第6章

SiegfriedandBrunhild，HagenandGunther，seemtobemerepersonificationsofphysicalphenomena；butEtzelandDietricharenoneotherthanAttilaandTheodoricsurroundedwithmythicalattributes；andeventheconceptionofBrunhildhasbeensupposedtocontainelementsderivedfromthetraditionalrecollectionofthehistoricalBrunehault。When，therefore，Achilleusissaid，likeatruesun-god，tohavediedbyawoundfromasharpinstrumentintheonlyvulnerablepartofhisbody，wemayreplythatthelegendaryCharlemagneconductshimselfinmanyrespectslikeasolardeity。IfOdysseusdetainedbyKalypsorepresentsthesunensnaredandheldcaptivebythepalegoddessofnight，thelegendofFredericBarbarossaasleepinaThuringianmountainembodiesaportionofakindredconception。WeknowthatCharlemagneandFrederichavebeensubstitutedforOdin；wemaysuspectthatwiththemythicalimpersonationsofAchilleusandOdysseussometraditionalfiguresmaybeblended。Weshouldrememberthatinearlytimesthesolar-mythwasasortoftypeafterwhichallwonderfulstorieswouldbepatterned，andthattosuchatypetraditionalsowouldbemadetoconform。

Insuggestingthisview，wearenotopeningthedoortoEuhemerism。IfthereisanyoneconclusionconcerningtheHomericpoemswhichthelaboursofawholegenerationofscholarsmaybesaidtohavesatisfactorilyestablished，itisthis，thatnotrustworthyhistorycanbeobtainedfromeithertheIliadortheOdysseymerelybysiftingoutthemythicalelement。Evenifthepoemscontainthefaintreminiscenceofanactualevent，thateventisinextricablywrappedupinmythicalphraseology，sothatbynocunningofthescholarcanitbeconstruedintohistory。InviewofthisitisquiteuselessforMr。GladstonetoattempttobasehistoricalconclusionsuponthefactthatHelenaisalwayscalled“ArgiveHelen，“ortodrawethnologicalinferencesfromthecircumstancesthatMenelaos，Achilleus，andtherestoftheGreekheroes，haveyellowhair，whiletheTrojansareneversodescribed。TheArgosofthemythisnotthecityofPeloponnesos，thoughdoubtlesssoconstruedeveninHomer"stime。Itis“thebrightland“whereZeusresides，andtheepithetisappliedtohiswifeHereandhisdaughterHelena，aswellastothedogofOdysseus，whoreappearswithSarameyasintheVeda。Asforyellowhair，thereisnoevidencethatGreekshaveevercommonlypossessedit；butnoothercolourwoulddoforasolarhero，anditaccordinglycharacterizestheentirecompanyofthem，whereverfound，whilefortheTrojans，orchildrenofnight，itisnotrequired。

AwideracquaintancewiththeresultswhichhavebeenobtainedduringthepastthirtyyearsbythecomparativestudyoflanguagesandmythologieswouldhaveledMr。GladstonetoreconsidermanyofhisviewsconcerningtheHomericpoems，andmightperhapshaveledhimtocutouthalfortwothirdsofhisbookashopelesslyantiquated。ThechapteronthedivinitiesofOlymposwouldcertainlyhavehadtoberewritten，andtheridiculoustheoryofaprimevalrevelationabandoned。Onecanhardlypreserveone"sgravitywhenMr。

GladstonederivesApollofromtheHebrewMessiah，andAthenefromtheLogos。ToaccreditHomerwithanacquaintancewiththedoctrineoftheLogos，whichdidnotexistuntilthetimeofPhilo，anddidnotreceiveitsauthorizedChristianformuntilthemiddleofthesecondcenturyafterChrist，iscertainlyastrangeproceeding。WeshallnextperhapsbeinvitedtobelievethattheauthorsoftheVolsungaSagaobtainedtheconceptionofSigurdfromthe“Thirty-NineArticles。“Itistruethatthesedeities，AtheneandApollo，arewiser，purer，andmoredignified，onthewhole，thananyoftheotherdivinitiesoftheHomericOlympos。Theyalone，asMr。Gladstonetrulyobserves，areneverdeceivedorfrustrated。ForallHellas，Apollowastheinterpreteroffuturity，andinthemaidAthenewehaveperhapsthehighestconceptionofdeitytowhichtheGreekmindhadattainedintheearlytimes。IntheVeda，Atheneisnothingbutthedawn；

butintheGreekmythology，whilethemerelysensuousgloriesofdaybreakareassignedtoEos，Athenebecomestheimpersonationoftheilluminatingandknowledge-givinglightofthesky。Asthedawn，sheisdaughterofZeus，thesky，andinmythiclanguagespringsfromhisforehead；but，accordingtotheGreekconception，thisimagerysignifiesthatsheshares，morethananyotherdeity，intheboundlesswisdomofZeus。TheknowledgeofApollo，ontheotherhand，isthepeculiarprivilegeofthesun，who，fromhisloftyposition，seeseverythingthattakesplaceupontheearth。EventhesecondarydivinityHeliospossessesthisprerogativetoacertainextent。

NexttoaHebrew，Mr。GladstoneprefersaPhoenicianancestryfortheGreekdivinities。ButthesamelackofacquaintancewiththeoldAryanmythologyvitiatesallhisconclusions。NodoubttheGreekmythologyisinsomeparticularstingedwithPhoenicianconceptions。AphroditewasoriginallyapurelyGreekdivinity，butincourseoftimesheacquiredsomeoftheattributesoftheSemiticAstarte，andwashardlyimprovedbythechange。AdonisissimplyaSemiticdivinity，importedintoGreece。ButthesamecannotbeprovedofPoseidon；[154]farlessofHermes，whoisidenticalwiththeVedicSarameyas，therisingwind，thesonofSaramathedawn，thelying，tricksomewind-god，whoinventedmusic，andconductsthesoulsofdeadmentothehouseofHades，evenashiscounterparttheNorseOdinrushesoverthetree-topsleadingthehostofthedeparted。WhenoneseesIris，themessengerofZeus，referredtoaHebreworiginal，becauseofJehovah"spromisetoNoah，oneisatalosstounderstandtherelationshipbetweenthetwoconceptions。NothingcouldbemorenaturaltotheGreeksthantocalltherainbowthemessengerofthesky-godtoearth-dwellingmen；tocallitatokensetintheskybyJehovah，astheHebrewsdid，wasaverydifferentthing。WemayadmittheverycloseresemblancebetweenthemythofBellerophonandAnteia，andthatofJosephandZuleikha；butthefactthattheGreekstoryisexplicablefromAryanantecedents，whiletheHebrewstoryisisolated，mightperhapssuggesttheinferencethattheHebrewsweretheborrowers，astheyundoubtedlywereinthecaseofthemythofEden。Lastly，toconcludethatHeliosisanEasterndeity，becausehereignsintheEastoverThrinakia，iswhollyunwarranted。IsnotHeliospureGreekforthesun？andwhereshouldhissacredislandbeplaced，ifnotintheEast？Asforhisoxen，whichwroughtsuchdiredestructiontothecomradesofOdysseus，andwhichseemtoMr。Gladstonesoanomalous，theyarethoseverysameunhappycattle，theclouds，whichwerestolenbythestorm-demonCacusandthewind-deityHermes，andwhichfurnishedendlessmaterialforlegendstothepoetsoftheVeda。

[154]IhavenoopinionastothenationalityoftheEarth-shaker，and，regardingtheetymologyofhisname，I

believewecanhardlydobetterthanacknowledge，withMr。

Cox，thatitisunknown。Itmaywellbedoubted，however，whethermuchgoodislikelytocomeofcomparisonsbetweenPoseidon，Dagon，Oannes，andNoah，orofdistinctionsbetweenthechildrenofShemandthechildrenofHam。SeeBrown"sPoseidon；aLinkbetweenSemite，Hamite，andAryan，London，1872，——abookwhichisopentoseveralofthecriticismsheredirectedagainstMr。Gladstone"smanneroftheorizing。

ButthewholesubjectofcomparativemythologyseemstobeterraincognitatoMr。Gladstone。HepursuestheeventenourofhiswayinutterdisregardofGrimm，andKuhn，andBreal，andDasent，andBurnouf。HetakesnonoteoftheRig-Veda，nordoesheseemtorealizethattherewaseveratimewhentheancestorsoftheGreeksandHindusworshippedthesamegods。

TwoorthreetimeshecitesMaxMuller，butmakesnouseofthecopiousdatawhichmightbegatheredfromhim。TheonlyworkwhichseemsreallytohaveattractedhisattentionisM。

Jacolliot"sverydiscreditableperformancecalled“TheBibleinIndia。“Mr。Gladstonedoesnot，indeed，unreservedlyapproveofthisbook；butneitherdoesheappeartosuspectthatitisadisgracefulpieceofcharlatanry，writtenbyamanignorantoftheveryrudimentsofthesubjectwhichheprofessestohandle。

Mr。Gladstoneisequallyoutofhisdepthwhenhecomestotreatpurelyphilologicalquestions。Ofthescienceofphilology，asbaseduponestablishedlawsofphoneticchange，heseemstohavenoknowledgewhatever。Heseemstothinkthattwowordsaresufficientlyprovedtobeconnectedwhentheyareseentoresembleeachotherinspellingorinsound。ThushequotesapprovinglyaderivationofthenameThemisfromanassumedverbthem，“tospeak，“whereasitisnotoriouslyderivedfromtiqhmi，asstatutecomesultimatelyfromstare。

