第4章

Thedutyofmanisnotawildernessofturnpikegates,throughwhichheistopassbyticketsfromonetotheother。Itisplainandsimple,andconsistsbutoftwopoints。HisdutytoGod,whicheverymanmustfeel;

andwithrespecttohisneighbor,todoashewouldbedoneby。Ifthosetowhompowerisdelegateddowell,theywillberespected:ifnot,theywillbedespised;andwithregardtothosetowhomnopowerisdelegated,butwhoassumeit,therationalworldcanknownothingofthem。

Hithertowehavespokenonly（andthatbutinpart）ofthenaturalrightsofman。Wehavenowtoconsiderthecivilrightsofman,andtoshowhowtheoneoriginatesfromtheother。Mandidnotenterintosocietytobecomeworsethanhewasbefore,nortohavefewerrightsthanhehadbefore,buttohavethoserightsbettersecured。Hisnaturalrightsarethefoundationofallhiscivilrights。Butinordertopursuethisdistinctionwithmoreprecision,itwillbenecessarytomarkthedifferentqualitiesofnaturalandcivilrights。

Afewwordswillexplainthis。Naturalrightsarethosewhichappertaintomaninrightofhisexistence。Ofthiskindarealltheintellectualrights,orrightsofthemind,andalsoallthoserightsofactingasanindividualforhisowncomfortandhappiness,whicharenotinjurioustothenaturalrightsofothers。Civilrightsarethosewhichappertaintomaninrightofhisbeingamemberofsociety。Everycivilrighthasforitsfoundationsomenaturalrightpre—existingintheindividual,buttotheenjoymentofwhichhisindividualpowerisnot,inallcases,sufficientlycompetent。Ofthiskindareallthosewhichrelatetosecurityandprotection。

Fromthisshortreviewitwillbeeasytodistinguishbetweenthatclassofnaturalrightswhichmanretainsafterenteringintosocietyandthosewhichhethrowsintothecommonstockasamemberofsociety。

ThenaturalrightswhichheretainsareallthoseinwhichthePowertoexecuteisasperfectintheindividualastherightitself。Amongthisclass,asisbeforementioned,arealltheintellectualrights,orrightsofthemind;consequentlyreligionisoneofthoserights。Thenaturalrightswhicharenotretained,areallthoseinwhich,thoughtherightisperfectintheindividual,thepowertoexecutethemisdefective。Theyanswernothispurpose。Aman,bynaturalright,hasarighttojudgeinhisowncause;andsofarastherightofthemindisconcerned,heneversurrendersit。Butwhatavailethithimtojudge,ifhehasnotpowertoredress？Hethereforedepositsthisrightinthecommonstockofsociety,andtakestheannofsociety,ofwhichheisapart,inpreferenceandinadditiontohisown。Societygrantshimnothing。Everymanisaproprietorinsociety,anddrawsonthecapitalasamatterofright。

Fromthesepremissestwoorthreecertainconclusionswillfollow:

First,Thateverycivilrightgrowsoutofanaturalright;or,inotherwords,isanaturalrightexchanged。

Secondly,Thatcivilpowerproperlyconsideredassuchismadeupoftheaggregateofthatclassofthenaturalrightsofman,whichbecomesdefectiveintheindividualinpointofpower,andanswersnothispurpose,butwhencollectedtoafocusbecomescompetenttothePurposeofeveryone。

Thirdly,Thatthepowerproducedfromtheaggregateofnaturalrights,imperfectinpowerintheindividual,cannotbeappliedtoinvadethenaturalrightswhichareretainedintheindividual,andinwhichthepowertoexecuteisasperfectastherightitself。

Wehavenow,inafewwords,tracedmanfromanaturalindividualtoamemberofsociety,andshown,orendeavouredtoshow,thequalityofthenaturalrightsretained,andofthosewhichareexchangedforcivilrights。Letusnowapplytheseprinciplestogovernments。

