第6章

Thefiguresandpercentagesgivenabovearenotclaimedtobeexact;itisknownthatamoreaccuratespecificationofdetailswouldresultinalessfavourableshowing。

Atthetimewhenthesemattersweredisclosed（toasmallnumberoftheuneasypersonsinterested）therewasanuglysuggestionafloattouchingthepecuniaryintegrityoftheboard’smanagement，butthisisdoubtlesstobedismissedasbeingmerelyalooseexpressionofill—will;andthelikeisalsodoubtlesstobesaidasregardsthesuggestionthattheremayhavebeenaninterestedcollusionbetweentheacademicheadandtheactivemembersoftheboard。Thesewere"allhonourablemen，"ofgreatreputeinthecommunityandwellknownassagaciousandsuccessfulmenintheirprivatebusinessventures。

2。Cf。TheInstinctofWorkmanship，ch。vii，pp。343—352。

3。Asubsidiaryreasonofsomeweightshouldnotbeoverlookedinseekingthecauseofthissecularizationoftheboards，andofthepeculiarcolourwhichthesecularizationhasgiventhem。Inanycommunitywherewealthandbusinessenterpriseareheldinsuchhighesteem，menofwealthandofaffairsarenotonlydeferredto，buttheircountenanceissoughtfromonemotiveandanother。Atthesametimeelectiontooneoftheseboardshascometohaveahighvalueasanhonourabledistinction。Suchelectionorappointmentthereforeisoftensoughtfrommotivesofvanity，anditisatthesametimeaconvenientmeansofconciliatingthegoodwillofthewealthyincumbent。

Itmaybeaddedthatnowandagainthediscretionarycontroloflargefundswhichsofallstothemembersoftheboardmaycometobepecuniarilyprofitabletothem，sothattheofficemaycometobeattractiveasabusinesspropositionaswellasinpointofprestige。Instancesofthekindarenotwhollyunknown，thoughpresumablyexceptional。

4。Cf。，e。g……R。T。Crane。TheFutilityofAllKindsofHigherSchooling，especiallypartI，ch。iv。

5。Cf。R。T。Crane，asabove，especiallypartI，ch。ii。iii，andvi。Cf。alsoH。P。Judson，TheHigherEducationasaTrainingforBusiness，wherethecaseisarguedinatypicallycommonplaceandmatter—of—factspirit，butwhere"TheHigherEducation"istakentomeantheundergraduatecurriculumsimply;also"ASymposiumonthevalueofhumanistic，particularlyclassical，studiesasatrainingformenofaffairs，"ProceedingsoftheClassicalConferenceatAnnArbor，Michigan，April3，1909。

6。Cf。Bacon，Essays——"OfCunning"，and"OfWisdomforaMan’sSelf。"

7。Cf。ch。viii，especiallypp。242—269。

CHAPTERIII

TheAcademicAdministrationandPolicyMendilateonthehighnecessityofabusinesslikeorganizationandcontroloftheuniversity，itsequipment，personnelandroutine。Whatishadinmindinthisinsistenceonanefficientsystemisthatthesecorporationsoflearningshallsettheiraffairsinorderafterthepatternofawell—conductedbusinessconcern。Inthisviewtheuniversityisconceivedasabusinesshousedealinginmerchantableknowledge，placedunderthegoverninghandofacaptainoferudition，whoseofficeitistoturnthemeansinhandtoaccountinthelargestfeasibleoutput。Itisacorporationwithlargefunds，andformenbiasedbytheirworkdaytraininginbusinessaffairsitcomesasamatterofcoursetoratetheuniversityintermsofinvestmentandturnover。Hencetheinsistenceonbusinesscapacityintheexecutiveheadsoftheuniversities，andhencealsotheextensiverangeofbusinesslikedutiesandpowersthatdevolveonthem。