Hisreferenceofhieros，“apriest，“andgeron，“anoldman，“

tothesameroot，isutterlybaseless；theoneistheSanskritishiras，“apowerfulman，“theotheristheSanskritjaran，“anoldman。“Thelistsofwordsonpages96-100aredisfiguredbymanysucherrors；andindeedthewholepurposeforwhichtheyaregivenshowshowsadlyMr。Gladstone"sphilologyisinarrears。ThetheoryofNiebuhr——thatthewordscommontoGreekandLatin，mostlydescriptiveofpeacefuloccupations，arePelasgian——wasserviceableenoughinitsday，butisnowrenderedwhollyantiquatedbythediscoverythatsuchwordsareAryan，inthewidestsense。ThePelasgiantheoryworksverysmoothlysolongasweonlycomparetheGreekwiththeLatinwords，——as，forinstance，sugonwithjugum；butwhenweaddtheEnglishyokeandtheSanskrityugam，itisevidentthatwehavegotfaroutoftherangeofthePelasgoi。ButwhatshallwesaywhenwefindMr。GladstonecitingtheLatinthalamusinsupportofthisantiquatedtheory？Doubtlessthewordthalamusis，orshouldbe，significativeofpeacefuloccupations；butitisnotaLatinwordatall，exceptbyadoption。OnemightaswellcitethewordensembletoprovetheoriginalidentityorkinshipbetweenEnglishandFrench。

WhenMr。Gladstone，leavingthedangerousgroundofpureandappliedphilology，confineshimselftoillustratingthecontentsoftheHomericpoems，heisalwaysexcellent。Hischapteronthe“OuterGeography“oftheOdysseyisexceedinglyinteresting；showingasitdoeshowmuchmaybeobtainedfromthepatientandattentivestudyofevenasingleauthor。Mr。

Gladstone"sknowledgeoftheSURFACEoftheIliadandOdyssey，sotospeak，isextensiveandaccurate。Itiswhenheattemptstopenetratebeneaththesurfaceandsurveythetreasureshiddeninthebowelsoftheearth，thatheshowshimselfunprovidedwiththetalismanofthewisedervise，whichalonecanunlockthosemysteries。Butmodernphilologyisanexactingscience:toapproachitshigherproblemsrequiresanamountofpreparationsufficienttoterrifyattheoutsetallbuttheboldest；andamanwhohashadtoregulatetaxation，andmakeoutfinancialstatements，andleadapoliticalpartyinagreatnation，maywellbeexcusedforignoranceofphilology。Itisdifficultenoughforthosewhohavelittleelsetodobuttoporeovertreatisesonphonetics，andthumbtheirlexicons，tokeepfullyabreastwiththelatestviewsinlinguistics。Inmattersofdetailonecanhardlyeverbroachanewhypothesiswithoutmisgivingslestsomebody，insomeweeklyjournalpublishedinGermany，mayjusthaveanticipatedandrefutedit。YetwhileMr。Gladstonemaybeexcusedforbeingunsoundinphilology，itisfarlessexcusablethatheshouldsitdowntowriteabookaboutHomer，aboundinginphilologicalstatements，withouttheslightestknowledgeofwhathasbeenachievedinthatscienceforseveralyearspast。

Inspiteofalldrawbacks，however，hisbookshowsanabidingtasteforscholarlypursuits，andthereforedeservesacertainkindofpraise。Ihope，——thoughjustnowtheideasavoursoftheludicrous，——thatthedaymaysometimearrivewhenOUR

CongressmenandSecretariesoftheTreasurywillspendtheirvacationsinwritingbooksaboutGreekantiquities，orinillustratingthemeaningofHomericphrases。

July，1870。

VII。THEPRIMEVALGHOST-WORLD。

NOearneststudentofhumanculturecanasyethaveforgottenorwhollyoutlivedthefeelingofdelightawakenedbythefirstperusalofMaxMuller"sbrilliant“EssayonComparativeMythology，“——aworkinwhichthescientificprinciplesofmyth-interpretation，thoughnotnewlyannounced，wereatleastbroughthometothereaderwithsuchanamountoffreshandstrikingconcreteillustrationastheyhadnotbeforereceived。Yetitmusthaveoccurredtomorethanonereaderthat，whiletheanalysesofmythscontainedinthisnobleessayareinthemainsoundinprincipleandcorrectindetail，neverthelesstheauthor"stheoryofthegenesisofmythisexpressed，andmostlikelyconceived，inawaythatisverysuggestiveofcarelessnessandfallacy。Thereareobviousreasonsfordoubtingwhethertheexistenceofmythologycanbeduetoany“disease，“abnormity，orhypertrophyofmetaphorinlanguage；andthecriticismatoncearises，thatwiththemyth-makersitwasnotsomuchthecharacteroftheexpressionwhichoriginatedthethought，asitwasthethoughtwhichgavecharactertotheexpression。ItisnotthattheearlyAryansweremyth-makersbecausetheirlanguageaboundedinmetaphor；

itisthattheAryanmother-tongueaboundedinmetaphorbecausethemenandwomenwhospokeitweremyth-makers。Andtheyweremyth-makersbecausetheyhadnothingbutthephenomenaofhumanwillandeffortwithwhichtocompareobjectivephenomena。Thereforeitwasthattheyspokeofthesunasanunweariedvoyageroramatchlessarcher，andclassifiedinanimatenolessthananimateobjectsasmasculineandfeminine。MaxMuller"swayofstatinghistheory，bothinthisEssayandinhislaterLectures，affordsoneamongseveralinstancesofthecuriousmannerinwhichhecombinesamarvellouspenetrationintothesignificanceofdetailswithacertainloosenessofgeneralconception。[155]Theprinciplesofphilologicalinterpretationareanindispensableaidtousindetectingthehiddenmeaningofmanyalegendinwhichthepowersofnaturearerepresentedintheguiseoflivingandthinkingpersons；butbeforewecangetatthesecretofthemyth-makingtendencyitself，wemustleavephilologyandenteruponapsychologicalstudy。Wemustinquireintothecharacteristicsofthatprimitivestyleofthinkingtowhichitseemedquitenaturalthatthesunshouldbeanunerringarcher，andthethunder-cloudablackdemonorgiganticrobberfindinghisrichlymeriteddoomatthehandsoftheindignantLordofLight。

[155]“TheexpressionthattheErinys，Saranyu，theDawn，findsoutthecriminal，wasoriginallyquitefreefrommythology；ITMEANTNOMORETHANTHATCRIMEWOULDBEBROUGHT

TOLIGHTSOMEDAYOROTHER。Itbecamemythological，however，assoonastheetymologicalmeaningofErinyswasforgotten，andassoonastheDawn，aportionoftime，assumedtherankofapersonalbeing。“——ScienceofLanguage，6thedition，II。

615。Thisparagraph，inwhichtheitalicizingismine，containsMaxMuller"stheoryinanutshell。Itseemstomewhollyatvariancewiththefactsofhistory。Thefactsconcerningprimitiveculturewhicharetobecitedinthispaperwillshowthatthecaseisjusttheotherway。Insteadoftheexpression“Erinysfindsthecriminal“beingoriginallyametaphor，itwasoriginallyaliteralstatementofwhatwasbelievedtobefact。TheDawn(not“aportionoftime，“(！)buttherosyflushofthemorningsky)wasoriginallyregardedasarealperson。Primitivemen，strictlyspeaking，donottalkinmetaphors；theybelieveintheliteraltruthoftheirsimilesandpersonifications，fromwhich，bysurvivalinculture，ourpoeticmetaphorsarelineallydescended。Homer"sallusiontoarollingstoneasessumenosor“yearning“(tokeeponrolling)，istousamerefigurativeexpression；buttothesavageitisthedescriptionofafact。

Amongrecenttreatiseswhichhavedealtwiththisinterestingproblem，weshallfinditadvantageoustogiveespecialattentiontoMr。Tylor"s“PrimitiveCulture，“[156]oneofthefeweruditeworkswhichareatoncetrulygreatandthoroughlyentertaining。ThelearningdisplayedinitwoulddocredittoaGermanspecialist，bothforextentandforminuteness，whiletheorderlyarrangementoftheargumentsandtheelegantlucidityofthestylearesuchasweareaccustomedtoexpectfromFrenchessay-writers。Andwhatisstillmoreadmirableisthewayinwhichtheenthusiasmcharacteristicofagenialandoriginalspeculatoristemperedbythepatienceandcautionofacool-headedcritic。Patienceandcautionarenowheremoreneededthaninwriterswhodealwithmythologyandwithprimitivereligiousideas；butthesequalitiesaretooseldomfoundincombinationwiththespeculativeboldnesswhichisrequiredwhenfreshtheoriesaretobeframedornewpathsofinvestigationopened。Thestateofmindinwhichtheexplainingpowersofafavouritetheoryarefondlycontemplatedis，tosomeextent，antagonistictothestateofmindinwhichfactsareseen，withtheeyeofimpartialcriticism，inalltheirobstinateanduncompromisingreality。