Incastingoureyesovertheworld,itisextremelyeasytodistinguishthegovernmentswhichhavearisenoutofsociety,oroutofthesocialcompact,fromthosewhichhavenot;buttoplacethisinaclearerlightthanwhatasingleglancemayafford,itwillbepropertotakeareviewoftheseveralsourcesfromwhichgovernmentshavearisenandonwhichtheyhavebeenfounded。

Theymaybeallcomprehendedunderthreeheads。

First,Superstition。

Secondly,Power。

Thirdly,Thecommoninterestofsocietyandthecommonrightsofman。

Thefirstwasagovernmentofpriestcraft,thesecondofconquerors,andthethirdofreason。

Whenasetofartfulmenpretended,throughthemediumoforacles,toholdintercoursewiththeDeity,asfamiliarlyastheynowmarchuptheback—stairsinEuropeancourts,theworldwascompletelyunderthegovernmentofsuperstition。Theoracleswereconsulted,andwhatevertheyweremadetosaybecamethelaw;andthissortofgovernmentlastedaslongasthissortofsuperstitionlasted。

Afterthesearaceofconquerorsarose,whosegovernment,likethatofWilliamtheConqueror,wasfoundedinpower,andtheswordassumedthenameofasceptre。Governmentsthusestablishedlastaslongasthepowertosupportthemlasts;butthattheymightavailthemselvesofeveryengineintheirfavor,theyunitedfraudtoforce,andsetupanidolwhichtheycalledDivineRight,andwhich,inimitationofthePope,whoaffectstobespiritualandtemporal,andincontradictiontotheFounderoftheChristianreligion,twisteditselfafterwardsintoanidolofanothershape,calledChurchandState。ThekeyofSt。PeterandthekeyoftheTreasurybecamequarteredononeanother,andthewonderingcheatedmultitudeworshippedtheinvention。

WhenIcontemplatethenaturaldignityofman,whenIfeel（forNaturehasnotbeenkindenoughtometobluntmyfeelings）forthehonourandhappinessofitscharacter,Ibecomeirritatedattheattempttogovernmankindbyforceandfraud,asiftheywereallknavesandfools,andcanscarcelyavoiddisgustatthosewhoarethusimposedupon。

Wehavenowtoreviewthegovernmentswhichariseoutofsociety,incontradistinctiontothosewhicharoseoutofsuperstitionandconquest。

IthasbeenthoughtaconsiderableadvancetowardsestablishingtheprinciplesofFreedomtosaythatGovernmentisacompactbetweenthosewhogovernandthosewhoaregoverned;butthiscannotbetrue,becauseitisputtingtheeffectbeforethecause;forasmanmusthaveexistedbeforegovernmentsexisted,therenecessarilywasatimewhengovernmentsdidnotexist,andconsequentlytherecouldoriginallyexistnogovernorstoformsuchacompactwith。

Thefactthereforemustbethattheindividualsthemselves,eachinhisownpersonalandsovereignright,enteredintoacompactwitheachothertoproduceagovernment:andthisistheonlymodeinwhichgovernmentshavearighttoarise,andtheonlyprincipleonwhichtheyhavearighttoexist。

Topossessourselvesofaclearideaofwhatgovernmentis,oroughttobe,wemusttraceittoitsorigin。Indoingthisweshalleasilydiscoverthatgovernmentsmusthaveariseneitheroutofthepeopleoroverthepeople。Mr。Burkehasmadenodistinction。Heinvestigatesnothingtoitssource,andthereforeheconfoundseverything;buthehassignifiedhisintentionofundertaking,atsomefutureopportunity,acomparisonbetweentheconstitutionofEnglandandFrance。Ashethusrendersitasubjectofcontroversybythrowingthegauntlet,Itakehimuponhisownground。

Itisinhighchallengesthathightruthshavetherightofappearing;

andIacceptitwiththemorereadinessbecauseitaffordsme,atthesametime,anopportunityofpursuingthesubjectwithrespecttogovernmentsarisingoutofsociety。

