第4章

Itmaybeargued，anditmaybetrue，ofcourse，thatmuchofthisfailureofintelligenceandspiritualforceamongGermany’smenoflearningisofthenatureofatransienteclipseoftheirpowers;thatwiththereturnofsettledconditionsthereisduetocomeareturnofpoiseandinsight。Butwhenalldueargumenthasbeenheard，itremainstruethatthedistrustsetafootinthemindoftheirneighbours，bythishighlyremarkableexhibitionoftheirpersonalequation，willlonginuretothedisabilityofGermany’smenoflearningasaforcetobecountedoninthatteamworkthatisoftheessenceofthingsfortheadvancementoflearning。Ineffect，Germany，andGermany’sassociatesinthiswarlikeenterprise，willpresumablybefoundbankruptinthisrespectonthereturnofpeace，evenbeyondtheothernations。

Theseothershavealsonotescapedthetouchoftheangelofdecay，butthevisiblecorruptionofspiritualandintellectualvaluesdoesnotgothesamelengthamongthem。Norhavetheseotherssufferedsoheavyatollontheirprospectivescholarlymanpower。Itisallamatterofdegreeandofdifferentialdecline，coupledwithafailureofcorporateorganizationandoftheusagesandchannelsofcommunionandco—operation。

Chauvinisticself—sufficiencyanddisesteemoftheirneighbourshaveapparentlyalsonotgonesodeepandfaramongtheothernations;althoughhereagainitisonlyarelativedegreeofimmunitythattheyenjoy。

AndallthisholdstrueoftheAmericansinmuchthesamewayasoftherest;exceptthattheAmericanshave，atleasthitherto，notbeenexposedtotheblightinanythinglikethesamedegreeasanyoneofthoseotherpeopleswithwhomtheycomeincomparisonhere。Itis，ofcourse，noteasytosurmisewhatmayyetovertakethem，andtheotherswiththem;butjudgedonthecourseofthingshitherto，andontheapparentpromiseofthecalculablefuture，itisscarcelytobepresumedthattheAmericansareduetosuffersoextremeadegreeofdilapidationastheEuropeanpeoples，——evenapartfromtheaccentuatedevilcaseoftheGermans。Thestrainhashithertobeenlighterhere，anditpromisessotocontinue，whetherthefurtherdurationofthewarshallturnouttobelongerorshorter。TheAmericansare，afterall，somewhatshelteredfromtheimpact;andsosoonasthehystericalanxietyinducedbytheshockhashadtimetospenditself，itshouldreasonablybeexpectedthatthispeoplewillbeablesoberlytotakestockofitsassetsandtofindthatitsholdingsinthedomainofscienceandscholarshipare，inthemain，stillintact。

Notthatnolosshasbeenincurred，northatnomaterialdegreeofderangementistobelookedfor，butincomparisonwithwhattheexperienceofthewarisbringingtotheEuropeans，thecaseoftheAmericansshouldstillbethebestthereistobelookedforandthebestisalwaysgoodenough，perforce。Soitbecomesaquestion，whattheAmericanswilldowiththebestopportunitywhichthecircumstancesoffer。Andontheirconductoftheiraffairsinthisbearingturnsnotonlytheirownfortuneinrespectoftheinterestsofscienceandscholarship，butingreatmeasurethefortunesoftheiroverseasfriendsandco—partnersintherepublicoflearningaswell。

ThefortunesofwarpromisetoleavetheAmericanmenoflearninginastrategicposition，inthepositionofastrategicreserve，ofaforcetobeheldinreadiness，equippedandorganizedtomeettheemergencythatsoarises，andtoretrievesomuchasmaybeofthoseassetsofscholarlyequipmentandpersonnelthatmakethesubstantialcodeofWesterncivilization。

