninferiorcondition，andexcludedfromthehigherofficesofmagistracy，hadsufficientforce，asabody，togetthisinvidiousdistinctionremoved；buttheindividualstillactingundertheimpressionsofasubordinaterank，gaveineverycompetitionhissuffragetoapatrician，whoseprotectionhehadexperienced，andwhosepersonalauthorityhefelt。Bythismeans，theascendencyofthepatricianfamilieswas，foracertainperiod，asregularasitcouldbemadebytheavowedmaximsofaristocracy；butthehigherofficesofstatebeinggraduallysharedbyplebeians，theeffectsofformerdistinctionswerepreventedorweakened。Thelawsthatweremadetoadjustthepretensionsofdifferentorderswereeasilyeluded。Thepopulacebecameafaction，andtheiralliancewasthesurestroadtodominion。Clodius，byapretendedadoptionintoaplebeianfamily，wasqualifiedtobecometribuneofthepeople；andCaesar，byespousingthecauseofthisfaction，madehiswaytousurpationandtyranny。

Insuchfleetingandtransientscenes，formsofgovernmentareonlymodesofproceeding，inwhicheverysubsequentagemaydifferfromtheformer。Factioniseverreadytoseizealloccasionaladvantages；andmankind，wheninhazardfromanyparty，seldomfindabetterprotectionthanthatofitsrival。

CatounitedwithPompeyinoppositiontoCaesar，andguardedagainstnothingsomuchasthatreconciliationofparties，whichwasineffecttobeacombinationofdifferentleadersagainstthefreedomoftherepublic。Thisillustriouspersonagestooddistinguishedinhisagelikeamanamongchildren，andwasraisedabovehisopponents，asmuchbythejustnessofhisunderstanding，andtheextentofhispenetration，ashewasbythemanlyfortitudeanddisinterestednesswithwhichhestrovetobafflethedesignsofavainandchildishambition，thatwasoperatingtotheruinofmankind。

Althoughfreeconstitutionsofgovernmentseldomornevertaketheirrisefromtheschemeofanysingleprojector，yetaretheyoftenpreservedbythevigilance，activity，andzeal，ofsinglemen。Happyaretheywhounderstandandwhochusethisobjectofcare；andhappyitisformankindwhenitisnotchosentoolate。IthasbeenreservedtosignalizethelivesofaCatooraBrutus，ontheeveoffatalrevolutions；tofosterinsecrettheindignationofThraseaandHelvidius；andtooccupythereflectionsofspeculativemenintimeofcorruption。Buteveninsuchlateandineffectualexamples，itwashappytoknow，andtovalue，anobjectwhichissoimportanttomankind。Thepursuit，andtheloveofit，howeverunsuccessful，hasthrownalustreonhumannature。

SectionIII

OfNationalObjectsingeneral，andofEstablishmentsandManners，relatingtothem。

Whilethemodeofsubordinationiscasual，andformsofgovernmenttaketheirrise，chieflyfromthemannerinwhichthemembersofastatehavebeenoriginallyclassed，andfromavarietyofcircumstancesthatprocuretoparticularordersofmenaswayintheircountry，therearecertainobjectsthatclaimtheattentionofeverygovernment，thatleadtheapprehensionsandthereasoningsofmankindineverysociety，andthatnotonlyfurnishanemploymenttostatesmen，butinsomemeasuredirectthecommunitytothoseinstitutions，undertheauthorityofwhichthemagistrateholdshispower。Sucharethenationaldefence，thedistributionofjustice，thepreservationandinternalprosperityofthestate。Iftheseobjectsbeneglected，wemustapprehendthattheverysceneinwhichpartiescontendforpower，forprivilege，orequality，mustdisappear，andsocietyitselfnolongerexist。

Theconsiderationduetotheseobjectswillbepleadedineverypublicassembly，andwillproduce，ineverypoliticalContest，appealstothatcommonsenseandopinionofmankind，which，strugglingwiththeprivateviewsofindividuals，andtheclaimsofparty，maybeconsideredasthegreatlegislatorofnations。

Themeasuresrequiredfortheattainmentofmostnationalobjects，areconnectedtogether，andmustbejointlypursued:

theyareoftenthesame。Theforcewhichispreparedfordefenceagainstforeignenemies，maybelikewiseemployedtokeepthepeaceathome:thelawsmadetosecuretherightsandlibertiesofthepeople，mayserveasencouragementstopopulationandcommerce:andeverycommunity，withoutconsideringhowitsobjectsmaybeclassedordistinguishedbyspeculativemen，is，ineveryinstance，obligedtoassumeortoretainthatformwhichisbestfittedtopreserveitsadvantages，ortoavertitsmisfortunes。

Nations，however，likeprivatemen，havetheirfavouriteends，andtheirprincipalpursuits，whichdiversifytheirmanners，aswellastheirestablishments。Theyevenattaintothesameendsbydifferentmeans；and，likemenwhomaketheirfortunebydifferentprofessions，retainthehabitsoftheirprincipalcallingineveryconditionatwhichtheyarrive。TheRomansbecamewealthyinpursuingtheirconquests；andprobably，foracertainperiod，increasedthenumbersofmankind，whiletheirdispositiontowarseemedtothreatentheearthwithdesolation。Somemodernnationsproceedtodominionandenlargementonthemaximsofcommerce；andwhiletheyonlyintendtoaccumulaterichesathome，continuetogainanimperialascendantabroad。

Thecharactersofthewarlikeandthecommercialarevariouslycombined:theyareformedindifferentdegreesbytheinfluenceofcircumstancesthatmoreorlessfrequentlygiverisetowar，andexcitethedesireofconquest；ofcircumstancesthatleaveapeopleinquiettoimprovetheirdomesticresources，ortopurchase，bythefruitsoftheirindustry，fromforeigners，whattheirownsoilandtheirclimatedeny。