ButitwillbefirstnecessarytodefinewhatismeantbyaConstitution。

Itisnotsufficientthatweadopttheword;wemustfixalsoastandardsignificationtoit。

Aconstitutionisnotathinginnameonly,butinfact。Ithasnotanideal,butarealexistence;andwhereveritcannotbeproducedinavisibleform,thereisnone。Aconstitutionisathingantecedenttoagovernment,andagovernmentisonlythecreatureofaconstitution。Theconstitutionofacountryisnottheactofitsgovernment,butofthepeopleconstitutingitsgovernment。Itisthebodyofelements,towhichyoucanrefer,andquotearticlebyarticle;andwhichcontainstheprinciplesonwhichthegovernmentshallbeestablished,themannerinwhichitshallbeorganised,thepowersitshallhave,themodeofelections,thedurationofParliaments,orbywhatothernamesuchbodiesmaybecalled;thepowerswhichtheexecutivepartofthegovernmentshallhave;andinfine,everythingthatrelatestothecompleteorganisationofacivilgovernment,andtheprinciplesonwhichitshallact,andbywhichitshallbebound。Aconstitution,therefore,istoagovernmentwhatthelawsmadeafterwardsbythatgovernmentaretoacourtofjudicature。Thecourtofjudicaturedoesnotmakethelaws,neithercanitalterthem;itonlyactsinconformitytothelawsmade:andthegovernmentisinlikemannergovernedbytheconstitution。

Can,then,Mr。BurkeproducetheEnglishConstitution？Ifhecannot,wemayfairlyconcludethatthoughithasbeensomuchtalkedabout,nosuchthingasaconstitutionexists,oreverdidexist,andconsequentlythatthepeoplehaveyetaconstitutiontoform。

Mr。Burkewillnot,Ipresume,denythepositionIhavealreadyadvanced—

namely,thatgovernmentsariseeitheroutofthepeopleoroverthepeople。

TheEnglishGovernmentisoneofthosewhicharoseoutofaconquest,andnotoutofsociety,andconsequentlyitaroseoverthepeople;andthoughithasbeenmuchmodifiedfromtheopportunityofcircumstancessincethetimeofWilliamtheConqueror,thecountryhasneveryetregenerateditself,andisthereforewithoutaconstitution。

IreadilyperceivethereasonwhyMr。BurkedeclinedgoingintothecomparisonbetweentheEnglishandFrenchconstitutions,becausehecouldnotbutperceive,whenhesatdowntothetask,thatnosuchathingasaconstitutionexistedonhissidethequestion。Hisbookiscertainlybulkyenoughtohavecontainedallhecouldsayonthissubject,anditwouldhavebeenthebestmannerinwhichpeoplecouldhavejudgedoftheirseparatemerits。Whythenhashedeclinedtheonlythingthatwasworthwhiletowriteupon？Itwasthestrongestgroundhecouldtake,iftheadvantageswereonhisside,buttheweakestiftheywerenot;andhisdecliningtotakeitiseitherasignthathecouldnotpossessitorcouldnotmaintainit。

Mr。Burkesaid,inaspeechlastwinterinParliament,"thatwhentheNationalAssemblyfirstmetinthreeOrders（theTiersEtat,theClergy,andtheNoblesse）,Francehadthenagoodconstitution。"Thisshows,amongnumerousotherinstances,thatMr。Burkedoesnotunderstandwhataconstitutionis。Thepersonssometwerenotaconstitution,butaconvention,tomakeaconstitution。