Tobeabletopreservethebalancebetweenthetwoopposingtendenciesistogiveevidenceofthemostconsummatescientifictraining。ItisfromthewantofsuchabalancethattherecentgreatworkofMr。Coxisattimessounsatisfactory。Itmay，Ifear，seemill-naturedtosayso，buttheeagernesswithwhichMr。Coxwaylayseveryavailableillustrationofthephysicaltheoryoftheoriginofmythshasnowandthenthecuriouseffectofweakeningthereader"sconvictionofthesoundnessofthetheory。Formyownpart，thoughbynomeansinclinedtowaverinadherencetoadoctrineonceadoptedongoodgrounds，IneverfeltsomuchlikerebellingagainstthemythologicsupremacyoftheSunandtheDawnaswhenreadingMr。Cox"svolumes。ThatMr。Tylor，whiledefendingthesamefundamentaltheory，awakensnosuchrebelliousfeelings，isduetohisclearperceptionandrealizationofthefactthatitisimpossibletogeneralizeinasingleformulasuchmany-sidedcorrespondencesasthosewhichprimitivepoetryendphilosophyhavediscernedbetweenthelifeofmanandthelifeofoutwardnature。Whosogoesroamingupanddowntheelf-landofpopularfancies，withsoleintenttoresolveeachepisodeofmythintosomeansweringphysicalevent，hisonlycriterionbeingoutwardresemblance，cannotbetrustedinhisconclusions，sincewhereverheturnsforevidenceheissuretofindsomethingthatcanbemadetoserveassuch。AsMr。Tylorobserves，nohouseholdlegendornurseryrhymeissafefromhishermeneutics。“Shouldhe，forinstance，demandashispropertythenursery"SongofSixpence，"hisclaimwouldbeeasilyestablished，——obviouslythefour-and-twentyblackbirdsarethefour-and-twentyhours，andthepiethatholdsthemistheunderlyingearthcoveredwiththeoverarchingsky，——howtrueatouchofnatureitisthatwhenthepieisopened，thatis，whendaybreaks，thebirdsbegintosing；theKingistheSun，andhiscountingouthismoneyispouringoutthesunshine，thegoldenshowerofDanae；theQueenistheMoon，andhertransparenthoneythemoonlight；theMaidisthe"rosy-fingered"Dawn，whorisesbeforetheSun，hermaster，andhangsouttheclouds，hisclothes，acrossthesky；theparticularblackbird，whosotragicallyendsthetalebysnippingoffhernose，isthehourofsunrise。“Inallthisinterpretationthereisnoaprioriimprobability，save，perhaps，initsunbrokensymmetryandcompleteness。Thatsomepoints，atleast，ofthestoryarethusderivedfromantiqueinterpretationsofphysicalevents，isinharmonywithallthatweknowconcerningnurseryrhymes。

Inshort，“thetime-honouredrhymereallywantsbutonethingtoproveitasun-myth，thatonethingbeingaproofbysomeargumentmorevalidthananalogy。“ThecharacteroftheargumentwhichislackingmaybeillustratedbyareferencetotherhymeaboutJackandJill，explainedsometimesinceinthepaperon“TheOriginsofFolkLore。“Iftheargumentbethoughtvalidwhichshowstheseill-fatedchildrentobethespotsonthemoon，itisbecausetheproofconsists，notintheanalogy，whichisinthiscasenotespeciallyobvious，butinthefactthatintheEdda，andamongignorantSwedishpeasantsofourownday，thestoryofJackandJillisactuallygivenasanexplanationofthemoon-spots。Totheneglectofthisdistinctionbetweenwhatisplausibleandwhatissupportedbydirectevidence，isduemuchofthecrudespeculationwhichencumbersthestudyofmyths。

[156]PrimitiveCulture:ResearchesintotheDevelopmentofMythology，Philosophy，Religion，Art，andCustomByEdwardB。

Tylor。2vols。8vo。London。1871。

ItiswhenMr。Tylormergesthestudyofmythologyintothewiderinquiryintothecharacteristicfeaturesofthemodeofthinkinginwhichmythsoriginated，thatwecanbestappreciatethepracticalvalueofthatunionofspeculativeboldnessandcriticalsobrietywhicheverywheredistinguisheshim。Itispleasanttomeetwithawriterwhocantreatofprimitivereligiousideaswithoutlosinghisheadoverallegoryandsymbolism，andwhodulyrealizesthefactthatasavageisnotarabbinicalcommentator，oracabalist，oraRosicrucian，butaplainmanwhodrawsconclusionslikeourselves，thoughwithfeebleintelligenceandscantyknowledge。ThemysticallegorywithwhichsuchmodernwritersasLordBaconhaveinvestedthemythsofantiquityisnopartoftheiroriginalclothing，butisratherthelateproductofastyleofreasoningfromanalogyquitesimilartothatwhichweshallperceivetohaveguidedthemyth-makersintheirprimitiveconstructions。Themythsandcustomsandbeliefswhich，inanadvancedstageofculture，seemmeaninglesssavewhencharacterizedbysomequaintlywroughtdeviceofsymbolicexplanation，didnotseemmeaninglessinthelowerculturewhichgavebirthtothem。Myths，likewords，survivetheirprimitivemeanings。Intheearlystagethemythispartandparcelofthecurrentmodeofphilosophizing；theexplanationwhichitoffersis，forthetime，thenaturalone，theonewhichwouldmostreadilyoccurtoanyonethinkingonthethemewithwhichthemythisconcerned。Butbyandbythemodeofphilosophizinghaschanged；explanationswhichformerlyseemedquiteobviousnolongeroccurtoanyone，butthemythhasacquiredanindependentsubstantiveexistence，andcontinuestobehandeddownfromparentstochildrenassomethingtrue，thoughnoonecantellwhyitistrue:Lastly，themythitselfgraduallyfadesfromremembrance，oftenleavingbehinditsomeutterlyunintelligiblecustomorseeminglyabsurdsuperstitiousnotion。Forexample，——torecurtoanillustrationalreadycitedinapreviouspaper，——itisstillbelievedhereandtherebysomevenerablegrannythatitiswickedtokillrobins；buthewhoshouldattributethebelieftotheoldgranny"srefinedsympathywithallsentientexistence，wouldbemakingoneoftheblunderswhicharealwayscommittedbythosewhoreasonaprioriabouthistoricalmatterswithoutfollowingthehistoricalmethod。Atanearlierdatethesuperstitionexistedintheshapeofabeliefthatthekillingofarobinportendssomecalamity；inastillearlierformthecalamityisspecifiedasdeath；andagain，stillearlier，asdeathbylightning。AnotherstepbackwardrevealsthatthedreadsanctityoftherobinisowingtothefactthatheisthebirdofThor，thelightninggod；andfinallywereachthatprimitivestageofphilosophizinginwhichthelightningisexplainedasaredbirddroppingfromitsbeakawormwhichcleaveththerocks。Again，thebeliefthatsomeharmissuretocometohimwhosavesthelifeofadrowningman，isunintelligibleuntilitisregardedasacaseofsurvivalinculture。Intheolderformofthesuperstitionitisheldthattherescuerwillsoonerorlaterbedrownedhimself；andthuswepasstothefetichisticinterpretationofdrowningastheseizingoftheunfortunatepersonbythewater-spiritornixy，whoisnaturallyangryatbeingdeprivedofhisvictim，andhenceforthbearsaspecialgrudgeagainsttheboldmortalwhohasthusdaredtofrustratehim。

Theinterpretationofthelightningasaredbird，andofdrowningastheworkofasmilingbuttreacherousfiend，arepartsofthatprimitivephilosophyofnatureinwhichallforcesobjectivelyexistingareconceivedasidenticalwiththeforcesubjectivelyknownasvolition。Itisthisphilosophy，currentlyknownasfetichism，buttreatedbyMr。

Tylorunderthesomewhatmorecomprehensivenameof“animism，“

whichwemustnowconsiderinafewofitsmostconspicuousexemplifications。Whenwehaveproperlycharacterizedsomeoftheprocesseswhichtheuntrainedmindhabituallygoesthrough，weshallhaveincidentallyarrivedatafairsolutionofthegenesisofmythology。

Letusfirstnotetheeasewithwhichthebarbaricoruncultivatedmindreachesallmannerofapparentlyfancifulconclusionsthroughrecklessreasoningfromanalogy。Itisthroughtheoperationofcertainlawsofidealassociationthatallhumanthinking，thatofthehighestaswellasthatofthelowestminds，isconducted:thediscoveryofthelawofgravitation，aswellastheinventionofsuchasuperstitionastheHandofGlory，isatbottombutacaseofassociationofideas。Thedifferencebetweenthescientificandthemythologicinferenceconsistssolelyinthenumberofcheckswhichintheformercasecombinetopreventanyotherthanthetrueconclusionfrombeingframedintoapropositiontowhichthemindassents。Countlessaccumulatedexperienceshavetaughtthemodernthattherearemanyassociationsofideaswhichdonotcorrespondtoanyactualconnectionofcauseandeffectintheworldofphenomena；andhehaslearnedaccordinglytoapplytohisnewlyframednotionstherigidtestofverification。Besideswhichthesameaccumulationofexperienceshasbuiltupanorganizedstructureofidealassociationsintowhichonlythelessextravagantnewlyframednotionshaveanychanceoffitting。Theprimitiveman，orthemodernsavagewhoistosomeextenthiscounterpart，mustreasonwithouttheaidofthesemultifariouschecks。Thatimmensemassofassociationswhichanswertowhatarecalledphysicallaws，andwhichinthemindofthecivilizedmodernhavebecomealmostorganic，havenotbeenformedinthemindofthesavage；norhashelearnedthenecessityofexperimentallytestinganyofhisnewlyframednotions，saveperhapsafewofthecommonest。Consequentlythereisnothingbutsuperficialanalogytoguidethecourseofhisthoughthitherorthither，andtheconclusionsatwhichhearriveswillbedeterminedbyassociationsofideasoccurringapparentlyathaphazard。HencethequaintorgrotesquefancieswithwhichEuropeanandbarbaricfolk-loreisfilled，intheframingofwhichthemyth-makerwasbutreasoningaccordingtothebestmethodsathiscommand。Tothissimplestclass，inwhichtheassociationofideasisdeterminedbymereanalogy，belongsuchcasesasthatoftheZulu，whochewsapieceofwoodinordertosoftentheheartofthemanwithwhomheisabouttotradeforcows，ortheHessianladwho“thinkshemayescapetheconscriptionbycarryingababy-girl"scapinhispocket，——asymbolicwayofrepudiatingmanhood。“[157]A