Yetwhenallthesesophisticationsofpracticalwisdomaredulyallowedfor，thefactremainsthattheuniversityis，inusage，precedent，andcommonsensepreconception，anestablishmentfortheconservationandadvancementofthehigherlearning，devotedtoadisinterestedpursuitofknowledge。Assuch，itconsistsofabodyofscholarsandscientists，eachandseveralofwhomnecessarilygoestohisworkonhisowninitiativeandpursuesitinhisownway。Thisworknecessarilyfollowsanorderlysequenceandprocedure，andsotakesonasystematicform，ofanorganickind。Butthesystemandorderthatsogovernthework，andthatcomeintoviewinitsprocedureandresults，arethelogicalsystemandorderofintellectualenterprise，notthemechanicalorstatisticalsystematizationthatgoesintoeffectinthemanagementofanindustrialplantorthefinancieringofabusinesscorporation。

Thoseitemsofhumanintelligenceandinitiativethatgotomakeupthepursuitofknowledge，andthatareembodiedinsystematicforminitsconclusions，donotlendthemselvestoquantitativestatement，andcannotbemadetoappearonabalance—sheet。Neithercanthatintellectualinitiativeandproclivitythatgoesinastheindispensablemotiveforceinthepursuitoflearningbereducedtoanyknowntermsofsubordination，obedience，orauthoritativedirection。Noscholarorscientistcanbecomeanemployeeinrespectofhisscholarlyorscientificwork。Mechanicalsystematizationandauthoritativecontrolcaninthesepremisesnotreachbeyondthematerialcircumstancesthatconditiontheworkinhand，norcanitintheseexternalmatterswithgoodeffectgofartherthanisnecessarytosupplythematerialwaysandmeansrequisitetothework，andtoadaptthemtothepeculiarneedsofanygivenlineofinquiryorgroupofscholars。Inordertotheirbestefficiency，andindeedinthedegreeinwhichefficiencyinthisfieldofactivityistobeattainedatall，theexecutiveofficersoftheuniversitymuststandintherelationofassistantsservingtheneedsandcateringtotheidiosyncrasiesofthebodyofscholarsandscientiststhatmakeuptheuniversity;（1*）inthedegreeinwhichtheconverserelationisallowedtotakeeffect，theunavoidableconsequenceiswastefuldefeat。Afreehandisthefirstandabidingrequisiteofscholarlyandscientificwork。

Now，inacceptingofficeasexecutiveheadofauniversity，theincumbentnecessarilyacceptsalltheconditionsthatattachtotheadministrationofhisoffice，whetherbyusageandcommonsenseexpectation，byexpressarrangement，orbypatentunderstandingwiththeboardtowhichheoweshiselevationtothispostofdignityandcommand。Byusageandprecedentitisincumbentonhimtogoverntheacademicpersonnelandequipmentwithaneyesingletothepursuitofknowledge，andsotoconductitsaffairsaswillmosteffectuallycompassthatend。Thatistosayhemustsoadministerhisofficeasbesttoservethescholarlyneedsoftheacademicstaff，dueregardbeingscrupulouslyhadtotheidiosyncrasies，andeventothevagaries，ofthemenwhoseworkheiscalledontofurther。Butbypatentunderstanding，ifnotbyexplicitstipulation，fromthesideofthegoverningboard，fortifiedbythepreconceptionsofthelaityatlargetothesameeffect，heisheldtosuchaconspicuouslyefficientemploymentofthemeansinhandaswillgratifythosewholookforavoluminousturnover。Tothisendhemustkeeptheacademicadministrationanditsactivityconstantlyinthepubliceye，withsuch"pompandcircumstance"ofuntiringurgencyandexpeditionaswillcarrytheconvictionabroadthattheuniversityunderhismanagementisahighlysuccessfulgoingconcern，andhemustbeabletoshowbyitemizedaccountsthatthevolumeofoutputissuchastowarranttheinvestment。Sotheequipmentandpersonnelmustbeorganizedintoafacileandorderlyworkingforce，heldunderthedirectivecontrolofthecaptainoferuditionateverypoint，andsoarticulatedandstandardizedthatitsrateofspeedandthevolumeofitscurrentoutputcanbeexhibitedtofullstatisticaleffectasitruns。