ThepresentNationalAssemblyofFranceis,strictlyspeaking,thepersonalsocialcompact。Themembersofitarethedelegatesofthenationinitsoriginalcharacter;futureassemblieswillbethedelegatesofthenationinitsorganisedcharacter。TheauthorityofthepresentAssemblyisdifferentfromwhattheauthorityoffutureAssemblieswillbe。Theauthorityofthepresentoneistoformaconstitution;theauthorityoffutureassemblieswillbetolegislateaccordingtotheprinciplesandformsprescribedinthatconstitution;andifexperienceshouldhereaftershowthatalterations,amendments,oradditionsarenecessary,theconstitutionwillpointoutthemodebywhichsuchthingsshallbedone,andnotleaveittothediscretionarypowerofthefuturegovernment。

Agovernmentontheprinciplesonwhichconstitutionalgovernmentsarisingoutofsocietyareestablished,cannothavetherightofalteringitself。

Ifithad,itwouldbearbitrary。Itmightmakeitselfwhatitpleased;

andwhereversucharightissetup,itshowsthereisnoconstitution。

TheactbywhichtheEnglishParliamentempowereditselftositsevenyears,showsthereisnoconstitutioninEngland。Itmight,bythesameself—authority,havesatanygreatnumberofyears,orforlife。ThebillwhichthepresentMr。PittbroughtintoParliamentsomeyearsago,toreformParliament,wasonthesameerroneousprinciple。Therightofreformisinthenationinitsoriginalcharacter,andtheconstitutionalmethodwouldbebyageneralconventionelectedforthepurpose。Thereis,moreover,aparadoxintheideaofvitiatedbodiesreformingthemselves。

FromthesepreliminariesIproceedtodrawsomecomparisons。Ihavealreadyspokenofthedeclarationofrights;andasImeantobeasconciseaspossible,IshallproceedtootherpartsoftheFrenchConstitution。

TheconstitutionofFrancesaysthateverymanwhopaysataxofsixtysousperannum（2s。6d。English）isanelector。WhatarticlewillMr。Burkeplaceagainstthis？Cananythingbemorelimited,andatthesametimemorecapricious,thanthequalificationofelectorsisinEngland？Limited—

becausenotonemaninanhundred（Ispeakmuchwithincompass）isadmittedtovote。Capricious—becausethelowestcharacterthatcanbesupposedtoexist,andwhohasnotsomuchasthevisiblemeansofanhonestlivelihood,isanelectorinsomeplaces:whileinotherplaces,themanwhopaysverylargetaxes,andhasaknownfaircharacter,andthefarmerwhorentstotheamountofthreeorfourhundredpoundsayear,withapropertyonthatfarmtothreeorfourtimesthatamount,isnotadmittedtobeanelector。

Everythingisoutofnature,asMr。Burkesaysonanotheroccasion,inthisstrangechaos,andallsortsoffolliesareblendedwithallsortsofcrimes。WilliamtheConquerorandhisdescendantsparcelledoutthecountryinthismanner,andbribedsomepartsofitbywhattheycallcharterstoholdtheotherpartsofitthebettersubjectedtotheirwill。ThisisthereasonwhysomanyofthosechartersaboundinCornwall;thepeoplewereaversetotheGovernmentestablishedattheConquest,andthetownsweregarrisonedandbribedtoenslavethecountry。Alltheoldchartersarethebadgesofthisconquest,anditisfromthissourcethatthecapriciousnessofelectionarises。

TheFrenchConstitutionsaysthatthenumberofrepresentativesforanyplaceshallbeinaratiotothenumberoftaxableinhabitantsorelectors。

WhatarticlewillMr。Burkeplaceagainstthis？ThecountyofYork,whichcontainsnearlyamillionofsouls,sendstwocountymembers;andsodoesthecountyofRutland,whichcontainsnotanhundredthpartofthatnumber。

TheoldtownofSarum,whichcontainsnotthreehouses,sendstwomembers;

andthetownofManchester,whichcontainsupwardofsixtythousandsouls,isnotadmittedtosendany。Isthereanyprincipleinthesethings？Itisadmittedthatallthisisaltered,butthereismuchtobedoneyet,beforewehaveafairrepresentationofthepeople。Isthereanythingbywhichyoucantracethemarksoffreedom,ordiscoverthoseofwisdom？