Themembersofeverycommunityaremoreorlessoccupiedwithmattersofstate，inproportionastheirconstitutionadmitsthemtoashareinthegovernment，andsummonsuptheirattentiontoobjectsofapublicnature。Apeoplearecultivatedorunimprovedintheirtalents，inproportionasthosetalentsareemployedinthepracticeofarts，andintheaffairsofsociety:theyareimprovedorcorruptedintheirmanners，inproportionastheyareencouragedanddirectedtoactonthemaximsoffreedomandjustice，orastheyaredegradedintoastateofmeannessandservitude。Butwhateveradvantagesareobtained，orwhateverevilsareavoided，bynations，inanyoftheseimportantrespects，aregenerallyconsideredasmereoccasionalincidents:

theyareseldomadmittedamongtheobjectsofpolicy，orenteredamongthereasonsofstate。

Wehazardbeingtreatedwithridicule，whenwerequirepoliticalestablishments，merelytocultivatethetalentsofmen，andtoinspirethesentimentsofaliberalmind:wemustoffersomemotiveofinterest，orsomehopesofexternaladvantage，toanimatethepursuits，ortodirectthemeasures，ofordinarymen。

Theywouldbebrave，ingenious，andeloquent，onlyfromnecessity，orforthesakeofprofit:theymagnifytheusesofwealth，population，andtheotherresourcesofwar；butoftenforgetthattheseareofnoconsequencewithoutthedirectionofablecapacities，andwithoutthesupportsofanationalvigour。

Wemayexpect，therefore，tofindamongstatesthebiastoaparticularpolicytakenfromtheregardstopublicsafety；fromthedesireofsecuringpersonalfreedom，orprivateproperty；

seldomfromtheconsiderationofmoraleffects，orfromaviewtothegeniusofmankind。

SectionIV

OfPopulationandWealthWhenweimaginewhattheRomansmusthavefeltwhenthetidingscamethatthefloweroftheircityhadperishedatCannae；whenwethinkofwhattheoratorhadinhismindwhenhesaid，’Thattheyouthamongthepeoplewaslikethespringamongtheseasons；’whenwehearofthejoywithwhichthehuntsmanandthewarriorisadopted，inAmerica，tosustainthehonoursofthefamilyandthenation；wearemadetofeelthemostpowerfulmotivestoregardtheincreaseandpreservationofourfellow-citizens。Interest，affection，andviewsofpolicy，combinetorecommendthisobject；anditistreatedwithentireneglectonlybythetyrantwhomistakeshisownadvantage，bythestatesmanwhotrifleswiththechargecommittedtohiscare，orbythepeoplewhoarebecomecorrupted，andwhoconsidertheirfellow-subjectsasrivalsininterest，andcompetitorsintheirlucrativepursuits。

Amongrudesocieties，andamongsmallcommunitiesingeneral，whoareengagedinfrequentstrugglesanddifficulties，thepreservationandincreaseoftheirmembersisamostimportantobject。TheAmericanrateshisdefeatfromthenumbersofmenhehaslost，orheestimateshisvictoryfromtheprisonershehasmade；notfromhishavingremainedthemasterofafield，orfromhisbeingdrivenfromagroundonwhichheencounteredhisenemy。

Amanwithwhomhecanassociateinallhispursuits，whomhecanembraceashisfriend；inwhomhefindsanobjecttohisaffections，andanaidinhisstruggles，istohimthemostpreciousaccessionoffortune。

Evenwherethefriendshipofparticularmenisoutofthequestion，thesociety，beingoccupiedinformingapartythatmaydefenditself，andannoyitsenemy，findsnoobjectofgreatermomentthantheincreaseofitsnumbers。Captiveswhomaybeadopted，orchildrenofeithersexwhomayberearedforthepublic，areaccordinglyconsideredastherichestspoilofanenemy。ThepracticeoftheRomansinadmittingthevanquishedtoshareintheprivilegesoftheircity，therapeoftheSabines，andthesubsequentcoalitionwiththatpeople，werenotsingularoruncommonexamplesinthehistoryofmankind。Thesamepolicyhasbeenfollowed，andwasnaturalandobviouswhere-everthestrengthofastateconsistedinthearmsofafew，andwheremenwerevaluedinthemselves，distinctfromtheconsiderationofestateoroffortune。

Inrudeages，therefore，whilemankindsubsistinsmalldivisions，itshouldappear，thatiftheearthbethinlypeopled，thisdefectdoesnotarisefromadisregardtonumbersonthepartofstates。Itisevenprobable，thatthemosteffectualcoursethatcouldbetakentoincreasethespecies，wouldbe，topreventthecoalitionofnations，andtoobligemankindtoactinsuchsmallbodiesaswouldmakethepreservationoftheirnumbersaprincipalobjectoftheircare。Thisalone，itistrue，wouldnotbesufficient:wemustprobablyaddtheencouragementforrearingfamilies，whichmankindenjoyunderafavourablepolicy，andthemeansofsubsistencewhichtheyowetothepracticeofarts。

Themotherisunwillingtoincreaseheroffspring，andisillprovidedtorearthem，wheresheherselfisobligedtoundergogreathardshipsinthesearchofherfood。InNorthAmerica，wearetold，thatshejoinstothereservesofacoldoramoderatetemperament，theabstinenciestowhichshesubmitsfromtheconsiderationofthisdifficulty。Inherapprehension，itismatterofprudence，andofconscience，tobringonechildtotheconditionoffeedingonvenison，andoffollowingonfoot，beforeshewillhazardanewburdenintravellingthewoods。

Inwarmerlatitudes，bythedifferenttemperament，perhaps，whichtheclimatebestows，andbyagreaterfacilityinprocuringsubsistence，thenumbersofmankindincrease，whiletheobjectitselfisneglected；andthecommerceofthesexes，withoutanyconcernforpopulation，ismadeasubjectofmeredebauch。Insomeplaces，wearetold，itisevenmadetheobjectofabarbarouspolicy，todefeatortorestraintheintentionsofnature。IntheislandofFormosa，themalesareprohibitedtomarrybeforetheageofforty；andfemales，ifpregnantbeforetheageofthirty-six，haveanabortionprocuredbyorderofthemagistrate，whoemploysaviolencethatendangersthelifeofthemother，togetherwiththatofthechild。(11*)

InChina，thepermissiongiventoparentstokillortoexposetheirchildren，wasprobablymeantasarelieffromtheburdenofanumerousoffspring。Butnotwithstandingwhatwehearofapracticesorepugnanttothehumanheart，ithasnot，probably，theeffectsinrestrainingpopulation，whichitseemstothreaten；but，likemanyotherinstitutions，hasaninfluencethereverseofwhatitseemedtoportend。Theparentsmarrywiththismeansofreliefintheirview，andthechildrenaresaved。