Theuniversityistomakegoodbothasacorporationoflearningandasabusinessconcerndealinginstandardizederudition，andtheexecutiveheadnecessarilyassumestheresponsibilityofmakingitcountwhollyandunreservedlyineachofthesedivergent，ifnotincompatiblelines。（2*）Humanlyspeaking，itfollowsbynecessaryconsequencethathewillfirstandalwaystakecareofthosedutiesthataremostjealouslyinsistedonbythepowerstowhomheisaccountable，andthedueperformanceofwhichwillatthesametimeyieldsomesufficientlytangibleevidenceofhisefficiency。Thatother，morereconditesideoftheuniversity’sworkthathassubstantiallytodowiththehigherlearningisnotreadilysetoutintheformofstatisticalexhibits，atthebest，andcanordinarilycometoappraisalandpopularappreciationonlyinthelongrun。Theneedofabusinesslikeshowingisinstantandimperative，particularlyinabusinesseraoflargeturnoverandquickreturns，andtomeetthisneedtheuneventfulscholasticlifethatcountstowardthehigherlearninginthelongrunisoflittleuse;soitcanwait，anditreadilybecomesahabitwiththebusyexecutivetoletitwait。

Itshouldbekeptinmindalsothattheincumbentofexecutiveofficeispresumablyamanofbusinesslikequalifications，ratherthanofscholarlyinsight，——themethodofselectingtheexecutiveheadsunderthepresentr間imemakesthatnearlyamatterofcourse。Assuchhewillinhisownrightmorereadilyappreciatethoseresultsofhisownmanagementthatshowupwithsomethingoftheglareofpublicity，ascontrastedwiththeslow—movingandoftenobscureworkingofinquirythatlies（commonly）somewhatbeyondhisintellectualhorizon。Sothatwithslightmisgivings，ifany，hetakestothemethodsoforganizationandcontrolthathavecommendedthemselvesinthatcurrentbusinessenterprisetowhichitishisambitiontoassimilatethecorporationoflearning。

Theseprecedentsofbusinesspracticethataretoaffordguidancetothecaptainoferuditionare，ofcourse，theprecedentsofcompetitivebusiness。Itisoneoftheunwritten，andcommonlyunspoken，commonplaceslyingattherootofmodernacademicpolicythatthevariousuniversitiesarecompetitorsforthetrafficinmerchantableinstruction，inmuchthesamefashionasrivalestablishmentsintheretailtradecompeteforcustom。

Indeed，themoderndepartmentstoreoffersafelicitousanalogy，thathasalreadybeenfoundserviceableinillustrationoftheAmericanuniversity’spositioninthisrespect，bythosewhospeakforthepresentr間imeaswellasbyitscritics。Thefactthattheuniversitiesareassumedtobeirreconcilablecompetitors，bothinthepopularapprehensionandasevidencedbythemanoeuvresoftheirseveraldirectors，istoonotorioustobedeniedbyanybuttheinterestedparties。Nowandagainitisformallydeniedbyoneandanotheramongthecompetingcaptainsoferudition，butthereasonforsuchdenialistheneedofit。（3*）

Now，thedutiesoftheexecutiveheadofacompetitivebusinessconcernareofastrategicnature，theobjectofhismanagementbeingtogetthebetterofrivalconcernsandtoengrossthetrade。Tothisenditisindispensablethatheshouldbea"strongman"andshouldhaveafreehand，——thoughperhapsunderthegeneralandtolerantsurveillanceofhisboardofdirectors。Anywiseboardofdirectors，andinthedegreeinwhichtheyareendowedwiththerequisitewisdom，willbecarefultogivetheirgeneralmanagerfulldiscretion，andnottohamperhimwithtoocloseanaccountingofthedetailsofhisadministration，solongasheshowsgratifyingresults。Hemustbeastrongman;thatistosay，acapablemanofaffairs，tenaciousandresourcefulinturningthemeansathandtoaccountforthispurpose，andeasilycontenttolettheendjustifythemeans。Hemustbeamanofscrupulousintegrity，sofarasmayconducetohissuccess，butwithashrewdeyetothelimitswithinwhichhonestyisthebestpolicy，forthepurposeinhand。

