第10章

Inconsequenceoftherevolution,theannualinterestofthedebtofFrancewillbereducedatleastsixmillionssterling,bypayingoffupwardsofonehundredmillionsofthecapital;which,withlesseningtheformerexpensesofgovernmentatleastthreemillions,willplaceFranceinasituationworthytheimitationofEurope。

Uponawholereviewofthesubject,howvastisthecontrast！WhileMr。BurkehasbeentalkingofageneralbankruptcyinFrance,theNationalAssemblyhasbeenpayingoffthecapitalofitsdebt;andwhiletaxeshaveincreasednearamillionayearinEngland,theyhaveloweredseveralmillionsayearinFrance。NotawordhaseitherMr。BurkeorMr。PittsaidabouttheFrenchaffairs,orthestateoftheFrenchfinances,inthepresentSessionofParliament。Thesubjectbeginstobetoowellunderstood,andimpositionservesnolonger。

ThereisageneralenigmarunningthroughthewholeofMr。Burke"sbook。

HewritesinarageagainsttheNationalAssembly;butwhatisheenragedabout？Ifhisassertionswereastrueastheyaregroundless,andthatFrancebyherRevolution,hadannihilatedherpower,andbecomewhathecallsachasm,itmightexcitethegriefofaFrenchman（consideringhimselfasanationalman）,andprovokehisrageagainsttheNationalAssembly;

butwhyshoulditexcitetherageofMr。Burke？Alas！itisnotthenationofFrancethatMr。Burkemeans,buttheCourt;andeveryCourtinEurope,dreadingthesamefate,isinmourning。HewritesneitherinthecharacterofaFrenchmannoranEnglishman,butinthefawningcharacterofthatcreatureknowninallcountries,andafriendtonone—acourtier。WhetheritbetheCourtofVersailles,ortheCourtofSt。James,orCarlton—House,ortheCourtinexpectation,signifiesnot;forthecaterpillarprincipleofallCourtsandCourtiersarealike。TheyformacommonpolicythroughoutEurope,detachedandseparatefromtheinterestofNations:andwhiletheyappeartoquarrel,theyagreetoplunder。NothingcanbemoreterribletoaCourtorCourtierthantheRevolutionofFrance。ThatwhichisablessingtoNationsisbitternesstothem:andastheirexistencedependsontheduplicityofacountry,theytrembleattheapproachofprinciples,anddreadtheprecedentthatthreatenstheiroverthrow。ConclusionReasonandIgnorance,theoppositesofeachother,influencethegreatbulkofmankind。Ifeitherofthesecanberenderedsufficientlyextensiveinacountry,themachineryofGovernmentgoeseasilyon。Reasonobeysitself;andIgnorancesubmitstowhateverisdictatedtoit。

ThetwomodesoftheGovernmentwhichprevailintheworld,are—

First,Governmentbyelectionandrepresentation。

Secondly,Governmentbyhereditarysuccession。

Theformerisgenerallyknownbythenameofrepublic;thelatterbythatofmonarchyandaristocracy。

ThosetwodistinctandoppositeformserectthemselvesonthetwodistinctandoppositebasesofReasonandIgnorance。—AstheexerciseofGovernmentrequirestalentsandabilities,andastalentsandabilitiescannothavehereditarydescent,itisevidentthathereditarysuccessionrequiresabelieffrommantowhichhisreasoncannotsubscribe,andwhichcanonlybeestablisheduponhisignorance;andthemoreignorantanycountryis,thebetteritisfittedforthisspeciesofGovernment。

Onthecontrary,Government,inawell—constitutedrepublic,requiresnobelieffrommanbeyondwhathisreasoncangive。Heseestherationaleofthewholesystem,itsoriginanditsoperation;andasitisbestsupportedwhenbestunderstood,thehumanfacultiesactwithboldness,andacquire,underthisformofgovernment,agiganticmanliness。

As,therefore,eachofthoseformsactsonadifferentbase,theonemovingfreelybytheaidofreason,theotherbyignorance;wehavenexttoconsider,whatitisthatgivesmotiontothatspeciesofGovernmentwhichiscalledmixedGovernment,or,asitissometimesludicrouslystyled,aGovernmentofthis,thatandt"other。