Howeverimportanttheobjectofpopulationmaybeheldbymankind，itwillbedifficulttofind，inthehistoryofcivilpolicy，anywiseoreffectualestablishmentssolelycalculatedtoobtainit。Thepracticeofrudeorfeeblenationsisinadequate，orcannotsurmounttheobstacleswhicharefoundintheirmanneroflife。Thegrowthofindustry，theendeavoursofmentoimprovetheirarts，toextendtheircommerce，tosecuretheirpossessions，andtoestablishtheirrights，areindeedthemosteffectualmeanstopromotepopulation:buttheyarisefromadifferentmotive；theyarisefromregardstointerestandpersonalsafety。Theyareintendedforthebenefitofthosewhoexist，nottoprocuretheincreaseoftheirnumbers。

Itis，inthemeantime，ofimportancetoknow，thatwhereapeoplearefortunateintheirpoliticalestablishments，andsuccessfulinthepursuitsofindustry，theirpopulationislikelytogrowinproportion。Mostoftheotherdevicesthoughtofforthispurpose，onlyservetofrustratetheexpectationsofmankind，ortomisleadtheirattention。

Inplantingacolony，instrivingtorepairtheoccasionalwastesofpestilenceorwar，theimmediatecontrivanceofstatesmenmaybeuseful；butifinreasoningontheincreaseofmankindingeneral，weoverlooktheirfreedom，andtheirhappiness，ouraidstopopulationbecomeweakandineffectual。

Theyonlyleadustoworkonthesurface，ortopursueashadow，whileweneglectthesubstantialconcern；andinadecayingstate，makeustamperwithpalliatives，whiletherootsofanevilaresufferedtoremain。OctaviusrevivedorinforcedthelawsthatrelatedtopopulationatRome:butitmaybesaidofhim，andofmanysovereignsinasimilarsituation，thattheyadministerthepoison，whiletheyaredevisingtheremedy；andbringadampandapalsyontheprinciplesoflife，whiletheyendeavour，byexternalapplicationstotheskin，torestorethebloomofadecayedandasicklybody。

Itisindeedhappyformankind，thatthisimportantobjectisnotalwaysdependentonthewisdomofsovereigns，orthepolicyofsinglemen。Apeopleintentonfreedom，findforthemselvesaconditioninwhichtheymayfollowthepropensitiesofnaturewithamoresignaleffect，thananywhichthecouncilsofstatecoulddevise。Whensovereigns，orprojectors，arethesupposedmastersofthissubject，thebesttheycando，istobecautiousofhurtinganinteresttheycannotgreatlypromote，andofmakingbreachestheycannotrepair。

’Whennationsweredividedintosmallterritories，andpettycommonwealths，whereeachmanhadhishouseandhisfieldtohimself，andeachcountyhaditscapitalfreeandindependent；

whatahappysituationformankind，’saysMrHume，’howfavourabletoindustryandagriculture，tomarriageandtopopulation！’Yetherewereprobablynoschemesofthestatesmanforrewardingthemarried，orforpunishingthesingle；forinvitingforeignerstosettle，orforprohibitingthedepartureofnatives。Everycitizenfindingapossessionsecure，andaprovisionforhisheirs，wasnotdiscouragedbythegloomyfearsofoppressionorwant:andwhereeveryotherfunctionofnaturewasfree，thatwhichfurnishedthenurserycouldnotberestrained。Naturehasrequiredthepowerfultobejust；butshehasnototherwiseintrustedthepreservationofherworkstotheirvisionaryplans。Whatfewelcanthestatesmanaddtothefiresofyouth？Lethimonlynotsmotherit，andtheeffectissecure。Whereweoppressordegrademankindwithonehand，itisvain，likeOctavius，toholdoutintheother，thebaitsofmarriage，orthewhiptobarrenness。Itisvaintoinvitenewinhabitantsfromabroad，whilethosewealreadypossessaremadetoholdtheirtenurewithuncertainty；andtotremble，notonlyundertheprospectofanumerousfamily，butevenunderthatofaprecariousanddoubtfulsubsistenceforthemselves。Thearbitrarysovereign，whohasmadethistheconditionofhissubjects，owestheremainsofhispeopletothepowerfulinstinctsofnature，nottoanydeviceofhisown。

Menwillcroudwherethesituationistempting，and，inafewgenerations，willpeopleeverycountrytothemeasureofitsmeansofsubsistence。Theywillevenincreaseundercircumstancesthatportendadecay。ThefrequentwarsoftheRomans，andofmanyathrivingcommunity；eventhepestilence，andthemarketforslaves，findtheirsupply，if，withoutdestroyingthesource，thedrainbecomeregular；andifanissueismadefortheoffspring，withoutunsettlingthefamiliesfromwhichtheyarise。

Whereahappierprovisionismadeformankind，thestatesman，whobypremiumstomarriage，byallurementstoforeigners，orbyconfiningthenativesathome，apprehends，thathehasmadethenumbersofhispeopletogrow，isoftenliketheflyinthefable，whoadmireditssuccess，inturningthewheel，andinmovingthecarriage:hehasonlyaccompaniedwhatwasalreadyinmotion；hehasdashedwithhisoar，tohastenthecataract；andwavedwithhisfan，togivespeedtothewinds。

Projectsofmightysettlement，andofsuddenpopulation，howeversuccessfulintheend，arealwaysexpensivetomankind。

Aboveahundredthousandpeasants，wearetold，wereyearlydriven，likesomanycattle，toPetersburgh，inthefirstattemptstoreplenishthatsettlement，andyearlyperishedforwantofsubsistence。(12*)TheIndianonlyattemptstosettleintheneighbourhoodoftheplantain，(13*)andwhilehisfamilyincreases，headdsatreetothewalk。

Iftheplantain，thecocoa，orthepalm，weresufficienttomaintainaninhabitant，theraceofmeninthewarmerclimatesmightbecomeasnumerousasthetreesoftheforest。Butinmanypartsoftheearth，fromthenatureoftheclimate，andthesoil，thespontaneousproducebeingnexttonothing；themeansofsubsistencearethefruitsonlyoflabourandskill。Ifapeople，whiletheyretaintheirfrugality，increasetheirindustry，andimprovetheirarts，theirnumbersmustgrowinproportion。Henceitis，thatthecultivatedfieldsofEuropearemorepeopledthanthewildsofAmerica，ortheplainsofTartary。