AndsoitbecomesaquestionofwhattheAmericansaremindedtodoaboutit。Itistheiropportunity，andatthesametimeitcarriesthegravestresponsibilitythathasyetfallenonthenation;forthespiritualfortunesofChristendomareboundupwiththelineofpolicywhichthissurvivingcontingentofAmericanmenoflearningshallseefittopursue。Theyarenotallthatistobeleftoverwhenthepowersofdecayshallbegintoretire，norarethey，perhaps，tobethebestandmostvaluablecontingentamongtheseprospectivesurvivors;buttheyoccupyastrategicposition，inthattheyaretodayjustlytobecreditedwithdisinterestedmotives，beyondtherest，atthesametimethattheycommandthosematerialresourceswithoutwhichthequestofknowledgecanhopetoachievelittlealongthemodernlinesofinquiry。Byforceofcircumstancestheyarethrownintothepositionofkeepersofthewaysandmeanswherebytherepublicoflearningistoretrieveitsfortunes。Byforceofcircumstancestheyareinaposition，iftheysochoose，tosheltermanyofthosemastersoffreeinquirywhomtheone—eyedforcesofreactionandpartisanshipoverseaswillseektosuppressandundo;andtheyarealsoinaposition，iftheysochoose，toinstallsomethinginthewayofaninternationalclearinghouseandprovisionalheadquartersfortheacademiccommunitythroughoutthatrangeofcivilizedpeopleswhosegoodwilltheynowenjoy——aplaceofrefugeandaplaceofmeeting，confluenceanddisseminationforthoseviewsandideasthatliveandmoveandhavetheirbeinginthehigherlearning。

Thereis，therefore，aworkofreconstructiontobetakencareofintherealmoflearning，nolessthanintheworkingschemeofeconomicandcivilinstitutions。Andasinthisotherworkofreconstruction，sohere;ifitistobedonewithoutundueconfusionandblunderingitisduetobesetafootbeforethefinalemergencyisathand。Butthereisthedifferencethat，whereastheframeworkofcivilinstitutionsmaystill，withpassablesuccess，bedrawnonnationallinesandconfinedwithinthenationalfrontiers;andwhiletheeconomicorganizationcanalso，withoutfatalloss，beconfinedinasimilarfashion，inresponsetoshort—sightedpatrioticpreconceptions;theinterestsofscience，andthereforeoftheacademiccommunity，donotrunonnationallinesandcannotsimilarlybeconfinedwithingeographicalorpoliticalboundaries。Inthenatureofthecasetheseinterestsareofaninternationalcharacterandcannotbetakencareofexceptbyunrestrictedcollusionandcollaborationamongthelearnedmenofallthosepeopleswhomitmayconcern。

Yetthereisnomistakingthefactthatthespiritofinvidiouspatriotismhasinvadedthesepremises，too，andpromisestobungletheoutcome;whichmakestheneededworkofreconstructionallthemoredifficultandallthemoreimperative。Unhappily，thestateofsentimentonbothsidesofthelineofcleavagewillpresumablynotadmitacordialunderstandingandco—operationbetweentheGermancontingentandtherestofthecivilizednations，forsometimetocome。Buttheothersareinaframeofmindthatshouldlenditselfgenerouslytoalargermeasureofco—operationinthisrespectnowthaneverbefore。

Soitmaynotseemoutofplacetoofferasuggestion，tentativelyandundercorrection，lookingtothisend。A

beginningmaywellbemadebyajointenterpriseamongAmericanscholarsanduniversitiesfortheinstallationofafreelyendowedcentralestablishmentwhereteachersandstudentsofallnationalities，includingAmericanswiththerest，maypursuetheirchosenworkasguestsoftheAmericanacademiccommunityatlarge，orasguestsoftheAmericanpeopleinthecharacterofademocracyofculture。Thereshouldalsobenothingtohindertheinstallationofmorethanoneoftheseacademichousesofrefugeandentertainment;norshouldtherebeanythingtohindertheenterprisebeingconductedonsuchtermsofamity，impartialityandcommunityinterestaswillmakerecoursetoitaneasymatterofcourseforanyscholarswhomitsopportunitiesmayattract。

Thesamecentralwouldatthesametime，andforthetimebeing，takecareofthosechannelsofcommunicationthroughouttheacademicworldthathavebeenfallingintoenforcedneglectunderthestrainofthewar。Soalsoshouldprovisionbemade，perhapsbestunderthesameauspices，forthe（transient）taking—overofthemanyessentiallinesofpublicityandpublicationonwhichthemenengagedinscholarlyandscientificinquiryhavelearnedtodepend，andwhichhavealsobeenfallingintosomethingofadeclineduringthewar。

Measureslookingtothisendmightwellbemade，atthesametime，toservenolessusefulapurposewithintheAmericanAcademiccommunity。Asiswellknown，thereprevailstodayanextensiveandwastefulcompetitiveduplicationofplant，organizationandpersonnelamongtheAmericanuniversities，asregardsbothpublicationsandcoursesofinstruction。