Hemusthavefullcommandofthemeansentrustedtohimandfullcontroloftheforceofemployeesandsubordinateswhoaretoworkunderhisdirection，andhemustbeabletorelyontheinstantandunwaveringloyaltyofhisstaffinanylineofpolicyonwhichhemaydecidetoenter。Hemustthereforehavefreepowertoappointanddismiss，andtorewardandpunish，limitedonlybytheformalratificationofhisdecisionsbytheboardofdirectorswhowillbecarefulnottointerfereorinquireundulyinthesematters，——solongastheirstrongmanshowsresults。

Thedetailsandobjectiveofhisstrategyneednotbeknowntothemembersofthestaff;indeed，allthatdoesnotconcernthemexceptinthemostgeneralway。Theyarehiscreatures，andareresponsibleonlytohimandonlyforthedueperformanceofthetasksassignedthem;andtheyneedknowonlysomuchaswillenablethemtogivereadyandintelligentsupporttothemovesmadebytheirchieffromdaytoday。Themembersofthestaffarehisemployees，andtheirfirstdutyisaloyalobedience;andforthecompetitivegoodoftheconcerntheymustutternoexpressionofcriticismorunfavourablecommentonthepolicy，actionsorpersonalcharacteristicsoftheirchief，solongastheyareinhisemploy。Theyhaveeatenhisbread，anditisforthemtodohisbidding。

Suchistheobject—lessonaffordedbybusinesspracticeasitbearsonthedutiesincumbentontheacademicheadandonthepowersofofficedelegatedtohim。Itisneedlesstoremarkonwhatisafactofcommonnotoriety，thatthisruledrawnfromtheconductofcompetitivebusinessiscommonlyappliedwithoutsubstantialabatementintheconductofacademicaffairs。（4*）

Underthisruletheacademicstaffbecomesabodyofgradedsubalterns，whoshareconfidenceofthechiefinvaryingdegrees，butwhonodecisivevoiceinthepolicyortheconductofaffairsoftheconcerninwhosepaytheyareheld。Thefacultyisconceivedasabodyofemployees，hiredtorendercertainservicesandturnoutcertainscheduledvendibleresults。

Thechiefmaytakeadvice;and，asiscommonlythepracticeinanalogouscircumstancesincommercialbusiness，hewillbelikelytodrawabouthimfromamongthefacultyaconvenientlysmallnumberofadviserswhoareinsympathywithhisownambitions，andwhowillinthiswayformanunofficialcouncil，orcabinet，or"junta，"towhomhecanturnforinformal，anonymousandirresponsible，adviceandmoralsupportatanyjuncture。Hewillalso，incompliancewithcharterstipulationsandparliamentaryusage，havecertainofficiallyrecognizedadvisers，——thevariousdeans，advisorycommittees，AcademicCouncil，UniversitySenate，andthelike，——withwhomhesharesresponsibility，particularlyformeasuresofdoubtfulpopularity，andwhoseadviceheformallytakescorampublico;buthecannotwellsharediscretionwiththese，exceptonadministrativemattersofinconsequentialdetail。Forreasonsofpracticalefficiency，discretionmustbeundividedinanycompetitiveenterprise。Thereismuchfine—spunstrategytobetakencareofundercoverofnightandcloud。