NowonderthenMr。Burkehasdeclinedthecomparison,andendeavoredtoleadhisreadersfromthepointbyawild,unsystematicaldisplayofparadoxicalrhapsodies。

TheFrenchConstitutionsaysthattheNationalAssemblyshallbeelectedeverytwoyears。WhatarticlewillMr。Burkeplaceagainstthis？Why,thatthenationhasnorightatallinthecase;thatthegovernmentisperfectlyarbitrarywithrespecttothispoint;andhecanquoteforhisauthoritytheprecedentofaformerParliament。

TheFrenchConstitutionsaysthereshallbenogamelaws,thatthefarmeronwhoselandswildgameshallbefound（foritisbytheproduceofhislandstheyarefed）shallhavearighttowhathecantake;thatthereshallbenomonopoliesofanykind—thatalltradesshallbefreeandeverymanfreetofollowanyoccupationbywhichhecanprocureanhonestlivelihood,andinanyplace,town,orcitythroughoutthenation。WhatwillMr。Burkesaytothis？InEngland,gameismadethepropertyofthoseatwhoseexpenseitisnotfed;andwithrespecttomonopolies,thecountryiscutupintomonopolies。Everycharteredtownisanaristocraticalmonopolyinitself,andthequalificationofelectorsproceedsoutofthosecharteredmonopolies。

Isthisfreedom？IsthiswhatMr。Burkemeansbyaconstitution？

Inthesecharteredmonopolies,amancomingfromanotherpartofthecountryishuntedfromthemasifhewereaforeignenemy。AnEnglishmanisnotfreeofhisowncountry;everyoneofthoseplacespresentsabarrierinhisway,andtellshimheisnotafreeman—thathehasnorights。Withinthesemonopoliesareothermonopolies。Inacity,suchforinstanceasBath,whichcontainsbetweentwentyandthirtythousandinhabitants,therightofelectingrepresentativestoParliamentismonopolisedbyaboutthirty—onepersons。Andwithinthesemonopoliesarestillothers。Amanevenofthesametown,whoseparentswerenotincircumstancestogivehimanoccupation,isdebarred,inmanycases,fromthenaturalrightofacquiringone,behisgeniusorindustrywhatitmay。

Arethesethingsexamplestoholdouttoacountryregeneratingitselffromslavery,likeFrance？Certainlytheyarenot,andcertainamI,thatwhenthepeopleofEnglandcometoreflectuponthemtheywill,likeFrance,annihilatethosebadgesofancientoppression,thosetracesofaconquerednation。HadMr。Burkepossessedtalentssimilartotheauthorof"OntheWealthofNations。"hewouldhavecomprehendedallthepartswhichenterinto,and,byassemblage,formaconstitution。Hewouldhavereasonedfromminutiaetomagnitude。Itisnotfromhisprejudicesonly,butfromthedisorderlycastofhisgenius,thatheisunfittedforthesubjecthewritesupon。Evenhisgeniusiswithoutaconstitution。Itisageniusatrandom,andnotageniusconstituted。Buthemustsaysomething。Hehasthereforemountedintheairlikeaballoon,todrawtheeyesofthemultitudefromthegroundtheystandupon。

MuchistobelearnedfromtheFrenchConstitution。ConquestandtyrannytransplantedthemselveswithWilliamtheConquerorfromNormandyintoEngland,andthecountryisyetdisfiguredwiththemarks。May,then,theexampleofallFrancecontributetoregeneratethefreedomwhichaprovinceofitdestroyed！