Particularlyisthistrueinrespectofthatadvancedworkoftheuniversitiesthathastodowiththehigherlearning。Atthesametime，theseuniversitiesarenowpinchedforfunds，duetothecurrentinflationofprices。Sothatanyproposalofthisnature，whichmightbetakenadvantageofasanoccasionforthepoolingofcommonissuesamongtheuniversities，mighthopefullybeexpectedtobewelcomedasameasureofpresentrelieffromsomepartofthepecuniarystrainunderwhichtheyarenowworking。

ButcompetitioniswellingrainedinthehabitualoutlookoftheAmericanschools。Totaketheissuetoneutralground，therefore，wherethiscompetitiveanimusmayhopefullybecountedontofindsomesalutaryabatement，itmaybesuggestedthatapracticablenucleusforthisproposedjointenterprisecanwellbefoundinoneoranother——perhapsinoneandanother——ofthoseextra—academicfoundationsforresearchofwhichtherealreadyareseveralinexistence，——as，e。g。，theCarnegieInstitution。Withsomewhatenlargedpowers，orperhapsratherwithsomeabatementofrestrictions，andwithsuchadditionalfundsasmayberequired，thenecessaryworkandorganizationshouldreadilybetakencareofbysuchaninstitution。Furthergrowthandramificationwouldbelefttofuturecounselandadvisement。

Thecontemplatedenterprisewouldnecessarilyrequireacertainplanningandorganizationofworkandsomethinginthewayofanadministrativeandclericalstaff，asettingupofsomethinginthewayof"organizationtables";buttherecanbenoquestionofofferingdetailedproposalsonthatheadhere。Yetthecautionmaywellbeenteredherethatfewspecificationsarebetterthanmany，inthesepremises，andthatthelargerthelatitudeallowedfromtheoutset，thefewertheseedsofeventualdefeat，——asisabundantlyillustratedbycontraries。

Itisalsoevidentthatsuchanenterprisewillinvolveprovisionforsomeexpenditureoffunds;presumablyasomewhatgenerousexpenditure;whichcomesnearimplyingthatrecourseshouldbehadtothepublicrevenues，ortoresourcesthatmaylegitimatelybetakenoverbythepublicauthoritiesfromprivatehandswheretheynowservenousefulpurpose。Therearemanyitemsofmaterialresourcesinthecountrythatcomelegitimatelyunderthishead。Atthesametimeitiswellinthisconnectiontocalltomindthatthereisnoprospectofthecountry’sbeinginanydegreeimpoverishedinthecourseofthewar;sothatthereneedbenoapprehensionofashortageofmeansforthecarryingonofsuchanenterprise，ifonlytheavailablesourcesaredrawnonwithoutprejudice。InthemindofanydisinterestedstudentoftheAmericaneconomicsituation，therecanbenoseriousapprehensionthattheAmericanpeople，collectively，willbeatallworseoffinpointofdisposablemeansatthecloseofthewarthantheywereatitsbeginning;quitethecontraryinfact。Toanyonewhowilllooktothefactsitisevidentthattheexperienceofthewar，andthemeasurestakenandtobetaken，areleadingtoaheightenedindustrialproductivenessandaconcomitanteliminationofwaste。Theresultingnetgaininproductiveefficiencyhasnotgoneatallfar，andthereneedbenoapprehensionofitsgoingtogreatlengths;but，formoreorless，itisgoingsofarassafelytopromisealargernetannualproductionofusefulgoodsintheimmediatefuturethanintheimmediatepast;andthedisposablemeansofanypeopleisalwaysamatterofthenetannualproduction，anditneedbeaquestionofnothingelse。Themannerinwhichthisnetproductis，andistobe，sharedamongtheclassesandindividualsofthecommunityisanotherquestion，whichdoesnotbelonghere。