ThemovingpowerinthisspeciesofGovernmentis,ofnecessity,Corruption。

HoweverimperfectelectionandrepresentationmaybeinmixedGovernments,theystillgiveexercisetoagreaterportionofreasonthanisconvenienttothehereditaryPart;andthereforeitbecomesnecessarytobuythereasonup。AmixedGovernmentisanimperfecteverything,cementingandsolderingthediscordantpartstogetherbycorruption,toactasawhole。Mr。BurkeappearshighlydisgustedthatFrance,sinceshehadresolvedonarevolution,didnotadoptwhathecalls"ABritishConstitution";andtheregretfulmannerinwhichheexpresseshimselfonthisoccasionimpliesasuspicionthattheBritishConstitutionneededsomethingtokeepitsdefectsincountenance。

InmixedGovernmentsthereisnoresponsibility:thepartscovereachothertillresponsibilityislost;andthecorruptionwhichmovesthemachine,contrivesatthesametimeitsownescape。Whenitislaiddownasamaxim,thataKingcandonowrong,itplaceshiminastateofsimilarsecuritywiththatofidiotsandpersonsinsane,andresponsibilityisoutofthequestionwithrespecttohimself。ItthendescendsupontheMinister,whosheltershimselfunderamajorityinParliament,which,byplaces,pensions,andcorruption,hecanalwayscommand;andthatmajorityjustifiesitselfbythesameauthoritywithwhichitprotectstheMinister。Inthisrotatorymotion,responsibilityisthrownofffromtheparts,andfromthewhole。

WhenthereisaPartinaGovernmentwhichcandonowrong,itimpliesthatitdoesnothing;andisonlythemachineofanotherpower,bywhoseadviceanddirectionitacts。WhatissupposedtobetheKinginthemixedGovernments,istheCabinet;andastheCabinetisalwaysapartoftheParliament,andthemembersjustifyinginonecharacterwhattheyadviseandactinanother,amixedGovernmentbecomesacontinualenigma;entailinguponacountrybythequantityofcorruptionnecessarytosoldertheparts,theexpenseofsupportingalltheformsofgovernmentatonce,andfinallyresolvingitselfintoaGovernmentbyCommittee;inwhichtheadvisers,theactors,theapprovers,thejustifiers,thepersonsresponsible,andthepersonsnotresponsible,arethesamepersons。

Bythispantomimicalcontrivance,andchangeofsceneandcharacter,thepartshelpeachotheroutinmatterswhichneitherofthemsinglywouldassumetoact。Whenmoneyistobeobtained,themassofvarietyapparentlydissolves,andaprofusionofparliamentarypraisespassesbetweentheparts。Eachadmireswithastonishment,thewisdom,theliberality,thedisinterestednessoftheother:andallofthembreatheapityingsighattheburthensoftheNation。

Butinawell—constitutedrepublic,nothingofthissoldering,praising,andpitying,cantakeplace;therepresentationbeingequalthroughoutthecountry,andcompleteinitself,howeveritmaybearrangedintolegislativeandexecutive,theyhavealloneandthesamenaturalsource。Thepartsarenotforeignerstoeachother,likedemocracy,aristocracy,andmonarchy。

Astherearenodiscordantdistinctions,thereisnothingtocorruptbycompromise,norconfoundbycontrivance。PublicmeasuresappealofthemselvestotheunderstandingoftheNation,and,restingontheirownmerits,disownanyflatteringapplicationstovanity。Thecontinualwhineoflamentingtheburdenoftaxes,howeversuccessfullyitmaybepractisedinmixedGovernments,isinconsistentwiththesenseandspiritofarepublic。Iftaxesarenecessary,theyareofcourseadvantageous;butiftheyrequireanapology,theapologyitselfimpliesanimpeachment。Why,then,ismanthusimposedupon,orwhydoesheimposeuponhimself？

Whenmenarespokenofaskingsandsubjects,orwhenGovernmentismentionedunderthedistinctandcombinedheadsofmonarchy,aristocracy,anddemocracy,whatisitthatreasoningmanistounderstandbytheterms？

Iftherereallyexistedintheworldtwoormoredistinctandseparateelementsofhumanpower,weshouldthenseetheseveraloriginstowhichthosetermswoulddescriptivelyapply;butasthereisbutonespeciesofman,therecanbebutoneelementofhumanpower;andthatelementismanhimself。Monarchy,aristocracy,anddemocracy,arebutcreaturesofimagination;andathousandsuchmaybecontrivedaswellasthree。