Buteventheincreaseofmankindwhichattendstheaccumulationofwealth，hasitslimits。Thenecessaryoflifeisavagueandarelativeterm:itisonethingintheopinionofthesavage；anotherinthatofthepolishedcitizen:ithasareferencetothefancy，andtothehabitsofliving。Whileartsimprove，andrichesincrease；whilethepossessionsofindividuals，ortheirprospectsofgain，comeuptotheiropinionofwhatisrequiredtosettleafamily，theyenteronitscareswithalacrity。Butwhenthepossession，howeverredundant，fallsshortofthestandard，andafortunesupposedsufficientformarriageisattainedwithdifficulty，populationischecked，orbeginstodecline。Thecitizen，inhisownapprehension，returnstothestateofthesavage；hischildren，hethinks，mustperishforwant；andhequitsasceneoverflowingwithplenty，becausehehasnotthefortunewhichhissupposedrank，orhiswishes，require。Noultimateremedyisappliedtothisevil，bymerelyaccumulatingwealth；forrareandcostlymaterials，whatevertheseare，continuetobesought；andifsilksandpearlaremadecommon，menwillbegintocovetsomenewdecorations，whichthewealthyalonecanprocure。Iftheyareindulgedintheirhumour，theirdemandsarerepeated:Foritisthecontinualincreaseofriches，notanymeasureattained，thatkeepsthecravingimaginationatease。

Menaretemptedtolabour，andtopractiselucrativearts，bymotivesofinterest。Securetotheworkmanthefruitofhislabour，givehimtheprospectsofindependenceorfreedom，thepublichasfoundafaithfulministerintheacquisitionofwealth，andafaithfulstewardinhoardingwhathehasgained。

Thestatesmaninthis，asinthecaseofpopulationitself，candolittlemorethanavoiddoingmischief。Itiswell，if，inthebeginningofcommerce，heknowshowtorepressthefraudstowhichitissubject。Commerce，ifcontinued，isthebranchinwhichmencommittedtotheeffectsoftheirownexperience，areleastapttogowrong。

Thetrader，inrudeages，isshort-sighted，fraudulent，andmercenary；butintheprogressandadvancedstateofhisart，hisviewsareenlarged，hismaximsareestablished:hebecomespunctual，liberal，faithful，andenterprising；andintheperiodofgeneralcorruption，healonehaseveryvirtue，excepttheforcetodefendhisacquisitions。Heneedsnoaidfromthestate，butitsprotection；andisofteninhimselfitsmostintelligentandrespectablemember。EveninChina，weareinformed，wherepilfering，fraud，andcorruption，arethereigningpracticewithalltheotherordersofmen，thegreatmerchantisreadytogive，andtoprocureconfidence:whilehiscountrymenactontheplansandundertherestrictionsofapoliceadjustedtoknaves，heactsonthereasonsoftrade，andthemaimsofmankind。

Ifpopulationbeconnectedwithnationalwealth，libertyandpersonalsecurityisthegreatfoundationofboth:andifthisfoundationbelaidinthestate，naturehassecuredtheincreaseandtheindustryofitsmembers；theonebydesiresthemostardentinthehumanframe；theotherbyaconsiderationthemostuniformandconstantofanythatpossessesthemind。Thegreatobjectofpolicy，therefore，withrespecttoboth，is，tosecuretothefamilyitsmeansofsubsistenceandsettlement；toprotecttheindustriousinthepursuitofhisoccupation；toreconciletherestrictionsofpolice，andthesocialaffectionsofmankind，withtheirseparateandinterestedpursuits。

Inmattersofparticularprofession，industry，andtrade，theexperiencedpractitioneristhemaster，andeverygeneralreasonerisanovice。Theobjectincommerceistomaketheindividualrich；themorehegainsforhimself，themoreheaugmentsthewealthofhiscountry。Ifaprotectionberequired，itmustbegranted；ifcrimesandfraudsbecommitted，theymustberepressed；andgovernmentcanpretendtonomore。Whentherefinedpoliticianwouldlendanactivehand，heonlymultipliesinterruptionsandgroundsofcomplaint；whenthemerchantforgetshisowninteresttolayplansforhiscountry，theperiodofvisionandchimeraisnear，andthesolidbasisofcommercewithdrawn。Hemightbetold，perhaps，thatwhilehepursueshisadvantage，andgivesnocauseofcomplaint，theinterestofcommerceissafe。

ThegeneralpoliceofFrance，proceedingonasuppositionthattheexportationofcornmustdrainthecountrywhereithasgrown，had，tilloflate，laidthatbranchofcommerceunderasevereprohibition。TheEnglishlandholderandthefarmerhadcreditenoughtoobtainapremiumforexportation，tofavourthesaleoftheircommodity；andtheeventhasshewn，thatprivateinterestisabetterpatronofcommerceandplenty，thantherefinementsofstate。OnenationlaystherefinedplanofasettlementonthecontinentofNorthAmerica，andtrustslittletotheconductoftradersandshort-sightedmen；anotherleavesmentofindtheirownpositioninastateoffreedom，andtothinkforthemselves。Theactiveindustryandthelimitedviewsoftheone，madeathrivingsettlement；thegreatprojectsoftheotherwerestillinidea。

ButIwillinglyquitasubjectinwhichIamnotmuchconversant，andstilllessengagedbytheviewswithwhichI

write。Speculationsoncommerceandwealthhavebeendeliveredbytheablestwriters，whohaveleftnothingsoimportanttobeofferedonthesubject，asthegeneralcaution，nottoconsiderthesearticlesasmakingthesumofnationalfelicity，ortheprincipalobjectofanystate。

Onenation，insearchofgoldandofpreciousmetals，neglectthedomesticsourcesofwealth，andbecomedependentontheirneighboursforthenecessariesoflife:anothersointentonimprovingtheirinternalresources，andonincreasingtheircommerce，thattheybecomedependentonforeignersforthedefenceofwhattheyacquire。Itisevenpainfulinconversationtofindtheinterestsoftradegivethetonetoourreasonings，andtofindasubjectperpetuallyofferedasthegreatbusinessofnationalcouncils，towhichanyinterpositionofgovernmentisseldom，withpropriety，applied，orneverbeyondtheprotectionitaffords。

Wecomplainofawantofpublicspirit；butwhatevermaybetheeffectofthiserrorinpractice，inspeculationitisnoneofourfaults:wereasonperpetuallyforthepublic；butthewantofnationalviewswerefrequentlybetterthanthepossessionofthoseweexpress:wewouldhavenations，likeacompanyofmerchants，thinkofnothingbuttheincreaseoftheirstock；

assembletodeliberateonprofitandloss；and，likethemtoo，intrusttheirprotectiontoaforcewhichtheydonotpossessinthemselves。