Aquestionofgraverweightandofgreaterperplexitytouchesthepresumptiveattitudeoftheseveraluniversitiesandtheirdiscretionaryauthoritiesinthefaceofanyproposedmeasureofthiskind;wherethescopeoftheenterpriseissofarbeyondtheirhabitualrangeofinterest。Whenonecallstomindthehabitualparochialismofthegoverningboardsoftheseseminariesofthehigherlearning，andthemeticulousmanoeuvresoftheirexecutivesseekingeachtoenhancehisownprestigeandtheprestigeofhisownestablishment，thereisnotmuchofanevidentoutlookforlargeandgenerousmeasureslookingtothecommongood。Andyetitisalsotobecalledtomindthatthesegoverningboardsandexecutivesare，afterall，drawnfromthecommonstockofhumanity，pickedmenastheymaybe;andthattheyaresubject，afterall，tosomewhatthesameimpulsesandinfirmitiesasthecommonrun，pickedthoughtheymaybewithaviewtoparochialismandblamelessfutility。Now，whatisovertakingthetemperofthecommonrununderthestrainofthewarsituationshouldbeinstructiveastowhatmaybealsolookedforatthebandsofthesemeninwhosediscretionrestthefortunesoftheAmericanuniversities。Thereshouldbeatleastafightingchancethat，withsomethinglarger，manlier，moresubstantial，tooccupytheirattentionandtoshapetheday’sworkforthem，theseseminariesoflearningmay，underinstantpressure，turntheirbesteffortstotheirostensiblepurpose，"theincreaseanddiffusionofknowledgeamongmen，"andtoforegotheirhabitualpreoccupationwithpettyintrigueandbombasticpublicity，untilthereturnofidlerdays。

NOTES:

1。Aninquiryofthiskindhasbeenattemptedelsewhere:Cf。TheInstinctofWorkmanship。chaptervii，pp。321—340;"ThePlaceofScienceinModernCivilization"，AmericanJournalofSociology。

Vol。XI（March，1906），pp。585—609;"TheEvolutionoftheScientificPointofView，"UniversityofCaliforniaChronicle（1908），Vol。X，No。4，pp。395—416。

2。Cf。TheInstinctofWorkmanshipandtheStateoftheIndustrialArts，ch。iandpp。30—45，52—62，84—89。

3。Inthecrudesurmisesofthepioneersinpragmatismthispropositionwasimplicitlydenied;intheirlaterandmoreadvisedlyformulatedpositionstheexpositorsofpragmatismhavemadepeacewithit。

4。Theessentialfunctionoftheuniversityistobringtogether，forthetransmissionofexperienceandimpulse，thesagesofthepassingandthepickedyouthsofthecominggeneration。Bytheextentandfulnesswithwhichtheyestablishthesesocialcontacts，andthustransmitthewaveofcumulativeexperienceandidealistimpulse——therealsourcesofmoralandintellectualprogress——theuniversitiesaretobejudged。——VictorBranford，InterpretationsandForecasts，ch。VI。"ThePresentasaTransition。"p288。

5。Cf。，Geo。T。Ladd，UniversityControl，p。349。

6。Cf。，e。g。，J。McKeenCattell，UniversityControl，PartIII，ch。V。，"ConcerningtheAmericanUniversity。""Theuniversityisthosewhoteachandthosewholearnandtheworktheydo。""Theuniversityisitsmenandtheirwork。Butcertainexternalsarenecessaryoratleastusual——buildingsandequipment，apresidentandtrustees。"

"ThepapersbyotherwritersassociatedwithMrCattellinthisvolumeruntothesameeffectwhenevertheytouchthesametopic;and，indeed，itwouldbedifficulttofindadeliberateexpressiontothecontraryamongmenentitledtospeakinthesepremises。

Itmaybeinplacetoaddherethatthevolumereferredto，onUniversityControl，hasbeenhadinmindthroughoutthefollowinganalysisandhasservedasgroundandmaterialformuchoftheargument。

7。Cf。TheInstinctofWorkmanship，ch。vi，vii。

8。Withthecurrentreactionarytrendofthingspoliticalandciviltowardmediaeval—barbarianpoliciesandhabitsofthoughtintheFatherland，somethingofacorrelativechangehasalsolatterlycomeinevidenceintheGermanuniversities;sothatwhatissubstantially"cameralisticscience"——trainingandinformationforprospectivecivilservantsandpolicemagistratesisinsomeappreciablemeasuredisplacingdisinterestedinquiryinthefieldofeconomicsandpoliticaltheory。ThisispeculiarlytrueofthosecorporationsoflearningthatcomecloselyintouchwiththeCultusMinisterium。

9。Cf。"SomeConsiderationsOntheFunctionoftheStateUniversity。"（InauguralAddressofEdmundJanesJames，Ph。D。，LL。D。），Science，November17，1905。