FromtheRevolutionsofAmericaandFrance,andthesymptomsthathaveappearedinothercountries,itisevidentthattheopinionoftheworldischangingwithrespecttosystemsofGovernment,andthatrevolutionsarenotwithinthecompassofpoliticalcalculations。Theprogressoftimeandcircumstances,whichmenassigntotheaccomplishmentofgreatchanges,istoomechanicaltomeasuretheforceofthemind,andtherapidityofreflection,bywhichrevolutionsaregenerated:Alltheoldgovernmentshavereceivedashockfromthosethatalreadyappear,andwhichwereoncemoreimprobable,andareagreatersubjectofwonder,thanageneralrevolutioninEuropewouldbenow。

Whenwesurveythewretchedconditionofman,underthemonarchicalandhereditarysystemsofGovernment,draggedfromhishomebyonepower,ordrivenbyanother,andimpoverishedbytaxesmorethanbyenemies,itbecomesevidentthatthosesystemsarebad,andthatageneralrevolutionintheprincipleandconstructionofGovernmentsisnecessary。

WhatisgovernmentmorethanthemanagementoftheaffairsofaNation？

Itisnot,andfromitsnaturecannotbe,thepropertyofanyparticularmanorfamily,butofthewholecommunity,atwhoseexpenseitissupported;

andthoughbyforceandcontrivanceithasbeenusurpedintoaninheritance,theusurpationcannotaltertherightofthings。Sovereignty,asamatterofright,appertainstotheNationonly,andnottoanyindividual;andaNationhasatalltimesaninherentindefeasiblerighttoabolishanyformofGovernmentitfindsinconvenient,andtoestablishsuchasaccordswithitsinterest,dispositionandhappiness。TheromanticandbarbarousdistinctionofmenintoKingsandsubjects,thoughitmaysuittheconditionofcourtiers,cannotthatofcitizens;andisexplodedbytheprincipleuponwhichGovernmentsarenowfounded。EverycitizenisamemberoftheSovereignty,and,assuch,canacknowledgenopersonalsubjection;andhisobediencecanbeonlytothelaws。

WhenmenthinkofwhatGovernmentis,theymustnecessarilysupposeittopossessaknowledgeofalltheobjectsandmattersuponwhichitsauthorityistobeexercised。InthisviewofGovernment,therepublicansystem,asestablishedbyAmericaandFrance,operatestoembracethewholeofaNation;andtheknowledgenecessarytotheinterestofalltheparts,istobefoundinthecenter,whichthepartsbyrepresentationform:ButtheoldGovernmentsareonaconstructionthatexcludesknowledgeaswellashappiness;governmentbyMonks,whoknewnothingoftheworldbeyondthewallsofaConvent,isasconsistentasgovernmentbyKings。

WhatwereformerlycalledRevolutions,werelittlemorethanachangeofpersons,oranalterationoflocalcircumstances。Theyroseandfelllikethingsofcourse,andhadnothingintheirexistenceortheirfatethatcouldinfluencebeyondthespotthatproducedthem。Butwhatwenowseeintheworld,fromtheRevolutionsofAmericaandFrance,arearenovationofthenaturalorderofthings,asystemofprinciplesasuniversalastruthandtheexistenceofman,andcombiningmoralwithpoliticalhappinessandnationalprosperity。

"I。Menareborn,andalwayscontinue,freeandequalinrespectoftheirrights。Civildistinctions,therefore,canbefoundedonlyonpublicutility。

"II。Theendofallpoliticalassociationsisthepreservationofthenaturalandimprescriptiblerightsofman;andtheserightsareliberty,property,security,andresistanceofoppression。

"III。Thenationisessentiallythesourceofallsovereignty;norcananyIndividual,oranybodyofmen,beentitledtoanyauthoritywhichisnotexpresslyderivedfromit。"

Intheseprinciples,thereisnothingtothrowaNationintoconfusionbyinflamingambition。Theyarecalculatedtocallforthwisdomandabilities,andtoexercisethemforthepublicgood,andnotfortheemolumentoraggrandisementofparticulardescriptionsofmenorfamilies。Monarchicalsovereignty,theenemyofmankind,andthesourceofmisery,isabolished;

andthesovereigntyitselfisrestoredtoitsnaturalandoriginalplace,theNation。WerethisthecasethroughoutEurope,thecauseofwarswouldbetakenaway。