Buttheacademictradition，whichstilldragsonthehandsofthecaptainsoferudition，hasnotleftthegroundpreparedforsuchaclean—cutbusinesslikeorganizationandsuchacampaignofcompetitivestrategy。Bytraditionthefacultyisthekeeperoftheacademicinterestsoftheuniversityandmakesupabodyofloosely—boundnoncompetitiveco—partners，withnoviewtostrategicteamplayandnocollectiveulteriorambition，leastofallwithaviewtoengrossingthetrade。Bytradition，andindeedcommonlybyexplicitproviso，theconductoftheuniversity’sacademicaffairsvestsformallyinthepresident，withtheadviceandconsentofthefaculty，orofthegeneralbodyofseniormembersofthefaculty。Indueobservanceofthesetraditions，andofthescholasticpurposesnotoriouslyunderlyingalluniversitylife，certainformsofdisinterestedzealmustbeadheredtoinallofficialpronouncementsoftheexecutive，aswellascertainpunctiliosofconferenceandadvisementbetweenthedirectiveheadandtheacademicstaff。

Allofwhichmakestheworkoftheexecutiveheadlesseasyandingenuousthanitmightbe。Thesubstantialdemandsofhispositionaschiefofacompetitivebusinessaresomewhatwidelyoutoftouchwiththeseformsofdividedresponsibilitythatmust（formally）beobservedinadministeringhisduties，andequallyoutoftouchwiththeformalprofessionsofdisinterestedzealforthecauseoflearningthatheisbytraditionrequiredtomakefromtimetotime。Allthatmayreasonablybecountedonunderthesetryingcircumstancesisthatheshoulddothebesthecan，——tosavetheformalitiesandsecurethesubstance。Tocompassthesedifficultincongruities，hewill，asalreadyremarkedabove，necessarilygatherabouthim，withinthegeneralbodyoftheacademicpersonnel，acorpsoftrustedadvisorsandagents，whosequalificationsfortheirpeculiarworkisanintelligentsympathywiththeirchief’sidealsandmethodsandanunreservedsubserviencetohisaims，——unlessitshouldcometopass，asmayhappenincaseitsmembersaremenofforceandingenuity，thatthisunofficialcabinetshouldtakeoverthedirectionofaffairsandworkouttheirownaimsandpurposesundercoverofthechief’sostensiblyautocraticrule。

Amongtheseaidsandadviserswillbefoundatleastaproportionofthehigheradministrativeofficials，andamongthenumberitisfairlyindispensabletoincludeoneormoreadroitparliamentarians，competenttoprocurethenecessarymodicumofsanctionforallarbitraryactsoftheexecutive，fromadistrustfulfacultyconvenedasadeliberativebody。Thesemenmustbeatleastpartiallyintheconfidenceoftheexecutivehead。Fromthecircumstancesofthecaseitalsofollowsthattheywillcommonlyoccupyanadvancedacademicrank，andsowilltakeahigh（putative）rankasscholarsandscientists。Highacademicrankcomesofnecessitytothesemenwhoserveascoadjutorsandvehiclesoftheexecutivepolicy，asdoesalsotherelativelyhighpaythatgoeswithhighrank;botharerequiredasarewardofmeritandanincitementtoazealousserviceabilityontheonehand，andtokeeptheadministrationincountenanceontheotherhandbygivingtherequisitedignitytoitsagents。Theywillbeselectedonthesamegeneralgroundsoffitnessastheirchief，——administrativefacility，plausibility，proficiencyaspublicspeakersandparliamentarians，readyversatilityofconvictions，andastaunchloyaltytotheirbread。

Experienceteachesthatscholarlyorscientificcapacitydoesnotenterinanyappreciablemeasureamongthequalificationssorequiredforresponsibleacademicoffice，beyondwhatmaythriftilyservetomasktheconventionaldecenciesofthecase。

Itis，further，oftheessenceofthisschemeofacademiccontrolthatthecaptainoferuditionshouldfreelyexercisethepowerofacademiclifeanddeathoverthemembersofhisstaff，torewardthegoodandfaithfulservantandtoabasetherecalcitrant。Otherwisedisciplinewouldbeadifficultmatter，andtheformallyrequisite"adviceandconsent"couldbeprocuredonlytardilyandgrudgingly。