CHAPTERII

TheGoverningBoardsIntheworkingtheoryofthemoderncivilizedcommunity，——

thatistosayinthecurrentcommon—senseapprehensionofwhatisrightandgood，asitworksoutinthelongrun，——theuniversityisacorporationoflearning，disinterestedanddispassionate。Toitskeepingisentrustedthecommunity’sjointinterestinesotericknowledge。Itisgivenovertothesingle—mindedpursuitofscienceandscholarship，withoutafterthoughtandwithoutaviewtointerestssubsidiaryorextraneoustothehigherlearning。Itis，indeed，theonegreatinstitutionofmoderntimesthatworkstonoulteriorendandiscontrolledbynoconsiderationofexpediencybeyonditsownwork。

Typically，normally，inpointofpopulartheory，theuniversityismovedbynoconsiderationotherthan"theincreaseanddiffusionofknowledgeamongmen。"Thisissobecausethisprofitlessquestofknowledgehascometobethehighestandulterioraimofmodernculture。

Suchhasbeenthecase，increasingly，forsomegenerationspast;butitisnotuntilquiterecentlythatsuchastatementwouldholdtrueunequivocallyandwithanunqualifiedgenerality。

Thatthecasestandssotodayisduetothefailureoftheoreticalinterestsofadifferentkind;directlyandimmediatelyitisduetothefactthatintheimmediatepresentthecultofknowledgehas，bydefault，takenoverthatprimacyamonghumaninterestswhichaneschatologicallythriftyreligioussentimentonceheldintheesteemofChristendom。SolongasthefearofGodstillcontinuedtomovethegeneralityofcivilizedmeninsufficientmeasure，theirtheoreticalknowledgewasorganizedfor"thegloryofGodandthegoodofman，"——thelatterphrasebeingtakenintheeschatologicalsense;andsolongtheresultingschemeoflearningwaslaidoutandcultivatedwithaneyetothemainchanceinahereaftergivenover，inthemainandforitsmajoreffect，topainsandpenalties。WiththelatterdaydissipationofthisfearofGod，theschemeofknowledgehandeddownoutofadevoutpastandfurtheramplifiedinthe（theoretically）Godlesspresent，has，byatrophyofdisuse，lostitsulteriorviewtosuchspiritualexpediency，andhascometostandoverasanoutputofintellectualenterpriseworkingundertheimpulsionandguidanceofanidlecuriositysimply。Allthismaynotbemuchtothecreditofcivilizedmankind，butdispassionatereflectionwillnotleavethefactindoubt。Andtheoutcomefortheuniversity，consideredasaninstitutionofthismodernculture，issuchasthisconjunctureofcircumstanceswillrequire。

Butwhilesuchisthedispassionateworkingtheory，thelong—termdriftofmoderncommonsenseastouchestheworkoftheuniversity，itisalsoamatterofcoursethatthisideallysingle—mindedcourseofactionhasneverbeenrealizedinanyconcretecase。Whileitholdstrue，byandlarge，thatmodernChristendomhasoutlivedthefearofGod，——thatistosayof"thePope，theTurk，andtheDevil，"——itdoesnotthereforefollowthatmentakealessinstantinterestintheaffairsoflife，orcarryonthetrafficoftheirliveswithalessalerteyetothemainchance，thantheyoncedidunderthehabitualshadowofthatbarbarianfear。Thedifferenceis，forthepurposeinhand，thatthesamesolicitousattentionthatonceconvergedonsuchanavoidanceofulteriorconsequencesnowcentresonquestionsofpresentwaysandmeans。Worldlywisdomhasnotfallenintodecayorabeyance，butithasbecomeawisdomofwaysandmeansthatleadtonothingbeyondfurtherwaysandmeans。

Expediencyandpracticalconsiderationshavecometomeanconsiderationsofapecuniarykind;good，onthewhole，forpecuniarypurposesonly;thatistosay，gainandexpenditureforthesakeoffurthergainandexpenditure，withnothingthatwillstandscrutinyasafinaltermtothistrafficinwaysandmeans，——exceptonlythiscultoftheidlecuriositytowhichtheseatsoflearningare，intheory，dedicate。Butunremittinghabituationtothecompetitivepursuitofwaysandmeanshasdeterminedthat"practical"interestsofthiscomplexionruleworkdaylifeinthemoderncommunitythroughout，andtheyarethereforesointimatelyandubiquitouslyboundupwithcurrenthabitsofthought，andhavesostrongandimmediateaholdoncurrentworkdaysentiment，that，hitherto，innocasehavetheseatsoflearningbeenabletopursuetheirquestofknowledgewithanythinglikethatsingle—mindednesswhichacademicmenaremovedtoprofessintheirmomentsofacademicelation。