similarstyleofthinkingunderliesthemediaevalnecromancer"spracticeofmakingawaxenimageofhisenemyandshootingatitwitharrows，inordertobringabouttheenemy"sdeath；asalsothecaseofthemagicrod，mentionedinapreviouspaper，bymeansofwhichasoundthrashingcanbeadministeredtoanabsentfoethroughthemediumofanoldcoatwhichisimaginedtocoverhim。Theprincipleinvolvedhereisonewhichisdoubtlessfamiliartomostchildren，andiscloselyakintothatwhichIrvingsoamusinglyillustratesinhisdoughtygeneralwhostrutsthroughafieldofcabbagesorcorn-stalks，smitingthemtoearthwithhiscane，andimagininghimselfaheroofchivalryconqueringsingle-handedahostofcaitiffruffians。Oflikeoriginarethefanciesthatthebreakingofamirrorheraldsadeathinthefamily，——

probablybecauseofthedestructionofthereflectedhumanimage；thatthe“hairofthedogthatbityou“willpreventhydrophobiaiflaiduponthewound；orthatthetearsshedbyhumanvictims，sacrificedtomotherearth，willbringdownshowersupontheland。Mr。TylorcitesLordChesterfield"sremark，“thatthekinghadbeenill，andthatpeoplegenerallyexpectedtheillnesstobefatal，becausetheoldestlionintheTower，abouttheking"sage，hadjustdied。"Sowildandcapriciousisthehumanmind，"“observestheelegantletter-writer。Butindeed，asMr。Tylorjustlyremarks，“thethoughtwasneitherwildnorcapricious；itwassimplysuchanargumentfromanalogyastheeducatedworldhasatlengthpainfullylearnedtobeworthless，butwhich，itisnottoomuchtodeclare，wouldtothisdaycarryconsiderableweighttothemindsoffourfifthsofthehumanrace。“Uponsuchsymbolismarebasedmostofthepracticesofdivinationandthegreatpseudo-scienceofastrology。“Itisanoldstory，thatwhentwobrotherswereoncetakenilltogether，Hippokrates，thephysician，concludedfromthecoincidencethattheyweretwins，butPoseidonios，theastrologer，consideredratherthattheywerebornunderthesameconstellation；wemayaddthateitherargumentwouldbethoughtreasonablebyasavage。“SowhenaMaorifortressisattacked，thebesiegersandbesiegedlooktoseeifVenusisnearthemoon。Themoonrepresentsthefortress；andifitappearsbelowthecompanionplanet，thebesiegerswillcarrytheday，otherwisetheywillberepulsed。EquallyprimitiveandchildlikewasRousseau"strainofthoughtonthememorabledayatLesCharmetteswhen，beingdistressedwithdoubtsastothesafetyofhissoul，hesoughttodeterminethepointbythrowingastoneatatree。“Hit，signofsalvation；miss，signofdamnation！“Thetreebeingalargeoneandverynearathand，theresultoftheexperimentwasreassuring，andtheyoungphilosopherwalkedawaywithoutfurthermisgivingsconcerningthismomentousquestion。[158]

[157]Tylor，op。cit。I。107。

[158]Rousseau，Confessions，I。vi。Forfurtherillustration，seeespeciallythenoteonthe“doctrineofsignatures，“

supra，p。55。

Whenthesavage，whosehighestintellectualeffortsresultonlyinspeculationsofthischildlikecharacter，isconfrontedwiththephenomenaofdreams，itiseasytoseewhathewillmakeofthem。Hispracticalknowledgeofpsychologyistoolimitedtoadmitofhisdistinguishingbetweenthesolidityofwakingexperienceandwhatwemaycalltheunsubstantialnessofthedream。Hemay，indeed，havelearnedthatthedreamisnottobereliedonfortellingthetruth；theZulu，forexample，hasevenreachedtheperversetriumphofcriticallogicachievedbyourownAryanancestorsinthesayingthat“dreamsgobycontraries。“ButtheZuluhasnotlearned，norhadtheprimevalAryanlearned，todisregardtheutterancesofthedreamasbeingpurelysubjectivephenomena。Tothemindasyetuntouchedbymodernculture，thevisionsseenandthevoicesheardinsleeppossessasmuchobjectiverealityasthegesturesandshoutsofwakinghours。

Whenthesavagerelateshisdream，hetellshowheSAWcertaindogs，deadwarriors，ordemonslastnight，theimplicationbeingthatthethingsseenwereobjectsexternaltohimself。

AsMr。Spencerobserves，“hisrudelanguagefailstostatethedifferencebetweenseeinganddreamingthathesaw，doinganddreamingthathedid。Fromthisinadequacyofhislanguageitnotonlyresultsthathecannottrulyrepresentthisdifferencetoothers，butalsothathecannottrulyrepresentittohimself。Henceintheabsenceofanalternativeinterpretation，hisbelief，andthatofthosetowhomhetellshisadventures，isthathisOTHERSELFhasbeenawayandcamebackwhenheawoke。Andthisbelief，whichwefindamongvariousexistingsavagetribes，weequallyfindinthetraditionsoftheearlycivilizedraces。“[159]

[159]Spencer，RecentDiscussionsinScience，etc。，p。36，“TheOriginofAnimalWorship。“

Letusconsider，foramoment，thisassumptionoftheOTHER

SELF，foruponthisisbasedthegreatmassofcrudeinferencewhichconstitutestheprimitiveman"sphilosophyofnature。

ThehypothesisoftheOTHERSELF，whichservestoaccountforthesavage"swanderingsduringsleepinstrangelandsandamongstrangepeople，servesalsotoaccountforthepresenceinhisdreamsofparents，comrades，orenemies，knowntobedeadandburied。Theotherselfofthedreamermeetsandconverseswiththeotherselvesofhisdeadbrethren，joinswiththeminthehunt，orsitsdownwiththemtothewildcannibalbanquet。Thusarisesthebeliefinanever-presentworldofsoulsorghosts，abeliefwhichtheentireexperienceofuncivilizedmangoestostrengthenandexpand。Theexistenceofsometribeortribesofsavageswhollydestituteofreligiousbeliefhasoftenbeenhastilyassertedandasoftencalledinquestion。Butthereisnoquestionthat，whilemanysavagesareunabletoframeaconceptionsogeneralasthatofgodhood，ontheotherhandnotribehaseverbeenfoundsolowinthescaleofintelligenceasnottohaveframedtheconceptionofghostsorspiritualpersonalities，capableofbeingangered，propitiated，orconjuredwith。

Indeeditisnotimprobableapriorithattheoriginalinferenceinvolvedinthenotionoftheotherselfmaybesufficientlysimpleandobvioustofallwithinthecapacityofanimalsevenlessintelligentthanuncivilizedman。AnauthenticcaseisonrecordofaSkyeterrierwho，beingaccustomedtoobtainfavoursfromhismasterbysittingonhishaunches，willalsositbeforehispetindia-rubberballplacedonthechimney-piece，evidentlybeseechingittojumpdownandplaywithhim。[160]SuchafactasthisisquiteinharmonywithAugusteComte"ssuggestionthatsuchintelligentanimalsasdogs，apes，andelephantsmaybecapableofformingafewfetichisticnotions。Thebehaviouroftheterrierhererestsupontheassumptionthattheballisopentothesamesortofentreatywhichprevailswiththemaster；whichimplies，notthatthewistfulbruteaccreditstheballwithasoul，butthatinhismindthedistinctionbetweenlifeandinanimateexistencehasneverbeenthoroughlyestablished。

Justthisconfusionbetweenthingslivingandthingsnotlivingispresentthroughoutthewholephilosophyoffetichism；andtheconfusionbetweenthingsseenandthingsdreamed，whichsuggeststhenotionofanotherself，belongstothissametwilightstageofintelligenceinwhichprimevalmanhasnotyetclearlydemonstratedhisimmeasurablesuperioritytothebrutes。[161]

[160]SeeNature，Vol。VI。p。262，August1，1872。Thecircumstancesnarratedaresuchastoexcludethesuppositionthatthesittingupisintendedtoattractthemaster"sattention。Thedoghasfrequentlybeenseentryingtosoftentheheartoftheball，whileobservedunawaresbyhismaster。

[161]“Wewould，however，commendtoMr。Fiske"sattentionMr。

MarkTwain"sdog，who"couldn"tbedependedonforaspecialprovidence，"asbeingnearertotheactualdogofevery-daylifethanistheSkyeterriermentionedbyacertaincorrespondentofNature，towhoseletterMr。Fiskerefers。Theterrierisheldtohavehad"afewfetichisticnotions，"

becausehewasfoundstandinguponhishindlegsinfrontofamantel-piece，uponwhichlayanindia-rubberballwithwhichhewishedtoplay，butwhichhecouldnotreach，andwhich，saystheletter-writer，hewasevidentlybeseechingtocomedownandplaywithhim。Weconsideritmorereasonabletosupposethatadogwhohadbeendrilledintoabeliefthatstandinguponhishindlegswasverypleasingtohismaster，andwho，therefore，hadaccustomedhimselftostandonhishindlegswheneverhedesiredanything，andwhoseusualwayofgettingwhathedesiredwastoinducesomebodytogetitforhim，mayhavestoodupinfrontofthemantel-pieceratherfromforceofhabitandeagernessofdesirethanbecausehehadanyfetichisticnotions，orexpectedtheindia-rubberballtolistentohissupplications。Weadmit，however，toavoidpolemicalcontroversy，thatinmatterofreligionthedogiscapableofanything。“TheNation，Vol。XV。p。284，October1，1872。Tobesure，Idonotknowforcertainwhatwasgoingoninthedog"smind；andso，lettingbothexplanationsstand，I

willonlyaddanotherfactofsimilarimport。“ThetendencyinsavagestoimaginethatnaturalobjectsandagenciesareanimatedbyspiritualorlivingessencesisperhapsillustratedbyalittlefactwhichIoncenoticed:mydog，afull-grownandverysensibleanimal，waslyingonthelawnduringahotandstillday；butatalittledistanceaslightbreezeoccasionallymovedanopenparasol，whichwouldhavebeenwhollydisregardedbythedog，hadanyonestoodnearit。