ItisattributedtoHenrytheFourthofFrance,amanofenlargedandbenevolentheart,thatheproposed,abouttheyear1610,aplanforabolishingwarinEurope。TheplanconsistedinconstitutinganEuropeanCongress,orastheFrenchauthorsstyleit,aPacificRepublic;byappointingdelegatesfromtheseveralNationswhoweretoactasaCourtofarbitrationinanydisputesthatmightarisebetweennationandnation。

Hadsuchaplanbeenadoptedatthetimeitwasproposed,thetaxesofEnglandandFrance,astwooftheparties,wouldhavebeenatleasttenmillionssterlingannuallytoeachNationlessthantheywereatthecommencementoftheFrenchRevolution。

Toconceiveacausewhysuchaplanhasnotbeenadopted（andthatinsteadofaCongressforthepurposeofpreventingwar,ithasbeencalledonlytoterminateawar,afterafruitlessexpenseofseveralyears）itwillbenecessarytoconsidertheinterestofGovernmentsasadistinctinteresttothatofNations。

WhateveristhecauseoftaxestoaNation,becomesalsothemeansofrevenuetoGovernment。Everywarterminateswithanadditionoftaxes,andconsequentlywithanadditionofrevenue;andinanyeventofwar,inthemannertheyarenowcommencedandconcluded,thepowerandinterestofGovernmentsareincreased。War,therefore,fromitsproductiveness,asiteasilyfurnishesthepretenceofnecessityfortaxesandappointmentstoplacesandoffices,becomesaprincipalpartofthesystemofoldGovernments;

andtoestablishanymodetoabolishwar,howeveradvantageousitmightbetoNations,wouldbetotakefromsuchGovernmentthemostlucrativeofitsbranches。Thefrivolousmattersuponwhichwarismade,showthedispositionandavidityofGovernmentstoupholdthesystemofwar,andbetraythemotivesuponwhichtheyact。

WhyarenotRepublicsplungedintowar,butbecausethenatureoftheirGovernmentdoesnotadmitofaninterestdistinctfromthatoftheNation？

EvenHolland,thoughanill—constructedRepublic,andwithacommerceextendingovertheworld,existednearlyacenturywithoutwar:andtheinstanttheformofGovernmentwaschangedinFrance,therepublicanprinciplesofpeaceanddomesticprosperityandeconomyarosewiththenewGovernment;

andthesameconsequenceswouldfollowthecauseinotherNations。

AswaristhesystemofGovernmentontheoldconstruction,theanimositywhichNationsreciprocallyentertain,isnothingmorethanwhatthepolicyoftheirGovernmentsexcitestokeepupthespiritofthesystem。EachGovernmentaccusestheotherofperfidy,intrigue,andambition,asameansofheatingtheimaginationoftheirrespectiveNations,andincensingthemtohostilities。Manisnottheenemyofman,butthroughthemediumofafalsesystemofGovernment。Instead,therefore,ofexclaimingagainsttheambitionofKings,theexclamationshouldbedirectedagainsttheprincipleofsuchGovernments;andinsteadofseekingtoreformtheindividual,thewisdomofaNationshouldapplyitselftoreformthesystem。

WhethertheformsandmaximsofGovernmentswhicharestillinpractice,wereadaptedtotheconditionoftheworldattheperiodtheywereestablished,isnotinthiscasethequestion。Theoldertheyare,thelesscorrespondencecantheyhavewiththepresentstateofthings。Time,andchangeofcircumstancesandopinions,havethesameprogressiveeffectinrenderingmodesofGovernmentobsoleteastheyhaveuponcustomsandmanners。—Agriculture,commerce,manufactures,andthetranquilarts,bywhichtheprosperityofNationsisbestpromoted,requireadifferentsystemofGovernment,andadifferentspeciesofknowledgetodirectitsoperations,thanwhatmighthavebeenrequiredintheformerconditionoftheworld。