Admittingsuchreservationsandabatementasmaybedue，itistobesaidthattheexistingorganizationofacademiccontrolunderbusinessprinciplesfallsmoreorlessnearlyintotheformoutlinedabove。Theperfectedtype，assketchedinthelastparagraphs，hasdoubtlessnotbeenfullyachievedinpracticehitherto，unlessitbeinoneoranotherofthenewerestablishmentswithlargeambitionsandendowment，andwithfewtraditionstohampertheworkingoutofthesystem。Theincursionofbusinessprinciplesintotheacademiccommunityisalsoofrelativelyrecentdate，andshouldnotyethavehadtimetopervadetheorganizationthroughoutandwithfulleffect;sothatther間imeofcompetitivestrategyshouldasyetbeneithersofaradvancednorsosecureamatterofcourseasmayfairlybeexpectedinthenearfuture。Yettherateofadvancealongthisline，andthemeasureofpresentachievement，aremoreconsiderablethanevenaverysanguineadvocateofbusinessprinciplescouldhavedaredtolookforacoupleofdecadesago。

Insofarasthesemattersarestillinprocessofgrowth，ratherthanattheirfullfruition，itfollowsthatanyanalysisoftheeffectsofthisr間imemustbeinsomedegreespeculative，andmustattimesdealwiththedriftofthingsasmuchaswithaccomplishedfact。Yetsuchaninquirymustapproachitssubjectasanepisodeofhistory，andmustdealwiththepersonalfiguresandtheincidentsofthisgrowthobjectively，asphenomenathrownuptoviewbytheplayofcircumstancesinthedispassionategiveandtakeofinstitutionalchange。Suchanimpersonalattitude，itisperhapsneedlesstoremark，isnotalwayseasytomaintainindealingwithfactsofsopersonal，andoftenofsoanimated，acharacter。Particularlywillanobserverwhohasseentheseincidentsfromthemiddleandinthemakingfinditdifficultuniformlytopreservethataloofperspectivethatwillservetheendsofanhistoricalappreciation。Thedifficultyisincreasedandcomplicatedbythenecessityofemployingterms，descriptionsandincidentsthathavebeenhabituallyemployedincurrentcontroversy，oftenwithamarkedanimus。Menhavetakensidesonthesematters，andsoareengagedincontroversyonthemeritsofthecurrentr間imeandonthequestionofpossiblereliefandremedyforwhatareconsideredtobeitsiniquities。Undertheshadowofthiscontroversy，itisnearlyunavoidablethatanyexpressionorcitationoffactthatwillbearapartisanconstructionwillhabituallybesoconstrued。Thevehiclenecessarilyemployedmustalmostunavoidablyinfusetheanalysiswithanunintendedcolourofbias，toonesideortheotherofthepresumedmeritsofthecase。Adegreeofpatientattentionisthereforedueatpointswherethefactscited，andthecharacterizationofthesefactsandtheirbearing，wouldseem，onasuperficialview，tobearconstructionascontroversialmatter。

Inthisepisodeofinstitutionalgrowth，plainly，theexecutiveheadisthecentralfigure。Thelightfailsonhimratherthanontheforcesthatmovehim，anditcomesasamatterofcoursetopassopinionsontheresultingincidentsandconsequences，astheoutcomeofhisfreeinitiativeratherthanofthecircumstanceswhosecreatureheis。Nodoubt，hisinitiative，ifany，isapowerfulfactorinthecase，butitisafterallafactoroftransmissionandcommutationratherthanofgenesisandself—direction;forheischosenforthestyleandmeasureofinitiativewithwhichheisendowed，andunlessheshallbefoundtomeasureuptoexpectationsinkindanddegreeinthismatterhewillgointhediscard，andhispersonalidealsandinitiativewillcountaslittlemorethanatransientobstruction。Hewillholdhisplace，andwillcountasacreativeforceinhisworld，inmuchthesamedegreeinwhichherespondswithreadyflexibilitytotheimpactofthoseforcesofpopularsentimentandclassconvictionthathavecalledhimtobetheirservant。Onlysocanhebea"strongman";onlyinsofaras，byfortunatebentorbyitsabsence，heisenabledtomoveresistlesslywiththeparallelogramofforces。