Asitwas，everytimethattheparasolslightlymoved，thedoggrowledfiercelyandbarked。Hemust，Ithink，havereasonedtohimself，inarapidandunconsciousmanner，thatmovementwithoutanyapparentcauseindicatedthepresenceofsomestrangelivingagent，andnostrangerhadarighttobeonhisterritory。“Darwin，DescentofMan，Vol。1。p。64。Withoutinsistinguponallthedetailsofthisexplanation，onemayreadilygrant，Ithink，thatinthedog，asinthesavage，thereisanundisturbedassociationbetweenmotionandalivingmotoragency；andthatoutofamultitudeofjustsuchassociationscommontoboth，thesavage，withhisgreatergeneralizingpower，framesatrulyfetichisticconception。

Theconceptionofasoulorotherself，capableofgoingawayfromthebodyandreturningtoit，receivesdecisiveconfirmationfromthephenomenaoffainting，trance，catalepsy，andecstasy，[162]whichoccurlessrarelyamongsavages，owingtotheirirregularmodeoflife，thanamongcivilizedmen。“Furtherverification，“observesMr。Spencer，“isaffordedbyeveryepilepticsubject，intowhosebody，duringtheabsenceoftheotherself，someenemyhasentered；

forhowelsedoesithappenthattheotherselfonreturningdeniesallknowledgeofwhathisbodyhasbeendoing？Andthissupposition，thatthebodyhasbeen"possessed"bysomeotherbeing，isconfirmedbythephenomenaofsomnambulismandinsanity。“Stillfurther，asMr。Spencerpointsout，whenwerecollectthatsavagesareverygenerallyunwillingtohavetheirportraitstaken，lestaportionofthemselvesshouldgetcarriedoffandbeexposedtofoulplay，[163]wemustreadilyadmitthattheweirdreflectionofthepersonandimitationofthegesturesinriversorstillwoodlandpoolswillgofartointensifythebeliefintheotherself。Lessfrequentbutuniformconfirmationistobefoundinechoes，whichinEuropewithintwocenturieshavebeencommonlyinterpretedasthevoicesofmockingfiendsorwood-nymphs，andwhichthesavagemightwellregardastheutterancesofhisotherself。

[162]NotethefetichismwrappedupintheetymologiesoftheseGreekwords。Catalepsy，katalhyis，aseizingofthebodybysomespiritordemon，whoholdsitrigid。Ecstasy，ekstasis，adisplacementorremovalofthesoulfromthebody，intowhichthedemonentersandcausesstrangelaughing，crying，orcontortions。Itisnotmetaphor，buttheliteralbeliefillaghost-world，whichhasgivenrisetosuchwordsasthese，andtosuchexpressionsas“amanbesidehimselfortransported。“

[163]Somethingakintothesavage"sbeliefintheanimationofpicturesmaybeseeninyoungchildren。Ihaveoftenbeenaskedbymythree-year-oldboy，whetherthedoginacertainpicturewouldbitehimifheweretogonearit；andIcanrememberthat，inmyownchildhood，whenreadingabookaboutinsects，whichhadtheformidablelikenessofaspiderstampedonthecentreofthecover，IwasalwaysuneasylestmyfingershouldcomeincontactwiththedreadedthingasIheldthebook。

Withthesavage"sunwillingnesstohavehisportraittaken，lestitfallintothehandsofsomeenemywhomayinjurehimbyconjuringwithit，maybecomparedthereluctancewhichheoftenshowstowardtellinghisname，ormentioningthenameofhisfriend，orking，ortutelarghost-deity。Infetichisticthought，thenameisanentitymysteriouslyassociatedwithitsowner，anditisnotwelltoruntheriskofitsgettingintohostilehands。Alongwiththiscautiongoesthesimilarlyoriginatedfearthatthepersonwhosenameisspokenmayresentsuchmeddlingwithhispersonality。ForthelatterreasontheDayakwillnotalludebynametothesmallpox，butwillcallit“thechief“or“jungle-leaves“；theLaplanderspeaksofthebearasthe“oldmanwiththefurcoat“；inAnnamthetigeriscalled“grandfather“or“Lord“；whileinmorecivilizedcommunitiessuchsayingsarecurrentas“talkoftheDevil，andhewillappear，“withwhichwemayalsocomparesuchexpressionsas“Eumenides“or“graciousones“fortheFuries，andotherlikeeuphemisms。Indeed，themaximnilmortuisnisibonumhadmostlikelyatonetimeafetichisticflavour。

InvariousislandsofthePacific，forboththereasonsabovespecified，thenameofthereigningchiefissorigorously“tabu，“thatcommonwordsandevensyllablesresemblingthatnameinsoundmustbeomittedfromthelanguage。InNewZealand，whereachiefsnamewasMaripi，or“knife，“itbecamenecessarytocallknivesnekra；andinTahiti，fetu，“star，“

hadtobechangedintofetia，andtui，“tostrike，“becametiai，etc。，becausetheking"snamewasTu。Curiousfreaksareplayedwiththelanguagesoftheseislandsbythisever-recurringnecessity。AmongtheKafirsthewomenhavecometospeakadifferentdialectfromthemen，becausewordsresemblingthenamesoftheirlordsormalerelativesareinlikemanner“tabu。“ThestudentofhumanculturewilltraceamongsuchprimevalnotionstheoriginoftheJew"sunwillingnesstopronouncethenameofJehovah；andhencewemayperhapshavebeforeustheultimatesourceofthehorrorwithwhichtheHebraizingPuritanregardssuchformsoflightswearing——“MonDieu，“etc——asarestilltoleratedonthecontinentofEurope，buthavedisappearedfromgoodsocietyinPuritanicEnglandandAmerica。ThereaderinterestedinthisgroupofideasandcustomsmayconsultTylor，EarlyHistoryofMankind，pp。142，363；MaxMuller，ScienceofLanguage，6thedition，Vol。II。p。37；Mackay，ReligiousDevelopmentoftheGreeksandHebrews，Vol。I。p。146。

Chamisso"swell-knowntaleofPeterSchlemihlbelongstoawidelydiffusedfamilyoflegends，whichshowthataman"sshadowhasbeengenerallyregardednotonlyasanentity，butasasortofspiritualattendantofthebody，whichundercertaincircumstancesitmaypermanentlyforsake。Itisinstrictaccordancewiththisideathatnotonlyintheclassiclanguages，butinvariousbarbarictongues，thewordfor“shadow“expressesalsothesoulorotherself。Tasmanians，Algonquins，Central-Americans，Abipones，Basutos，andZulusarecitedbyMr。Tylorasthusimplicitlyassertingtheidentityoftheshadowwiththeghostorphantasmseenindreams；theBasutosgoingsofarastothink“thatifamanwalksontheriver-bank，acrocodilemayseizehisshadowinthewateranddrawhimin。“AmongtheAlgonquinsasickpersonissupposedtohavehisshadoworotherselftemporarilydetachedfromhisbody，andtheconvalescentisattimes“reproachedforexposinghimselfbeforehisshadowwassafelysettleddowninhim。“Ifthesickmanhasbeenplungedintostupor，itisbecausehisotherselfhastravelledawayasfarasthebrinkoftheriverofdeath，butnotbeingallowedtocrosshascomebackandre-enteredhim。AndactinguponasimilarnotiontheailingFijiwillsometimesliedownandraiseahueandcryforhissoultobebroughtback。Thus，continuesMr。Tylor，“invariouscountriesthebringingbackoflostsoulsbecomesaregularpartofthesorcerer"sorpriest"sprofession。“[164]OnAryansoilwefindthenotionofatemporarydepartureofthesoulsurvivingtoalatedateinthetheorythatthewitchmayattendtheinfernalSabbathwhileherearthlytabernacleisquietlysleepingathome。Theprimevalconceptionreappears，clothedinbitterestsarcasm，inDante"sreferencetohislivingcontemporarieswhosesoulshemetwithinthevaultsofhell，whiletheirbodieswerestillwalkingaboutontheearth，inhabitedbydevils。

[164]Tylor，PrimitiveCulture，I。394。“TheZulusholdthatadeadbodycancastnoshadow，becausethatappurtenancedepartedfromitatthecloseoflife。“Hardwick，Traditions，Superstitions，andFolk-Lore，p。123。

Thetheorywhichidentifiesthesoulwiththeshadow，andsupposestheshadowtodepartwiththesicknessanddeathofthebody，wouldseemliabletobeattendedwithsomedifficultiesinthewayofverification，eventothedimintelligenceofthesavage。Buttheproprietyofidentifyingsoulandbreathisborneoutbyallprimevalexperience。Thebreath，whichreallyquitsthebodyatitsdecease，hasfurnishedthechiefnameforthesoul，notonlytotheHebrew，theSanskrit，andtheclassictongues；notonlytoGermanandEnglish，wheregeist，andghost，accordingtoMaxMuller，havethemeaningof“breath，“andareakintosuchwordsasgas，gust，andgeyser；butalsotonumerousbarbariclanguages。

AmongthenativesofNicaraguaandCalifornia，inJavaandinWestAustralia，thesoulisdescribedastheairorbreezewhichpassesinandoutthroughthenostrilsandmouth；andtheGreenlanders，accordingtoCranz，reckontwoseparatesouls，thebreathandtheshadow。“AmongtheSeminolesofFlorida，whenawomandiedinchildbirth，theinfantwasheldoverherfacetoreceiveherpartingspirit，andthusacquirestrengthandknowledgeforitsfutureuse……TheirstateofmindiskeptuptothisdayamongTyrolesepeasants，whocanstillfancyagoodman"ssoultoissuefromhismouthatdeathlikealittlewhitecloud。“[165]Itiskeptup，too，inLancashire，whereawell-knownwitchdiedafewyearssince；