Asitisnotdifficulttoperceive,fromtheenlightenedstateofmankind,thathereditaryGovernmentsarevergingtotheirdecline,andthatRevolutionsonthebroadbasisofnationalsovereigntyandGovernmentbyrepresentation,aremakingtheirwayinEurope,itwouldbeanactofwisdomtoanticipatetheirapproach,andproduceRevolutionsbyreasonandaccommodation,ratherthancommitthemtotheissueofconvulsions。

Fromwhatwenowsee,nothingofreforminthepoliticalworldoughttobeheldimprobable。ItisanageofRevolutions,inwhicheverythingmaybelookedfor。TheintrigueofCourts,bywhichthesystemofwariskeptup,mayprovokeaconfederationofNationstoabolishit:andanEuropeanCongresstopatronisetheprogressoffreeGovernment,andpromotethecivilisationofNationswitheachother,isaneventnearerinprobability,thanonceweretherevolutionsandallianceofFranceandAmerica。

TheRightsOfMan:PartTheSecondParttheSecondCombiningPrincipleAndPracticeToM。delaFayetteAfteranacquaintanceofnearlyfifteenyearsindifficultsituationsinAmerica,andvariousconsultationsinEurope,Ifeelapleasureinpresentingtoyouthissmalltreatise,ingratitudeforyourservicestomybelovedAmerica,andasatestimonyofmyesteemforthevirtues,publicandprivate,whichIknowyoutopossess。

TheonlypointuponwhichIcouldeverdiscoverthatwedifferedwasnotastoprinciplesofgovernment,butastotime。FormyownpartIthinkitequallyasinjurioustogoodprinciplestopermitthemtolinger,astopushthemontoofast。Thatwhichyousupposeaccomplishableinfourteenorfifteenyears,Imaybelievepracticableinamuchshorterperiod。Mankind,asitappearstome,arealwaysripeenoughtounderstandtheirtrueinterest,provideditbepresentedclearlytotheirunderstanding,andthatinamannernottocreatesuspicionbyanythinglikeself—design,noroffendbyassumingtoomuch。Wherewewouldwishtoreformwemustnotreproach。

WhentheAmericanrevolutionwasestablishedIfeltadispositiontositserenelydownandenjoythecalm。ItdidnotappeartomethatanyobjectcouldafterwardsarisegreatenoughtomakemequittranquilityandfeelasIhadfeltbefore。Butwhenprinciple,andnotplace,istheenergeticcauseofaction,aman,Ifind,iseverywherethesame。

Iamnowoncemoreinthepublicworld;andasIhavenotarighttocontemplateonsomanyyearsofremaininglifeasyouhave,IhaveresolvedtolabourasfastasIcan;andasIamanxiousforyouraidandyourcompany,Iwishyoutohastenyourprinciplesandovertakeme。

Ifyoumakeacampaigntheensuingspring,whichitismostprobabletherewillbenooccasionfor,Iwillcomeandjoinyou。

Shouldthecampaigncommence,IhopeitwillterminateintheextinctionofGermandespotism,andinestablishingthefreedomofallGermany。WhenFranceshallbesurroundedwithrevolutionsshewillbeinpeaceandsafety,andhertaxes,aswellasthoseofGermany,willconsequentlybecomeless。

Yoursincere,AffectionateFriend,THOMASPAINE

LONDON,Feb。9,1792

PrefaceWhenIbeganthechapterentitledthe"Conclusion"intheformerpartoftheRightsOfMan,publishedlastyear,itwasmyintentiontohaveextendedittoagreaterlength;butincastingthewholematterinmymind,whichIwishtoadd,Ifoundthatitmusteithermaketheworktoobulky,orcontractmyplantoomuch。

Ithereforebroughtittoacloseassoonasthesubjectwouldadmit,andreservedwhatIhadfurthertosaytoanotheropportunity。

Severalotherreasonscontributedtoproducethisdetermination。Iwishedtoknowthemannerinwhichawork,writteninastyleofthinkingandexpressiondifferenttowhathadbeencustomaryinEngland,wouldbereceivedbeforeIproceededfarther。AgreatfieldwasopeningtotheviewofmankindbymeansoftheFrenchRevolution。Mr。Burke"soutrageousoppositiontheretobroughtthecontroversyintoEngland。Heattackedprincipleswhichheknew（frominformation）Iwouldcontestwithhim,becausetheyareprinciplesIbelievetobegood,andwhichIhavecontributedtoestablish,andconceivemyselfboundtodefend。Hadhenoturgedthecontroversy,Ihadmostprobablybeenasilentman。