Becausemen，likeotheranimals，aremaintainedinmultitudes，wherethenecessariesoflifeareamassed，andthestoreofwealthisenlarged，wedropourregardsforthehappiness，themoralandpoliticalcharacterofapeople；andanxiousfortheherdwewouldpropagate，carryourviewsnofartherthanthestallandthepasture。Weforgetthatthefewhaveoftenmadeapreyofthemany；thattothepoorthereisnothingsoenticingasthecoffersoftherich；andthatwhenthepriceoffreedomcomestobepaid，theheavyswordofthevictormayfallintotheoppositescale。

Whateverbetheactualconductofnationsinthismatter，itiscertain，thatmanyofourargumentswouldhurryus，forthesakeofwealthandofpopulation，intoascenewheremankindbeingexposedtocorruption，areunabletodefendtheirpossessions；andwheretheyare，intheend，subjecttooppressionandruin。Wecutofftheroots，whilewewouldextendthebranches，andthickenthefoliage。

Itispossiblyfromanopinionthatthevirtuesofmenaresecure，thatsomewhoturnfromtheirattentiontopublicaffairs，thinkofnothingbutthenumbersandwealthofapeople:

itisfromadreadofcorruption，thatothersthinkofnothingbuthowtopreservethenationalvirtues。Humansocietyhasgreatobligationstoboth。Theyareopposedtooneanotheronlybymistake；andevenwhenunited，havenotstrengthsufficienttocombatthewretchedparty，thatreferseveryobjecttopersonalinterest，andthatcaresnotforthesafetyorincreaseofanystockbutitsown。

SectionV

OfNationalDefenceandConquestItisimpossibletoascertainhowmuchofthepolicyofanystatehasareferencetowar，ortonationalsafety。’Ourlegislator，’saystheCretaninPlato，’thoughtthatnationswerebynatureinastateofhostility。hetookhismeasuresaccordingly；andobservingthatallthepossessionsofthevanquishedpertaintothevictor，hehelditridiculoustoproposeanybenefittohiscountry，beforehehadprovidedthatitshouldnotbeconquered。’

Crete，whichissupposedtohavebeenamodelofmilitarypolicy，iscommonlyconsideredastheoriginalfromwhichthecelebratedlawsofLycurguswerecopied。Mankind，itseems，ineveryinstance，musthavesomepalpableobjecttodirecttheirproceedings，andmusthaveaviewtosomepointofexternalutility，eveninthechoiceoftheirvirtues。ThedisciplineofSpartawasmilitary。andasenseofitsuseinthefield，morethantheforceofunwrittenandtraditionarylaws，orthesupposedengagementofthepublicfaithobtainedbythelawgiver，mayhaveinducedthispeopletopersevereintheobservanceofmanyrules，whichtoothernationsdonotappearnecessary，exceptinthepresenceofanenemy。

Everyinstitutionofthissingularpeoplegavealessonofobedience，offortitude，andofzealforthepublic:butitisremarkablethattheychosetoobtain，bytheirvirtuesalone，whatothernationsarefaintobuywiththeirtreasure；anditiswellknown，that，inthecourseoftheirhistory，theycametoregardtheirdisciplinemerelyonaccountofitsmoraleffects。

Theyhadexperiencedthehappinessofamindcourageous，disinterested，anddevotedtoitsbestaffections；andtheystudiedtopreservethischaracterinthemselves，byresigningtheinterestsofambition，andthehopesofmilitaryglory，evenbysacrificingthenumbersoftheirpeople。

ItwasthefateofSpartanswhoescapedfromthefield，notofthosewhoperishedwithCleombrotusatLeuctra，thatfilledthecottagesofLacedemonwithmourningandseriousreflection:(14*)itwasthefearofhavingtheircitizenscorruptedabroad，byintercoursewithservileandmercenarymen，thatmadethemquitthestationofleadersinthePersianwar，andleaveAthens，duringyears，topursue，unrivalled，thatcareerofambitionandfiftyprofit，bywhichshemadesuchacquisitionsofpowerandofwealth。(15*)

Wehavehadoccasiontoobserve，thatineveryrudestate，thegreatbusinessiswar；andthatinbarbaroustimes，mankind，beinggenerallydividedintosmallparties，areengagedinalmostperpetualhostilities。Thiscircumstancegivesthemilitaryleaderacontinuedascendantinhiscountry，andinclineseverypeople，duringwarlikeages，tomonarchicalgovernment。

Theconductofanarmycanleastofallsubjectsbedivided:

andwemaybejustlysurprisedtofind，thattheRomans，aftermanyagesofmilitaryexperience，andafterhavingrecentlyfeltthearmsofHannibal，inmanyencounters，associatedtwoleadersattheheadofthesamearmy，andleftthemtoadjusttheirpretensions，bytakingthecommand，eachadayinhisturn。Thesamepeople，however，onotheroccasions，thoughtitexpedienttosuspendtheexerciseofeverysubordinatemagistracy，andinthetimeofgreatalarms，tointrustalltheauthorityofthestateinthehandsofoneperson。

Republicshavegenerallyfounditnecessary，intheconductofwar，toplacegreatconfidenceintheexecutivebranchoftheirgovernment。WhenaconsulatRomehadproclaimedhislevies，andadministeredthemilitaryoath，hebecamefromthatmomentmasterofthepublictreasury，andofthelivesofthosewhowereunderhiscommand。(16*)Theaxeandtherodswerenolongeramerebadgeofmagistracy，oranemptypageant，inthehandsofthelictor。theywere，atthecommandofthefather，stainedwiththebloodofhisownchildren；andfell，withoutappeal，onthemutinousandthedisobedientofeverycondition。

Ineveryfreestate，thereisaperpetualnecessitytodistinguishthemaximsofmartiallawfromthoseofthecivil；

andhewhohasnotlearnedtogiveanimplicitobedience，wherethestatehasgivenhimamilitaryleader，andtoresignhispersonalfreedominthefield，fromthesamemagnanimitywithwhichhemaintainsitinthepoliticaldeliberationsofhiscountry，hasyettolearnthemostimportantlessonofcivilsociety，andisonlyfittooccupyaplaceinarude，orinacorruptedstate，wheretheprinciplesofmutinyandofservilitybeingjoined，theoneortheotherisfrequentlyadoptedinthewrongplace。