“butbeforeshecould"shuffleoffthismortalcoil"shemustneedsTRANSFERHERFAMILIARSPIRITtosometrustysuccessor。

Anintimateacquaintancefromaneighbouringtownshipwasconsequentlysentforinallhaste，andonherarrivalwasimmediatelyclosetedwithherdyingfriend。Whatpassedbetweenthemhasneverfullytranspired，butitisconfidentlyaffirmedthatatthecloseoftheinterviewthisassociateRECEIVEDTHEWITCH"SLASTBREATHINTOHERMOUTHANDWITHIT

HERFAMILIARSPIRIT。Thedreadedwomanthusceasedtoexist，butherpowersforgoodorevilweretransferredtohercompanion；andonpassingalongtheroadfromBurnleytoBlackburnwecanpointoutafarmhouseatnogreatdistancewithwhosethriftymatronnoneighbouringfarmerwillyetdaretoquarrel。“[166]

[165]Tylor，op。cit。I。391。

[166]HarlandandWilkinson，LancashireFolk-Lore，1867，p。

210。

Ofthetheoryofembodimenttherewillbeoccasiontospeakfurtheron。Atpresentletusnotpassoverthefactthattheotherselfisnotonlyconceivedasshadoworbreath，whichcanattimesquitthebodyduringlife，butisalsosupposedtobecometemporarilyembodiedinthevisibleformofsomebirdorbeast。IndiscussingelsewherethemythofBishopHatto，wesawthatthesoulissometimesrepresentedintheformofaratormouse；andintreatingofwerewolveswenoticedthebeliefthatthespiritsofdeadancestors，bornealonginthenight-wind，havetakenonthesemblanceofhowlingdogsorwolves。“ConsistentwiththesequaintideasareceremoniesinvogueinChinaofbringinghomeinacock(liveorartificial)thespiritofamandeceasedinadistantplace，andofenticingintoasickman"scoatthedepartingspiritwhichhasalreadylefthisbodyandsoconveyingitback。“[167]InCastren"sgreatworkonFinnishmythology，wefindthestoryofthegiantwhocouldnotbekilledbecausehekepthissoulhiddeninatwelve-headedsnakewhichhecarriedinabagasherodeonhorseback；onlywhenthesecretwasdiscoveredandthesnakecarefullykilled，didthegiantyielduphislife。InthisFinnishlegendwehaveoneofthethousandphasesofthestoryofthe“GiantwhohadnoHeartinhisBody，“butwhoseheartwasconcealed，forsafekeeping，inaduck"segg，orinapigeon，carefullydisposedinsomebelfryattheworld"sendamillionmilesaway，orencasedinawellnighinfiniteseriesofChineseboxes。[168]Since，inspiteofalltheseprecautions，thepoorgiant"sheartinvariablycametogrief，weneednotwonderattheKarensuperstitionthatthesoulisindangerwhenitquitsthebodyonitsexcursions，asexemplifiedincountlessIndo-Europeanstoriesoftheaccidentalkillingoftheweirdmouseorpigeonwhichembodiesthewanderingspirit。Converselyitisheldthatthedetachmentoftheotherselfisfraughtwithdangertotheselfwhichremains。Inthephilosophyof“wraiths“and“fetches，“theappearanceofadouble，likethatwhichtroubledMistressAfferyinherwakingdreamsofMr。

Flintwinch，hasbeenfromtimeoutofmindasignalofalarm。

“InNewZealanditisominoustoseethefigureofanabsentperson，forifitbeshadowyandthefacenotvisible，hisdeathmayerelongbeexpected，butifthefacebeseenheisdeadalready。ApartyofMaoris(oneofwhomtoldthestory)

wereseatedroundafireintheopenair，whenthereappeared，seenonlybytwoofthem，thefigureofarelative，leftillathome；theyexclaimed，thefigurevanished，andonthereturnofthepartyitappearedthatthesickmanhaddiedaboutthetimeofthevision。“[169]Thebeliefinwraithshassurvivedintomoderntimes，andnowandthenappearsintherecordsofthatremnantofprimevalphilosophyknownas“spiritualism，“as，forexample，inthecaseoftheladywho“thoughtshesawherownfatherlookinatthechurch-windowatthemomenthewasdyinginhisownhouse。“

[167]Tylor，op。cit。II。139。

[168]InRussiathesoulsofthedeadaresupposedtobeembodiedinpigeonsorcrows。“ThuswhentheDeaconTheodoreandhisthreeschismaticbrethrenwereburntin1681，thesoulsofthemartyrs，asthe"OldBelievers"affirm，appearedintheairaspigeons。InVolhyniadeadchildrenaresupposedtocomebackinthespringtotheirnativevillageunderthesemblanceofswallowsandothersmallbirds，andtoseekbysofttwitteringorsongtoconsoletheirsorrowingparents。“

Ralston，SongsoftheRussianPeople，p。118。

[169]Tylor，op。cit。I。404。

Thebeliefinthe“death-fetch，“likethedoctrinewhichidentifiessoulwithshadow，isinstructiveasshowingthatinbarbaricthoughttheotherselfissupposedtoresemblethematerialselfwithwhichithascustomarilybeenassociated。

Invarioussavagesuperstitionstheminuteresemblanceofsoultobodyisforciblystated。TheAustralian，forinstance，notcontentwithslayinghisenemy，cutsofftherightthumbofthecorpse，sothatthedepartedsoulmaybeincapacitatedfromthrowingaspear。Eventhehalf-civilizedChineseprefercrucifixiontodecapitation，thattheirsoulsmaynotwanderheadlessaboutthespirit-world。[170]ThusweseehowfarremovedfromtheChristiandoctrineofsoulsistheprimevaltheoryofthesoulorotherselfthatfiguresindreamland。Sogrosslymaterialisticistheprimitiveconceptionthatthesavagewhocherishesitwillboreholesinthecoffinofhisdeadfriend，sothatthesoulmayagainhaveachance，ifitlikes，torevisitthebody。Tothisday，amongthepeasantsinsomepartsofNorthernEurope，whenOdin，thespectralhunter，ridesbyattendedbyhisfurioushost，thewindowsineverysick-roomareopened，inorderthatthesoul，ifitchoosestodepart，maynotbehinderedfromjoiningintheheadlongchase。Andso，addsMr。Tylor，aftertheIndiansofNorthAmericahadspentariotousnightinsingeinganunfortunatecaptivetodeathwithfirebrands，theywouldhowllikethefiendstheywere，andbeattheairwithbrushwood，todriveawaythedistressedandrevengefulghost。“Withakindlierfeeling，theCongonegroesabstainedforawholeyearafteradeathfromsweepingthehouse，lestthedustshouldinjurethedelicatesubstanceoftheghost“；andevennow，“itremainsaGermanpeasantsayingthatitiswrongtoslamadoor，lestoneshouldpinchasoulinit。“[172]Dante"sexperiencewiththeghostsinhellandpurgatory，whowereastonishedathisweighingdowntheboatinwhichtheywerecarried，isbeliedbythesweetGermannotion“thatthedeadmother"scomingbackinthenighttosucklethebabyshehasleftonearthmaybeknownbythehollowpresseddowninthebedwhereshelay。“

Almostuniversallyghosts，howeverimpervioustothrustofswordorshotofpistol，caneatanddrinklikeSquireWesterns。Andlastly，wehavethegrotesqueconceptionofsoulssufficientlymaterialtobekilledoveragain，asinthecaseofthenegrowidowswho，wishingtomarryasecondtime，willgoandduckthemselvesinthepond，inordertodrownthesoulsoftheirdepartedhusbands，whicharesupposedtoclingabouttheirnecks；while，accordingtotheFijitheory，theghostofeverydeadwarriormustgothroughaterriblefightwithSamuandhisbrethren，inwhich，ifhesucceeds，hewillenterParadise，butifhefailshewillbekilledoveragainandfinallyeatenbythedreadedSamuandhisunearthlycompany。

[171]Tylor，op。cit。I。407。

[172]Tylor，op。cit。I。410。Inthenextstageofsurvivalthisbeliefwilltaketheshapethatitiswrongtoslamadoor，noreasonbeingassigned；andinthesucceedingstage，whenthechildaskswhyitisnaughtytoslamadoor，hewillbetold，becauseitisanevidenceofbadtemper。Thusdoold-worldfanciesdisappearbeforetheinroadsofthepracticalsense。

Fromtheconceptionofsoulsembodiedinbeast-forms，asaboveillustrated，itisnotawidesteptotheconceptionofbeast-soulswhich，likehumansouls，survivethedeathofthetangiblebody。Thewide-spreadsuperstitionsconcerningwerewolvesandswan-maidens，andthehardlylessgeneralbeliefinmetempsychosis，showthatprimitiveculturehasnotarrivedatthedistinctionattainedbymodernphilosophybetweentheimmortalmanandthesoullessbrute。Stillmoredirectevidenceisfurnishedbysundrysavagecustoms。TheKafirwhohaskilledanelephantwillcrythathedidn"tmeantodoit，and，lesttheelephant"ssoulshouldstillseekvengeance，hewillcutoffandburythetrunk，sothatthemightybeastmaygocrippledtothespirit-land。Inlikemanner，theSamoyeds，aftershootingabear，willgatheraboutthebodyofferingexcusesandlayingtheblameontheRussians；andtheAmericanredskinwillevenputthepipeofpeaceintothedeadanimal"smouth，andbeseechhimtoforgivethedeed。InAssamitisbelievedthattheghostsofslainanimalswillbecomeinthenextworldthepropertyofthehunterwhokillsthem；andtheKamtchadalesexpresslydeclarethatallanimals，evenfliesandbugs，willliveafterdeath，——abelief，which，inourownday，hasbeenindorsedonphilosophicalgroundsbyaneminentlivingnaturalist。[173]