Anotherreasonfordeferringtheremainderoftheworkwas,thatMr。

Burkepromisedinhisfirstpublicationtorenewthesubjectatanotheropportunity,andtomakeacomparisonofwhathecalledtheEnglishandFrenchConstitutions。Ithereforeheldmyselfinreserveforhim。Hehaspublishedtwoworkssince,withoutdoingthis:whichhecertainlywouldnothaveomitted,hadthecomparisonbeeninhisfavour。

Inhislastwork,his"AppealfromtheNewtotheOldWhigs,"hehasquotedabouttenpagesfromtheRightsOfMan,andhavinggivenhimselfthetroubleofdoingthis,sayshe"shallnotattemptinthesmallestdegreetorefutethem,"meaningtheprinciplesthereincontained。IamenoughacquaintedwithMr。Burketoknowthathewouldifhecould。Butinsteadofcontestingthem,heimmediatelyafterconsoleshimselfwithsayingthat"hehasdonehispart。"—Hehasnotdonehispart。Hehasnotperformedhispromiseofacomparisonofconstitutions。Hestartedthecontroversy,hegavethechallenge,andhasfledfromit;andheisnowacaseinpointwithhisownopinionthat"theageofchivalryisgone！"

Thetitle,aswellasthesubstanceofhislastwork,his"Appeal,"

ishiscondemnation。Principlesmuststandontheirownmerits,andiftheyaregoodtheycertainlywill。Toputthemundertheshelterofothermen"sauthority,asMr。Burkehasdone,servestobringthemintosuspicion。Mr。Burkeisnotveryfondofdividinghishonours,butinthiscaseheisartfullydividingthedisgrace。

ButwhoarethosetowhomMr。Burkehasmadehisappeal？Asetofchildishthinkers,andhalf—waypoliticiansborninthelastcentury,menwhowentnofartherwithanyprinciplethanasitsuitedtheirpurposesasaparty;thenationwasalwaysleftoutofthequestion;andthishasbeenthecharacterofeverypartyfromthatdaytothis。Thenationseesnothingofsuchworks,orsuchpolitics,worthyitsattention。Alittlematterwillmoveaparty,butitmustbesomethinggreatthatmovesanation。

ThoughIseenothinginMr。Burke"s"Appeal"worthtakingmuchnoticeof,thereis,however,oneexpressionuponwhichI

shallofferafewremarks。AfterquotinglargelyfromtheRightsOfMan,anddecliningtocontesttheprinciplescontainedinthatwork,hesays:"Thiswillmostprobablybedone（ifsuchwritingsshallbethoughttodeserveanyotherrefutationthanthatofcriminaljustice）byothers,whomaythinkwithMr。Burkeandwiththesamezeal。"

Inthefirstplace,ithasnotyetbeendonebyanybody。Notless,I

believe,thaneightortenpamphletsintendedasanswerstotheformerpartoftheRightsOfManhavebeenpublishedbydifferentpersons,andnotoneofthemtomyknowledge,hasextendedtoasecondedition,norareeventhetitlesofthemsomuchasgenerallyremembered。AsIamaversetounnecessarymultiplyingpublications,Ihaveanswerednoneofthem。AndasIbelievethatamanmaywritehimselfoutofreputationwhennobodyelsecandoit,Iamcarefultoavoidthatrock。

ButasIwoulddeclineunnecessarypublicationsontheonehand,sowouldIavoideverythingthatmightappearlikesullenprideontheother。IfMr。Burke,oranypersononhissidethequestion,willproduceananswertotheRightsOfManthatshallextendtoahalf,oreventoafourthpartofthenumberofcopiestowhichtheRightsOfManextended,Iwillreplytohiswork。Butuntilthisbedone,Ishallsofartakethesenseofthepublicformyguide（andtheworldknowsIamnotaflatterer）thatwhattheydonotthinkworthwhiletoread,isnotworthminetoanswer。IsupposethenumberofcopiestowhichthefirstpartoftheRightsOfManextended,takingEngland,Scotland,andIreland,isnotlessthanbetweenfortyandfiftythousand。