Someonevitalinterestofthispracticalsort，somevariantofthequestofgain，isalwaysathandandstrenuouslyeffectiveinthecommunity’slife，andthereforedominatestheireverydayhabitsofthoughtforthetimebeing。Thistone—givingdominanceofsuchaworkdayinterestmaybetransientorrelativelyenduring;itmaybemoreorlessurgentlyimportantandconsequentialunderthecircumstancesinwhichthecommunityisplaced，ortheclamourofitsspokesmenandbeneficiariesmaybemoreorlessubiquitousandpertinacious;butinanycaseitwillhaveitseffectinthecounselsofthe"Educators，"andsoitwillinfecttheuniversityaswellasthelowerlevelsoftheeducationalsystem。Sothat，whilethehigherlearningstillremainsastheenduringpurposeandsubstantialinterestoftheuniversityestablishment，thedominantpracticalinterestsofthedaywill，transientlybuteffectually，governthedetaillinesofacademicpolicy，therangeofinstructionoffered，andthecharacterofthepersonnel;andmoreparticularlyandimmediatelywillthecharacterofthegoverningboardsandtheacademicadministrationsobedeterminedbythecurrentrunofpopularsentimenttouchingthecommunity’spracticalneedsandaims;

sincetheserulingbodiesstand，inonewayoranother，underthecriticalsurveillanceofalayconstituency。

TheolderAmericanuniversitieshavegrownoutofunderlyingcolleges，——undergraduateschools。WithinthememoryofmenstilllivingitwasanearlyunbrokenrulethatthegoverningboardsofthesehigherAmericanschoolsweredrawnlargelyfromtheclergyandwerealsoguidedmainlybyecclesiastical，oratleastbydevotional，notionsofwhatwasrightandneedfulinmattersoflearning。ThisstateofthingsreflectedtheingraineddevoutnessofthatportionoftheAmericancommunitytowhichthehigherschoolsthenwereofmuchsignificance。Atthesametimeitreflectedthehistoricalfactthatthecollegesoftheearlydayshadbeenestablishedprimarilyastrainingschoolsforministersofthechurch。Intheirlatergrowth，intherecentpast，whilethechiefpurposeoftheseseminarieshasnolongerbeenreligious，yetecclesiasticalprepossessionslongcontinuedtomarkthepermissiblelimitsofthelearningwhichtheycultivated，andcontinuedalsotoguardthecurriculumanddisciplineoftheschools。

Thatphaseofacademicpolicyispast。Dueregardatleastis，ofcourse，stillhadtothereligiousproprieties——theAmericancommunity，byandlarge，isstillthemostdevoutofcivilizedcountries——butsuchregardonthepartoftheacademicauthoritiesnowproceedsongroundsofbusinesslikeexpediencyratherthanonreligiousconvictionoronanecclesiasticalorpriestlybiasintherulingbodies。Itisaconcessiveprecautiononthepartofaworldly—wisedirectorate，inviewofthedevoutprejudicesofthosewhoknownobetter。

TheruleoftheclergybelongsvirtuallytotheprehistoryoftheAmericanuniversities。Whilethatruleheldtherewerefewifanyschoolsthatshouldproperlyberatedasofuniversitygrade。

Evennow，itistrue，muchofthesecondaryschoolsystem，includingthegreaterpart，thoughadiminishingnumber，ofthesmallercolleges，isunderthetutelageoftheclergy;andtheacademicheadso*theseschoolsarealmostuniversallymenofecclesiasticalstandingandbiasratherthanofscholarlyattainments。Butthatfactdoesnotcallforparticularnoticehere，sincetheseschoolslieoutsidetheuniversityfield，andsooutsidethescopeofthisinquiry。

Foragenerationpast，whiletheAmericanuniversitieshavebeencomingintolineasseminariesofthehigherlearning，therehasgoneonawide—reachingsubstitutionoflaymenintheplaceofclergymenonthegoverningboards。Thisprogressivesecularizationissufficientlynotorious，eventhoughtherearesomeamongtheolderestablishmentsthetermsofwhosechartersrequirealargeproportionofclergymenontheirboards。Thissecularizationisentirelyconsonantwiththeprevailingdriftofsentimentinthecommunityatlarge，asisshownbytheuniformanduncriticalapprovalwithwhichitisregarded。Thesubstitutionisasubstitutionofbusinessmenandpoliticians;

whichamountstosayingthatitisasubstitutionofbusinessmen。

Sothatthediscretionarycontrolinmattersofuniversitypolicynowrestsfinallyinthehandsofbusinessmen。