TheGreenlanders，too，giveevidenceofthesamebeliefbysupposingthatwhenafteranexhaustingfeverthepatientcomesupinunprecedentedhealthandvigour，itisbecausehehaslosthisformersoulandhaditreplacedbythatofayoungchildorareindeer。Inarecentworkinwhichthecrudestfanciesofprimevalsavageryarethinlydisguisedinajargonlearnedfromthesuperficialreadingofmodernbooksofscience，M。Figuiermaintainsthathumansoulsareforthemostpartthesurvivingsoulsofdeceasedanimals；ingeneral，thesoulsofprecociousmusicalchildrenlikeMozartcomefromnightingales，whilethesoulsofgreatarchitectshavepassedintothemfrombeavers，etc。，etc。[174]

[173]Agassiz，EssayonClassification，pp。97-99。

[174]Figuier，TheTo-morrowofDeath，p。247。

Thepracticeofbeggingpardonoftheanimalonehasjustslainisinsomepartsoftheworldextendedtothecaseofplants。WhentheTaleinoffersaprayertothetreewhichheisabouttocutdown，itisobviouslybecauseheregardsthetreeasendowedwithasoulorghostwhichinthenextlifemayneedtobepropitiated。Andthedoctrineoftransmigrationdistinctlyincludesplantsalongwithanimalsamongthefutureexistencesintowhichthehumansoulmaypass。

Asplants，likeanimals，manifestphenomenaoflife，thoughtoamuchlessconspicuousdegree，itisnotincomprehensiblethatthesavageshouldattributesoulstothem。Buttheprimitiveprocessofanthropomorphisationdoesnotendhere。

Notonlythehorseanddog，thebamboo，andtheoak-tree，butevenlifelessobjects，suchasthehatchet，orbowandarrows，orfoodanddrinkofthedeadman，possessotherselveswhichpassintotheworldofghosts。Fijisandothercontemporarysavages，whenquestioned，expresslydeclarethatthisistheirbelief。“Ifanaxeorachiseliswornoutorbrokenup，awayfliesitssoulfortheserviceofthegods。“TheAlgonquinstoldCharlevoixthatsincehatchetsandkettleshaveshadows，nolessthanmenandwomen，itfollows，ofcourse，thattheseshadows(orsouls)mustpassalongwithhumanshadows(orsouls)intothespirit-land。Inthisweseehowsimpleandconsistentisthelogicwhichguidesthesavage，andhowinevitableisthegenesisofthegreatmassofbeliefs，toourmindssoarbitraryandgrotesque，whichprevailthroughoutthebarbaricworld。Howeverabsurdthebeliefthatpotsandkettleshavesoulsmayseemtous，itisneverthelesstheonlybeliefwhichcanbeheldconsistentlybythesavagetowhompotsandkettles，nolessthanhumanfriendsorenemies，mayappearinhisdreams；whoseesthemfollowedbyshadowsastheyaremovedabout；whohearstheirvoices，dullorringing，whentheyarestruck；andwhowatchestheirdoublesfantasticallydancinginthewaterastheyarecarriedacrossthestream。[175]Tominds，evenincivilizedcountries，whichareunusedtotheseveretrainingofscience，nostrongerevidencecanbeallegedthanwhatiscalled“theevidenceofthesenses“；foritisonlylongfamiliaritywithsciencewhichteachesusthattheevidenceofthesensesistrustworthyonlyinsofarasitiscorrectlyinterpretedbyreason。Forthetruthofhisbeliefintheghostsofmenandbeasts，treesandaxes，thesavagehasundeniablytheevidenceofhissenseswhichhavesooftenseen，heard，andhandledtheseotherselves。

[175]Here，asusually，thedoctrineofmetempsychosiscomesintocompletetheproof。“Mr。DarwinsawtwoMalaywomeninKeelingIsland，whohadawoodenspoondressedinclotheslikeadoll；thisspoonhadbeencarriedtothegraveofadeadman，andbecominginspiredatfullmoon，infactlunatic，itdancedaboutconvulsivelylikeatableorahatatamodernspirit-seance。“Tylor，op。cit。II。139。

Thefuneralceremoniesofunculturedracesfreshlyillustratethiscrudephilosophy，andreceivefreshillustrationfromit。

Ontheprimitivebeliefintheghostlysurvivalofpersonsandobjectsreststhealmostuniversalcustomofsacrificingthewives，servants，horses，anddogsofthedepartedchiefofthetribe，aswellasofpresentingathisshrinesacredofferingsoffood，ornaments，weapons，andmoney。AmongtheKayanstheslaveswhoarekilledattheirmaster"stombareenjoinedtotakegreatcareoftheirmaster"sghost，towashandshampooit，andtonurseitwhensick。Othersavagesthinkthat“allwhomtheykillinthisworldshallattendthemasslavesafterdeath，“andforthisreasonthethriftyDayaksofBorneountillatelywouldnotallowtheiryoungmentomarryuntiltheyhadacquiredsomepostmortempropertybyprocuringatleastonehumanhead。ItishardlynecessarytodomorethanalludetotheFijicustomofstranglingallthewivesofthedeceasedathisfuneral，ortotheequallywell-knownHinduriteofsuttee。Though，asWilsonhasshown，thelatterriteisnotsupportedbyanygenuineVedicauthority，butonlybyashamelessBrahmaniccorruptionofthesacredtext，Mr。Tylorisneverthelessquiterightinarguingthatunlessthehorriblecustomhadreceivedthesanctionofapublicopinionbequeathedfrompre-Vedictimes，theBrahmanswouldhavehadnomotiveforfraudulentlyrevivingit；andthisopinionisvirtuallyestablishedbythefactoftheprevalenceofwidowsacrificeamongGauls，Scandinavians，Slaves，andotherEuropeanAryans。[176]ThoughunderEnglishruletheritehasbeenforciblysuppressed，yetthearchaicsentimentswhichsolongmaintaineditarenotyetextinct。WithinthepresentyeartherehasappearedinthenewspapersanotimprobablestoryofabeautifulandaccomplishedHinduladywho，havingbecomethewifeofawealthyEnglishman，andafterlivingseveralyearsinEnglandamidtheinfluencesofmodernsociety，neverthelesswentoffandprivatelyburnedherselftodeathsoonafterherhusband"sdecease。

[176]Tylor，op。cit。I。414-422。

Thereaderwhothinksitfar-fetchedtointerpretfuneralofferingsoffood，weapons，ornaments，ormoney，onthetheoryofobject-souls，willprobablysuggestthatsuchofferingsmaybemerememorialsofaffectionoresteemforthedeadman。

Such，indeed，theyhavecometobeinmanycountriesaftersurvivingthephaseofcultureinwhichtheyoriginated；butthereisampleevidencetoshowthatattheoutsettheywerepresentedinthebeliefthattheirghostswouldbeeatenorotherwiseemployedbytheghostofthedeadman。ThestoutclubwhichisburiedwiththedeadFijisendsitssoulalongwithhimthathemaybeabletodefendhimselfagainstthehostileghostswhichwilllieinambushforhimontheroadtoMbulu，seekingtokillandeathim。Sometimestheclubisafterwardsremovedfromthegraveasofnofurtheruse，sinceitsghostisallthatthedeadmanneeds。Inlikemanner，“astheGreeksgavethedeadmantheobolusforCharon"stoll，andtheoldPrussiansfurnishedhimwithspendingmoney，tobuyrefreshmentonhiswearyjourney，sotothisdayGermanpeasantsburyacorpsewithmoneyinhismouthorhand，“andthisisalsosaidtobeoneoftheregularceremoniesofanIrishwake。OfsimilarpurportwerethefuneralfeastsandoblationsoffoodinGreeceandItaly，the“rice-cakesmadewithghee“destinedfortheHindusojourninginYama"skingdom，andthemeatandgruelofferedbytheChinamantothemanesofhisancestors。“ManytravellershavedescribedtheimaginationwithwhichtheChinesemakesuchofferings。Itisthatthespiritsofthedeadconsumetheimpalpableessenceofthefood，leavingbehinditscoarsematerialsubstance，whereforethedutifulsacrificers，havingsetoutsumptuousfeastsforancestralsouls，allowthemapropertimetosatisfytheirappetite，andthenfalltothemselves。“[177]SointheHomericsacrificetothegods，afterthedeityhassmelledthesweetsavourandconsumedthecurlingsteamthatrisesghost-likefromtheroastingviands，theassembledwarriorsdevourtheremains。“[178]

[177]Tylor，op。cit。I。435，446；II。30，36。

[178]AccordingtotheKarens，blindnessoccurswhentheSOUL

OFTHEEYEiseatenbydemons。Id。，II。353。

Thusfarthecourseoffetichisticthoughtwhichwehavetracedout，withMr。Tylor"said，issuchasisnotalwaysobvioustothemoderninquirerwithoutconsiderableconcreteillustration。Theremainderoftheprocess，resultinginthatsystematicandcompleteanthropomorphisationofnaturewhichhasgivenrisetomythology，maybemoresuccinctlydescribed。