Fromaregardtowhatisnecessaryinwar，nationsinclinedtopopularoraristocraticalgovernment，havehadrecoursetoestablishmentsthatborderedonmonarchy。Evenwherethehighestofficeofthestatewasincommontimesadministeredbyapluralityofpersons，thewholepowerandauthoritybelongingtoitwas，onparticularoccasions，committedtoone；andupongreatalarms，whenthepoliticalfabricwasshakenorendangered，amonarchicalpowerhasbeenapplied，likeaprop，tosecurethestateagainsttherageofthetempest。ThuswerethedictatorsoccasionallynamedatRome，andthestadtholdersintheUnitedProvinces；andthus，inmixedgovernments，theroyalprerogativeisoccasionallyenlarged，bythetemporarysuspensionoflaws，(17*)andthebarriersoflibertyappeartoberemoved，inordertovestadictatorialpowerinthehandsoftheking。

Hadmankind，therefore，noviewbuttowarfare，itisprobablethattheywouldcontinuetoprefermonarchicalgovernmenttoanyother；oratleastthateverynation，inordertoprocuresecretandunitedcouncils，wouldintrusttheexecutivepowerwithunlimitedauthority。But，happilyforcivilsociety，menhaveobjectsofadifferentsort:andexperiencehastaught，thatalthoughtheconductofarmiesrequiresanabsoluteandundividedcommand；yetanationalforceisbestformed，wherenumbersofmenareinuredtoequality；andwherethemeanestcitizenmayconsiderhimself，uponoccasion，asdestinedtocommandaswellastoobey。Itisherethatthedictatorfindsaspiritandaforcepreparedtosecondhiscouncils；itisheretoothatthedictatorhimselfisformed，andthatnumbersofleadersarepresentedtothepublicchoice；itisherethattheprosperityofastateisindependentofsinglemen，andthatawisdomwhichneverdies，withasystemofmilitaryarrangementspermanentandregular，can，evenunderthegreatestmisfortunes，prolongthenationalstruggle。Withthisadvantage，theRomans，findinganumberofdistinguishedleadersariseinsuccession，wereatalltimesalmostequallypreparedtocontendwiththeirenemiesofAsiaorAfrica；whilethefortuneofthoseenemies，onthecontrary，dependedonthecasualappearanceofsingularmen，ofaMithridates，orofaHannibal。

Thesoldier，wearetold，hashispointofhonour，andafashionofthinking，whichhewearswithhissword。Thispointofhonourinfreeanduncorruptedstates，isazealforthepublic；

andwartothem，isanoperationofpassions，notthemerepursuitofacalling。Itsgoodanditsilleffectsarefeltinextremes:thefriendismadetoexperiencethewarmestproofsofattachment，theenemytheseveresteffectsofanimosity。Onthissystemthecelebratednationsofantiquitymadewarundertheirhighestattainmentsofcivility，andundertheirgreatestdegreesofrefinement。

Insmallandrudesocieties，theindividualfindshimselfattackedineverynationalwar；andnonecanproposetodevolvehisdefenceonanother。’TheKingofSpainisagreatprince，’

saidanAmericanchieftothegovernorofJamaica，whowaspreparingabodyoftroopstojoininanenterpriseagainsttheSpaniards:’doyouproposetomakewaruponsogreatakingwithsosmallaforce？’BeingtoldthattheforceshesawweretobejoinedbytroopsfromEurope，andthatthegovernorcouldthencommandnomore:’Whoarethesethen，’saidtheAmerican，’whoformthiscroudofspectators？aretheynotyourpeople？andwhydoyounotallgoforthtosogreatawar？’Hewasanswered，Thatthespectatorsweremerchants，andotherinhabitants，whotooknopartintheservice:’Wouldtheybemerchantsstill，’continuedthisstatesman，’iftheKingofSpainwastoattackyouhere？Formypart，Idonotthinkthatmerchantsshouldbepermittedtoliveinanycountry:whenIgotowar，Ileavenobodyathomebutthewomen。’ItshouldseemthatthissimplewarriorconsideredmerchaNtsasakindofneutralpersons，whotooknopartinthequarrelsoftheircountry；andthathedidnotknowhowmuchwaritselfmaybemadeasubjectoftraffic；whatmightyarmiesmaybeputinmotionfrombehindthecounter；howoftenhumanbloodis，withoutanynationalanimosity，boughtandsoldforbillsofexchange；andhowoftentheprince，thenobles，andthestatesmen，inmanyapolishednation，might，inhisaccount，beconsideredasmerchants。

Intheprogressofartsandofpolicy，themembersofeverystatearedividedintoclasses；andinthecommencementofthisdistribution，thereisnodistinctionmoreseriousthanthatofthewarriorandthepacificinhabitant；nomoreisrequiredtoplacemenintherelationofmasterandslave。Evenwhentherigoursofanestablishedslaveryabate，astheyhavedoneinmodernEurope，inconsequenceofaprotection，andaproperty，allowedtothemechanicandlabourer，thisdistinctionservesstilltoseparatethenoblefromthebase，andtopointoutthatclassofmenwhoaredestinedtoreignandtodomineerintheircountry。

Itwascertainlyneverforeseenbymankind，thatinthepursuitofrefinement，theyweretoreversethisorder；oreventhattheyweretoplacethegovernment，andthemilitaryforceofnations，indifferenthands。Butisitequallyunforseen，thattheformerordermayagaintakeplace？andthatthepacificcitizen，howeverdistinguishedbyprivilegeandrank，mustonedaybowtothepersonwithwhomhehasintrustedhissword。Ifsuchrevolutionsshouldactuallyfollow，willthisnewmasterreviveinhisownorderthespiritofthenobleandthefree？

Willherenewthecharactersofthewarriorandthestatesman？

Willherestoretohiscountrythecivilandmilitaryvirtues？I

amafraidtoreply。Montesquieuobserves，thatthegovernmentofRome，evenundertheemperors，became，inthehandsofthetroops，electiveandrepublican:buttheFabiiortheBrutiwereheardofnomore，afterthepraetorianbandsbecametherepublic。