Thereasonwhichmenprefertoallegeforthisstateofthingsisthesensibleneedofexperiencedmenofaffairstotakecareofthefiscalconcernsoftheseuniversitycorporations;forthetypicalmodernuniversityisacorporationpossessedoflargepropertyanddisposingoflargeaggregateexpenditures，sothatitwillnecessarilyhavemanyandoftendelicatepecuniaryintereststobelookedafter。Itisatthesametimeheldtobeexpedientincaseofemergencytohaveseveralwealthymenidentifiedwiththegoverningboard，andsuchmenofwealtharealsocommonlybusinessmen。Itisapparentlybelieved，thoughonjustwhatgroundthissanguinebeliefrestsdoesnotappear，thatincaseofemergencythewealthymembersoftheboardsmaybecountedontospendtheirsubstanceinbehalfoftheuniversity。

Inpointoffact，atanyrate，poormenandmenwithoutlargeexperienceinbusinessaffairsarefelttohavenoplaceinthesebodies。Ifbyanychancesuchmen，withouttheduepecuniaryqualifications，shouldcometomakeupamajority，orevenanappreciableminorityofsuchagoverningboard，thesituationwouldbeviewedwithsomeapprehensionbyallpersonsinterestedinthecaseandcognizantofthefacts。Theonlyexceptionmightbecaseswhere，bytradition，theboardhabituallyincludesaconsiderableproportionofclergymen:

"SuchgreatregardisalwayslentBymentoancientprecedent。"

Thereasonsallegedarenodoubtconvincingtothosewhoarereadytobesoconvinced，buttheyareafterallmoreplausibleatfirstsightthanonreflection。Inpointoffactthesebusinesslikegoverningboardscommonlyexerciselittleifanycurrentsurveillanceofthecorporateaffairsoftheuniversity，beyondadirectiveoversightofthedistributionofexpendituresamongtheseveralacademicpurposesforwhichthecorporateincomeistobeused;thatistosay，theycontrolthebudgetofexpenditures;whichcomestosayingthattheyexerciseapecuniarydiscretioninthecasemainlyinthewayofdecidingwhatthebodyofacademicmenthatconstitutestheuniversitymayormaynotdowiththemeansinhand;thatistosay，theirpecuniarysurveillancecomesinthemaintoaninterferencewiththeacademicwork，themeritsofwhichthesemenofaffairsonthegoverningboardareinnospecialdegreequalifiedtojudge。

Beyondthis，astouchestheactualrunningadministrationofthecorporation’sinvestments，incomeandexpenditures，——allthatistakencareofbypermanentofficialswhohave，astheynecessarilymust，soleandresponsiblechargeofthosematters。

Eventheauditingofthecorporation’saccountsiscommonlyvestedinsuchofficersofthecorporation，whohavenonebutaformal，ifany，directconnectionwiththegoverningboard。Thegoverningboard，ormorecommonlyacommitteeoftheboard，ontheotherhand，willthenformallyreviewthebalancesheetsandbundlesofvouchersdulysubmittedbythecorporation’sfiscalofficersandtheirclericalforce，——withsucheffectofcomplaisantoversightaswillbestbeappreciatedbyanypersonwhohasbadthefortunetolookintotheaccountsofalargecorporation。

Sofarasregardsitspecuniaryaffairsandtheirdueadministration，thetypicalmodernuniversityisinaposition，withoutlossordetriment，todispensewiththeservicesofanyboardoftrustees，regents，curators，orwhatnot。Exceptfortheinsuperabledifficultyofgettingahearingforsuchanextraordinaryproposal，itshouldbenodifficultmattertoshowthatthesegoverningboardsofbusinessmencommonlyarequiteuselesstotheuniversityforanybusinesslikepurpose。Indeed，exceptforastubbornprejudicetothecontrary，thefactshouldreadilybeseenthattheboardsareofnomaterialuseinanyconnection;theirsoleeffectualfunctionbeingtointerferewiththeacademicmanagementinmattersthatarenotofthenatureofbusiness，andthatlieoutsidetheircompetenceandoutsidetherangeoftheirhabitualinterest。