Gatheringtogethertheconclusionsalreadyobtained，wefindthatdailyorfrequentexperienceofthephenomenaofshadowsanddreamshascombinedwithlessfrequentexperienceofthephenomenaoftrance，ecstasy，andinsanity，togenerateinthemindofunculturedmanthenotionofatwofoldexistenceappertainingaliketoallanimateorinanimateobjects:asallalikepossessmaterialbodies，soallalikepossessghostsorsouls。Nowwhenthetheoryofobject-soulsisexpandedintoageneraldoctrineofspirits，thephilosophicschemeofanimismiscompleted。Oncehabituatedtotheconceptionofsoulsofknivesandtobacco-pipespassingtothelandofghosts，thesavagecannotavoidcarryingtheinterpretationstillfurther，sothatwindandwater，fireandstorm，areaccreditedwithindwellingspiritsakinbynaturetothesoulwhichinhabitsthehumanframe。Thatthemightyspiritordemonbywhoseimpellingwillthetreesarerootedupandtilestorm-cloudsdrivenacrosstheskyshouldresembleafreedhumansoul，isanaturalinference，sinceunculturedmanhasnotattainedtotheconceptionofphysicalforceactinginaccordancewithuniformmethods，andhencealleventsaretohismindthemanifestationsofcapriciousvolition。Ifthefireburnsdownhishut，itisbecausethefireisapersonwithasoul，andisangrywithhim，andneedstobecoaxedintoakindliermoodbymeansofprayerorsacrifice。Thusthesavagehasapriorinoalternativebuttoregardfire-soulassomethingakintohuman-soul；andinpointoffactwefindthatsavagephilosophymakesnodistinctionbetweenthehumanghostandtheelementaldemonordeity。Thisissufficientlyprovedbytheuniversalprevalenceoftheworshipofancestors。Theessentialprincipleofmanes-worshipisthatthetribalchieforpatriarch，whohasgovernedthecommunityduringlife，continuesalsotogovernitafterdeath，assistingitinitswarfarewithhostiletribes，rewardingbravewarriors，andpunishingtraitorsandcowards。ThusfromtheconceptionofthelivingkingwepasstothenotionofwhatMr。Spencercalls“thegod-king，“andthencetotherudimentarynotionofdeity。AmongsuchhighersavagesastheZulus，thedoctrineofdivineancestorshasbeendevelopedtotheextentofrecognizingafirstancestor，theGreatFather，Unkulunkulu，whomadetheworld。ButinthestratumofsavagethoughtinwhichbarbaricorAryanfolk-loreisforthemostpartbased，wefindnosuchexaltedspeculation。TheancestorsoftherudeVeddasandoftheGuineanegroes，theHindupitris(patres，“fathers“)，andtheRomanmaneshavebecomeelementaldeitieswhichsendrainorsunshine，healthorsickness，plentyorfamine，aridtowhichtheirlivingoffspringappealforguidanceamidthevicissitudesoflife。[179]Thetheoryofembodiment，alreadyalludedto，showshowthoroughlythedemonswhichcausediseaseareidentifiedwithhumanandobjectsouls。InAustralasiaitisadeadman"sghostwhichcreepsupintotheliveroftheimpiouswretchwhohasventuredtopronouncehisname；whileconverselyinthewell-knownEuropeantheoryofdemoniacalpossession，itisafairyfromelf-land，oranimpfromhell，whichhasenteredthebodyofthesufferer。Intheclosekinship，moreover，betweendisease-possessionandoracle-possession，wherethebodyoftilePythia，orthemedicine-man，isplacedunderthedirectcontrolofsomegreatdeity，[180]wemayseehowbyinsensibletransitionstheconceptionofthehumanghostpassesintotheconceptionofthespiritualnumen，ordivinity。

[179]Thefollowingcitationisinterestingasanillustrationofthedirectnessofdescentfromheathenmanes-worshiptoChristiansaint-worship:“ItiswellknownthatRomulus，mindfulofhisownadventurousinfancy，becameafterdeathaRomandeity，propitioustothehealthandsafetyofyoungchildren，sothatnursesandmotherswouldcarrysicklyinfantstopresenttheminhislittleroundtempleatthefootofthePalatine。InafteragesthetemplewasreplacedbythechurchofSt。Theodorus，andthereDr。ConyersMiddleton，whodrewpublicattentiontoitscurioushistory，usedtolookinandseetenoradozenwomen，eachwithasickchildinherlap，sittinginsilentreverencebeforethealtarofthesaint。Theceremonyofblessingchildren，especiallyaftervaccination，maystillbeseenthereonThursdaymornings。“

Op。cit。II。111。

[180]WantofspacepreventsmefromremarkingatlengthuponMr。Tylor"sadmirabletreatmentofthephenomenaoforacularinspiration。Attentionshouldbecalled，however，tothebrilliantexplanationoftheimportanceaccordedbyallreligionstotheriteoffasting。Prolongedabstinencefromfoodtendstobringonamentalstatewhichisfavourabletovisions。Thesavagepriestormedicine-manqualifieshimselffortheperformanceofhisdutiesbyfasting，andwherethisisnotsufficient，oftenusesintoxicatingdrugs；whencethesacrednessofthehasheesh，asalsooftheVedicsoma-juice。

Thepracticeoffastingamongcivilizedpeoplesisaninstanceofsurvival。

Topursuethislineofinquirythroughthecountlessnymphsanddryadsandnixiesofthehighernature-worshipuptotheOlympiandivinitiesofclassicpolytheism，wouldbetoenteruponthehistoryofreligiousbelief，andinsodoingtolosesightofourpresentpurpose，whichhasmerelybeentoshowbywhatmentalprocessthemyth-makercanspeakofnaturalobjectsinlanguagewhichimpliesthattheyareanimatedpersons。Briefasouraccountofthisprocesshasbeen，I

believethatenoughhasbeensaid，notonlytorevealtheinadequacyofpurelyphilologicalsolutions(likethosecontainedinMaxMuller"sfamousEssay)toexplainthegrowthofmyths，butalsotoexhibitthevastimportanceforthispurposeofthekindofpsychologicalinquiryintothementalhabitsofsavageswhichMr。Tylorhassoablyconducted。

Indeed，howeverlackingwemaystillbeinpointsofdetail，I

thinkwehavealreadyreachedaverysatisfactoryexplanationofthegenesisofmythology。Sincetheessentialcharacteristicofamythisthatitisanattempttoexplainsomenaturalphenomenonbyendowingwithhumanfeelingsandcapacitiesthesenselessfactorsinthephenomenon，andsinceithasherebeenshownhowunculturedman，bythebestusehecanmakeofhisrudecommonsense，mustinevitablycome，andhasinvariablycome，toregardallobjectsasendowedwithsouls，andallnatureaspeopledwithsupra-humanentitiesshapedafterthegeneralpatternofthehumansoul，Iaminclinedtosuspectthatwehavegotveryneartotherootofthewholematter。Wecancertainlyfindnodifficultyinseeingwhyawater-spoutshouldbedescribedinthe“ArabianNights“asalivingdemon:“Theseabecametroubledbeforethem，andtherearosefromitablackpillar，ascendingtowardsthesky，andapproachingthemeadow，……andbeholditwasaJinni，ofgiganticstature。“WecanseewhytheMoslemcamel-drivershouldfinditmostnaturaltoregardthewhirlingsimoomasamalignantJinni；wemayunderstandhowitisthatthePersianseesinbodilyshapethescarletfeveras“ablushingmaidwithlocksofflameandcheeksallrosyred“；

andweneednotconsideritstrangethattheprimevalAryanshouldhaveregardedthesunasavoyager，aclimber，oranarcher，andthecloudsascowsdrivenbythewind-godHermestotheirmilking。TheidentificationofWilliamTellwiththesunbecomesthoroughlyintelligible；norcanwebelongersurprisedattheconceptionofthehowlingnight-windasaravenouswolf。Whenpotsandkettlesarethoughttohavesoulsthatlivehereafter，thereisnodifficultyinunderstandinghowtheblueskycanhavebeenregardedasthesireofgodsandmen。Andthus，astheelvesandbogartsofpopularloreareinmanycasesdescendedfromancientdivinitiesofOlymposandValhalla，sotheseinturnmustacknowledgetheirancestorsintheshadowydenizensoftheprimevalghost-world。

August，1872。

NOTE。

THEfollowingaresomeofthemodernworksmostlikelytobeofusetothereaderwhoisinterestedinthelegendofWilliamTell。

HISELY，J。J。DissertatiohistorieainauguralisdeOulielmoTellio，etc。Groningae，1824。

IDELER，J。L。DieSagevondemSchussdesTell。Berlin，1836。

HAUSSER，L。DieSagevonTellaufsNeuekritischuntersucht。

Heidelberg，1840。

HISELY，J。J。Recherchescritiquessurl"histoiredeGuillaumeTell。Lausanne，1843。

LIEBENAU，H。DieTell-SagezudemJahre1230historisohnachneuestenQuellen。Aarau，1864。

VISCHER，W。DieSagevonderBefreinngderWaldstatte，etc。

NebsteinerBeilage:dasaltesteTellensehauspiel。Leipzig，1867。

BORDIER，H。L。LeGrutlietGuillaumeTell，oudefensedelatraditionvulgairesurlesoriginesdelaconfederationsuisse。GeneveetBale，1869。

Thesame。Laquerellesurlestraditionsconcernantl"originedelaconfederationsuisse。GeneveetBale，1869。

RILLIET，A。Lesoriginesdelaconfederationsuisse:histoireetlegende。2eSed。，revueetcorrigee。GeneveetBale，1869。

Thesame。LettreaM。HenriBordieraproposdesadefensedelatraditionvulgairesurlesoriginesdelaconfederationsuisse。GeneveetBale，1869。

HUNGERBUHLER，H。Etudecritiquesurlestraditionsrelativesauxoriginesdelaconfederationsuisse。GeneveetBale，1869。

MEYER，KARL。DieTellsage。[InBartsch，GermanistischeStudien，I。159-170。Wien，1872。

SeealsothearticlesbyM。Scherer，inLeTemps，18Feb。，1868；byM。Reuss，intheRevuecritiqued"histoire，1868；byM。deWiss，intheJournaldeGeneve，7July，1868；alsoRevuecritique，17July，1869；JournaldeGeneve，24Oct。，1868；

GazettedeLausanne，feuilletonlitteraire，2-5Nov。，1868，“Lesoriginesdelaconfederationsuisse，“parM。Secretan；

EdinburghReview，Jan。，1869，“TheLegendofTellandRutli。“

End