Wehaveenumeratedsomeoftheheadsunderwhichapeople，astheyemergefrombarbarity，maycometobeclassed。Suchare，thenobility，thepeople，theadherentsoftheprince；andeventhepriesthoodhavenotbeenforgotten:whenwearriveattimesofrefinement，thearmymustbejoinedtothelist。Thedepartmentsofcivilgovernmentandofwarbeingsevered，andthepre-eminencebeinggiventothestatesman，theambitiouswillnaturallydevolvethemilitaryserviceonthosewhoarecontentedwithasubordinatestation。Theywhohavethegreatestshareinthedivisionoffortune，andthegreatestinterestindefendingtheircountry，havingresignedthesword，mustpayforwhattheyhaveceasedtoperform；andarmies，notonlyatadistancefromhome，butintheverybosomoftheircountry，aresubsistedbypay。Adisciplineisinventedtoinurethesoldiertoperform，fromhabit，andfromthefearofpunishment，thosehazardousduties，whichtheloveofthepublic，oranationalspirit，nolongerinspire。

Whenweconsiderthebreachthatsuchanestablishmentmakesinthesystemofnationalvirtues，itisunpleasanttoobserve，thatmostnationswhohaverunthecareerofcivilarts，have，insomedegree，adoptedthismeasure。Notonlystates，whicheitherhavewarstomaintain，orprecariouspossessionstodefendatadistance；notonlyaprincejealousofhisauthority，orinhastetogaintheadvantageofdiscipline，aredisposedtoemployforeigntroops，ortokeepstandingarmies；butevenrepublics，withlittleoftheformeroccasion，andnoneofthemotiveswhichprevailinmonarchy，havebeenfoundtotreadinthesamepath。

Ifmilitaryarrangementsoccupysoconsiderableaplaceinthedomesticpolicyofnations，theactualconsequencesofwarareequallyimportantinthehistoryofmankind。Gloryandspoilweretheearliestsubjectofquarrels；aconcessionofsuperiority，oraransom，werethepricesofpeace。Theloveofsafety，andthedesireofdominion，equallyleadmankindtowishforaccessionsofstrength。Whetherasvictorsorasvanquished，theytendtoacoalition；andpowerfulnationsconsideringaprovince，orafortressacquiredontheirfrontier，assomuchgained，areperpetuallyintentonextendingtheirlimits。

Themaximsofconquestarenotalwaystobedistinguishedfromthoseofself-defence。Ifaneighbouringstatebedangerous，ifitbefrequentlytroublesome，itisamaximfoundedintheconsiderationofsafety，aswellasofconquest，Thatitoughttobeweakenedordisarmed:If，beingonCereduced，itbedisposedtorenewthecontest，itmustfromthenceforwardbegovernedinform。Romeneveravowedanyothermaximsofconquest；andsheeverywheresentherinsolentarmies，underthespeciouspretenceofprocuringtoherselfandheralliesalastingpeace，whichshealonewouldreservethepowertodisturb。

TheequalityofthoseallianceswhichtheGrecianstatesformedagainsteachother，maintained，foratime，theirindependenceandseparation；andthattimewastheshiningandthehappyperiodoftheirstory。Itwasprolongedmorebyvigilanceandconductwhichtheyseverallyapplied，thanbythemoderationoftheircouncils，orbyanypeculiaritiesofdomesticpolicywhicharrestedtheirprogress。Thevictorsweresometimescontented，withmerelychangingtoaresemblance，oftheirownformsthegovernmentofthestatestheysubdued。Whatthenextstepmighthavebeenintheprogressofimpositions，ishardtodetermine。Butwhenweconsider，thatonepartyfoughtfortheimpositionoftributes，anotherfortheascendantinwar，itcannotbedoubted，thattheAthenians，fromanationalambition，andfromthedesireofwealth，andtheSpartans，thoughtheyoriginallyonlymeanttodefendthemselves，andtheirallies，wereboth，atlast，equallywillingtobecomethemastersofGreece；andwerepreparingforeachotherathome，thatyoke，whichboth，togetherwiththeirconfederates，wereobligedtoreceivefromabroad。

IntheconquestsofPhilip，thedesireofself-preservationandsecurityseemedtobeblendedwiththeambitionnaturaltoprinces。Heturnedhisarmssuccessivelytothequartersonwhichhefoundhimselfhurt，fromwhichhehadbeenalarmedorprovoked:andwhenhehadsubduedtheGreeks，heproposedtoleadthemagainsttheirancientenemyofPersia。InthishelaidtheplanwhichWascarriedintoexecutionbyhisson。

TheRomans，becomethemastersofItaly，andtheconquerorsofCarthage，hadbeenalarmedonthesideofMacedon，andwereledtocrossanewseainsearchofanewfield，onwhichtoexercisetheirmilitaryforce。Inprosecutionoftheirwars，fromtheearliesttothelatestdateoftheirhistory，withoutintendingtheveryconqueststheymade，perhapswithoutforeseeingwhatadvantagetheyweretoreapfromthesubjectionofdistantprovinces，orinwhatmannertheyweretogoverntheirnewacquisitions，theystillproceededtoseizewhatcamesuccessivelywithintheirreach；and，stimulatedbyapolicywhichengagedtheminperpetualwars，whichledtoperpetualvictoryandaccessionsofterritory，theyextendedthefrontierofastate，which，butafewcenturiesbefore，hadbeenconfinedwithintheskirtsofavillage，totheEuphrates，theDanube，theWeser，theForth，andtheOcean。

Itisvaintoaffirm，thatthegeniusofanynationisadversetoconquest。Itsrealinterestsindeedmostcommonlyareso；buteverystatewhichispreparedtodefenditself，andtoobtainvictories，islikewiseinhazardofbeingtemptedtoconquer。

InEurope，wheremercenaryanddisciplinedarmiesareeverywhereformed，andreadytotraversetheearth，where，likeafloodpentupbyslenderbanks，theyareonlyrestrainedbypoliticalforms，oratemporarybalanceofpower；ifthesluicesshouldbreak，whatinundationsmaywenotexpecttobehold？

EffeminatekingdomsandempiresarespreadfromtheseaofCoreatotheAtlanticocean。Everystate，bythedefeatofitstroops，maybeturnedintoaprovince；everyarmyopposedinthefieldto-daymaybehiredto-morrow；andeveryvictorygained，maygivetheaccessionofanewmilitaryforcetothevictor。

TheRomans，withinferiorartsofcommunicationbothbyseaandland，maintainedtheirdominioninaconsiderablepartofEurope，Asia，andAfrica，overfierceandintractablenations:

WhatmaynotthefleetsandarmiesofEurope，withtheaccesstheyhavebycommercetoeverypartoftheworld，andthefacilityoftheirconveyance，effect，ifthatruinousmaximshouldprevail，Thatthegrandeurofanationistobeestimatedfromtheextentofitsterritory；or，Thattheinterestofanyparticularpeopleconsistsinreducingtheirneighbourstoservitude？

SectionVI

OfCivilLibertyIfwar，eitherfordepredationordefence，weretheprincipalobjectofnations，everytribewould，fromitsearlieststate，aimattheconditionofaTartarhorde；andinallitssuccesseswouldhastentothegrandeurofaTartarempire。Themilitaryleaderwouldsupersedethecivilmagistrate；andpreparationstoflywithalltheirpossessions，ortopursuewithalltheirforces，would，ineverysociety，makethesumoftheirpublicarrangements。

HewhofirstonthebanksoftheWolga，ortheJenisca，hadtaughttheScythiantomountthehorse，tomovehiscottageonwheels，toharasshisenemyalikebyhisattacksandhisflights，tohandleatfullspeedthelanceandthebow，andwhenbeatfromthefield，toleavehisarrowsinthewindtomeethispursuer；

hewhohadtaughthiscountrymentousethesameanimalforeverypurposeofthedairy，theshambles，andthefield；wouldbeesteemedthefounderofhisnation；or，likeCeresandBacchusamongtheGreeks，wouldbeinvestedwiththehonoursofagod，astherewardofhisusefulinventions。Amidstsuchinstitutions，thenamesandatchievementsofHerculesandJasonmighthavebeentransmittedtoposterity；butthoseofLycurgusorSolon，theheroesofpoliticalsociety，couldhavegainednoreputation，eitherfabulousorreal，intherecordsoffame。

Everytribeofwarlikebarbariansmayentertainamongthemselvesthestrongestsentimentsofaffectionandhonour，whiletheycarrytotherestofmankindtheaspectofbandittiandrobbers。(18*)Theymaybeindifferenttointerest，andsuperiortodanger；butoursenseofhumanity，ourregardtotherightsofnations，ouradmirationofcivilwisdomandjustice，evenoureffeminacyitself，makeusturnawaywithcontempt，orwithhorror，fromascenewhichexhibitssofewofourgoodqualities，andwhichservesomuchtoreproachourweakness。

Itisinconductingtheaffairsofcivilsociety，thatmankindfindtheexerciseoftheirbesttalents，aswellastheobjectoftheirbestaffections。Itisinbeinggraftedontheadvantagesofcivilsociety，thattheartofwarisbroughttoperfection；thattheresourcesofarmies，andthecomplicatedspringstobetouchedintheirconduct，arebestunderstood。Themostcelebratedwarriorswerealsocitizens:opposedtoaRoman，oraGreek，thechieftainofThrace，ofGermany，orGaul，wasanovice。ThenativeofPellalearnedtheprinciplesofhisartfromEpaminondasandPelopidas。

Ifnations，ashathbeenobservedintheprecedingsection，mustadjusttheirpolicyontheprospectofwarfromabroad，theyareequallyboundtoprovidefortheattainmentofpeaceathome。

Butthereisnopeaceintheabsenceofjustice。Itmaysubsistwithdivisions，disputes，andcontraryopinions；butnotwiththecommissionofwrongs。Theinjurious，andtheinjured，are，asimpliedintheverymeaningoftheterms，inastateofhostility。

Wheremenenjoypeace，theyoweiteithertotheirmutualregardsandaffections，ortotherestraintsoflaw。Thosearethehappieststateswhichprocurepeacetotheirmembersbythefirstofthesemethods:butitissufficientlyuncommontoprocureitevenbythesecond。Thefirstwouldwith-holdtheoccasionsofwarandofcompetition:thesecondadjuststhepretensionsofmenbystipulationsandtreaties。Spartataughthercitizensnottoregardinterest:otherfreenationssecuretheinterestoftheirmembers，andconsiderthisasaprincipalpartoftheirrights。

Lawisthetreatytowhichmembersofthesamecommunityhaveagreed，andunderwhichthemagistrateandthesubjectcontinuetoenjoytheirrights，andtomaintainthepeaceofsociety。Thedesireoflucreisthegreatmotivetoinjuries:lawthereforehasaprincipalreferencetoproperty。Itwouldascertainthedifferentmethodsbywhichpropertymaybeacquired，asbyprescription，conveyance，andsuccession；anditmakesthenecessaryprovisionsforrenderingthepossessionofpropertysecure。

Besideavarice，thereareothermotivesfromwhichmenareunjust；sucharepride，malice，envy，andrevenge。Thelawwoulderadicatetheprinciplesthemselves，oratleastpreventtheireffects。

Fromwhatevermotivewrongsarecommitted，therearedifferentparticularsinwhichtheinjuredmaysuffer。Hemaysufferinhisgoods，inhisperson，orinthefreedomofhisconduct。Naturehasmadehimmasterofeveryactionwhichisnotinjurioustoothers。Thelawsofhisparticularsocietyintitlehimperhapstoadeterminatestation，andbestowonhimacertainshareinthegovernmentofhiscountry。Aninjury，therefore，whichinthisrespectputshimunderanyunjustrestraint，maybecalledaninfringementofhispoliticalrights。

Wherethecitizenissupposedtohaverightsofpropertyandofstation，andisprotectedintheexerciseofthem，heissaidtobefree；andtheveryrestraintsbywhichheishinderedfromthecommissionofcrimes，areapartofhisliberty。Nopersonisfree，whereanypersonissufferedtodowrongwithimpunity。

Eventhedespoticprinceonhisthrone，isnotanexceptiontothisgeneralrule。Hehimselfisaslave，themomenthepretendsthatforceshoulddecideanycontest。Thedisregardhethrowsontherightsofhispeoplerecoilsonhimself；andinthegeneraluncertaintyofallconditions，thereisnotenuremoreprecariousthanhisown。

Fromthedifferentparticularstowhichmenrefer，inspeakingofliberty，whethertothesafetyofthepersonandthegoods，thedignityofrank，ortheparticipationofpoliticalimportance，aswellasfromthedifferentmethodsbywhichtheirrightsaresecured，theyareledtodifferintheinterpretationoftheterm；andeverypeopleisapttoimagine，thatitssignificationistobefoundonlyamongthemselves。