Theexigenciesofabusinesslikeadministrationdemandthattherebenodivisionofpowersbetweentheacademicexecutiveandtheacademicstaff;buttheexigenciesofthehigherlearningrequirethatthescholarsandscientistsmustbeleftquitefreetofollowtheirownbentinconductingtheirownwork。Inthenatureofthingsthisworkcannotbecarriedoneffectuallyundercoerciverule。Scientificinquirycannotbepursuedunderdirectionofalaymaninthepersonofasuperiorofficer。Also，learningis，inthenatureofthings，notacompetitivebusinessandcanmakenouseoffinesse，diplomaticequivocationandtactfulregardforpopularprejudices，suchasareoftheessenceofthecaseincompetitivebusiness。Itis，also，ofnoadvantagetolearningtoengrossthetrade。Traditionandpresentnecessityalikedemandthatthebodyofscholarsandscientistswhomakeuptheuniversitymustbevestedwithfullpowersofself—direction，withoutulteriorconsideration。Auniversitycanremainacorporationoflearning，defacto，onnootherbasis。

Ashasalreadybeenremarked，businessmethodsofcoursehavetheirplaceinthecorporation’sfiscalaffairsandintheoffice—workincidenttothecareofitsmaterialequipment。Asregardstheseitemstheuniversityisabusinessconcern，andnodiscussionofthesetopicswouldbeinplacehere。Thesethingsconcerntheuniversityonlyinitsexternals，andtheydonotproperlyfallwithinthescopeofacademicpolicyoracademicadministration。Theycomeintoconsiderationhereonlyinsofarasalivelyregardforthemmay，asitsometimesdoes，diverttheforcesoftheestablishmentfromitsostensiblepurpose。

Undertheruleimposedbythosebusinesslikepreconceptionsthatdecidehisselectionforoffice，thefirstdutyoftheexecutiveheadistoseetotheorganizationofanadministrativemachineryforthedirectionoftheuniversity’sinternalaffairs，andtheestablishmentofafacileandrigoroussystemofaccountancyforthecontrolandexhibitionoftheacademicwork。

Inthesamemeasureinwhichsuchasystemgoesintoeffecttheprinciplesofcompetitivebusinesswillpermeatetheadministrationinalldirections;inthepersonneloftheacademicstaff，inthecontrolandintercourseofteachersandstudents，inthescheduleofinstruction，inthedispositionofthematerialequipment，inthepublicexhibitsandceremonialoftheuniversity，aswellasinitspecuniaryconcerns。

Withintherangeofacademicinterestsproper，thesebusinessprinciplesprimarilyaffectthepersonnelandtheroutineofinstruction。Heretheirapplicationimmediatelyresultsinanadministrativesystemofbureauxordepartments，ahierarchicalgradationofthemembersofthestaff，andarigorousparcelmentandstandardizationoftheinstructionoffered。Somesuchsystemisindispensabletoanyeffectivecontroloftheworkfromabove，suchasisaimedatintheappointmentofadiscretionaryheadoftheuniversity，——particularlyinalargeschool;andthemeasureofcontroldesiredwilldecidethedegreeofthoroughnesswithwhichthisbureaucraticorganizationistobecarriedthrough。Theneedofawell—devisedbureaucraticsystemisgreaterthemorecentralizedandcoercivethecontroltowhichtheacademicworkistobesubject;andthedegreeofcontroltobeexercisedwillbegreaterthemoreurgentthefeltneedofastrictandlargeaccountancymaybe。Allofwhichresolvesitselfintoaquestionastothepurposessoughtbytheinstallationofsuchasystem。

Fortheeverydayworkofthehigherlearning，assuch，littleofahierarchicalgradation，andlessofbureaucraticsubordination，isneedfulorserviceable;andverylittleofstatisticaluniformity，standardunitsoferudition，ordetailaccountancy，isatallfeasible。Thisworkisnotofamechanicalcharacteranddoesnotlenditself，eitherinitsmethodsoritsresults，toanymechanicallystandardizedschemeofmeasurementsortoasystemofaccountingpercentpertimeunit。Thisrangeofinstructionconsistssubstantiallyinthefacilitationofscholarlyandscientifichabitsofthought，andtheimpositionofanyappreciablemeasureofsuchstandardizationandaccountingmustunavoidablyweakenandvitiatetheworkofinstruction，injustthedegreeinwhichtheimposedsystemiseffective。

Itisnotwithinthepurposeofthisinquirytogointothebearingofallthisonthecollegiate（undergraduate）departmentsorontheprofessionalandtechnicalschoolsassociatedwiththeuniversityproperinAmericanpractice。Butsomethingofadetaileddiscussionofthesystemandprinciplesofcontrolappliedintheseschoolsisnecessarybecauseofitsincidentalbearingongraduatework。

Itisplainbeyondneedofspecificationthatinthepracticalviewofthepublicatlarge，andofthegoverningboards，theuniversityisprimarilyanundergraduateschool，withgraduateandprofessionaldepartmentsaddedtoit。Anditissimilarlyplainthatthecaptainsoferuditionchosenasexecutiveheadssharethesamepreconceptions，andgototheirworkwithaviewprimarilytotheneedsoftheirundergraduatedepartments。Thebusinesslikeorderandsystemintroducedintotheuniversities，therefore，aredesignedprimarilytomeettheneedsandexploitthepossibilitiesoftheundergraduateschool;

but，byforceofhabit，byadesireofuniformity，byadesiretocontrolandexhibitthepersonnelandtheirwork，byheedlessimitation，orwhatnot，itinvariablyhappensthatthesameschemeoforderandsystemisextendedtocoverthegraduateworkalso。

Whileitistheworkofscienceandscholarship，roughlywhatisknowninAmericanusageasgraduatework，thatgivestheuniversityitsrankasaseatoflearningandkeepsitincountenanceassuchwithlaymenandscholars，itistheundergraduateschool，orcollege，thatstillcontinuestobethelargerfact，andthatstillengagesthegreaterandmoreimmediateattentioninuniversitymanagement。ThisisdueinparttoreceivedAmericanusage，inparttoitsmorereadilyservingtheendsofcompetitiveambition;anditisafactinthecurrentacademicsituationwhichmustbecountedinasachronicdiscrepancy，nottobegotclearofortobeappreciablymitigatedsolongasbusinessprinciplescontinuetorule。

Whatcountstowardtheadvancementoflearningandthescholarlycharacteroftheuniversityisthegraduatework，butwhatgivesstatisticallyformidableresultsinthewayofanumerousenrolment，manydegreesconferred，publicexhibitions，coursesofinstruction——inshortwhatrollsupalargeshowingofturnoverandoutput——istheperfunctoryworkoftheundergraduatedepartment，aswellasthearrayofvocationalschoolslatterlysubjoinedasauxiliariestothisend。Hencetheneedsandpossibilitiesoftheundergraduateandvocationalschoolsareprimarily，perhapsrathersolely，hadinviewinthebureaucraticorganizationofthecoursesofinstruction，intheselectionofthepersonnel，inthedivisionsoftheschoolyear，aswellasinthevariousaccessoryattractionsoffered，suchastheathleticequipment，facilitiesforfraternityandotherclublife，debates，exhibitionsandfestivities，andthecustomaryroutineofdevotionalamenitiesunderofficialsanction。