TheFrenchConstitutionsaysthattopreservethenationalrepresentationfrombeingcorrupt,nomemberoftheNationalAssemblyshallbeanofficerofthegovernment,aplacemanorapensioner。WhatwillMr。Burkeplaceagainstthis？Iwillwhisperhisanswer:LoavesandFishes。Ah！thisgovernmentofloavesandfisheshasmoremischiefinitthanpeoplehaveyetreflectedon。TheNationalAssemblyhasmadethediscovery,anditholdsouttheexampletotheworld。Hadgovernmentsagreedtoquarrelonpurposetofleecetheircountriesbytaxes,theycouldnothavesucceededbetterthantheyhavedone。

EverythingintheEnglishgovernmentappearstomethereverseofwhatitoughttobe,andofwhatitissaidtobe。TheParliament,imperfectlyandcapriciouslyelectedasitis,isneverthelesssupposedtoholdthenationalpurseintrustforthenation;butinthemannerinwhichanEnglishParliamentisconstructeditislikeamanbeingbothmortgagorandmortgagee,andinthecaseofmisapplicationoftrustitisthecriminalsittinginjudgmentuponhimself。Ifthosewhovotethesuppliesarethesamepersonswhoreceivethesupplieswhenvoted,andaretoaccountfortheexpenditureofthosesuppliestothosewhovotedthem,itisthemselvesaccountabletothemselves,andtheComedyofErrorsconcludeswiththepantomimeofHush。NeithertheMinisterialpartynortheOppositionwilltouchuponthiscase。Thenationalpurseisthecommonhackwhicheachmountsupon。

Itislikewhatthecountrypeoplecall"Rideandtie—youridealittleway,andthenI。"*[5]TheyorderthesethingsbetterinFrance。

TheFrenchConstitutionsaysthattherightofwarandpeaceisinthenation。Whereelseshoulditresidebutinthosewhoaretopaytheexpense？

InEnglandthisrightissaidtoresideinametaphorshownattheTowerforsixpenceorashillingapiece:soarethelions;anditwouldbeastepnearertoreasontosayitresidedinthem,foranyinanimatemetaphorisnomorethanahatoracap。WecanallseetheabsurdityofworshippingAaron"smoltencalf,orNebuchadnezzar"sgoldenimage;butwhydomencontinuetopractisethemselvestheabsurditiestheydespiseinothers？

ItmaywithreasonbesaidthatinthemannertheEnglishnationisrepresenteditsignifiesnotwheretherightresides,whetherintheCrownorintheParliament。Waristhecommonharvestofallthosewhoparticipateinthedivisionandexpenditureofpublicmoney,inallcountries。Itistheartofconqueringathome;theobjectofitisanincreaseofrevenue;

andasrevenuecannotbeincreasedwithouttaxes,apretencemustbemadeforexpenditure。InreviewingthehistoryoftheEnglishGovernment,itswarsanditstaxes,abystander,notblindedbyprejudicenorwarpedbyinterest,woulddeclarethattaxeswerenotraisedtocarryonwars,butthatwarswereraisedtocarryontaxes。

Mr。Burke,asamemberoftheHouseofCommons,isapartoftheEnglishGovernment;andthoughheprofesseshimselfanenemytowar,heabusestheFrenchConstitution,whichseekstoexplodeit。HeholdsuptheEnglishGovernmentasamodel,inallitsparts,toFrance;butheshouldfirstknowtheremarkswhichtheFrenchmakeuponit。Theycontendinfavoroftheirown,thattheportionoflibertyenjoyedinEnglandisjustenoughtoenslaveacountrymoreproductivelythanbydespotism,andthatastherealobjectofalldespotismisrevenue,agovernmentsoformedobtainsmorethanitcoulddoeitherbydirectdespotism,orinafullstateoffreedom,andis,thereforeonthegroundofinterest,opposedtoboth。

Theyaccountalsoforthereadinesswhichalwaysappearsinsuchgovernmentsforengaginginwarsbyremarkingonthedifferentmotiveswhichproducedthem。Indespoticgovernmentswarsaretheeffectofpride;butinthosegovernmentsinwhichtheybecomethemeansoftaxation,theyacquiretherebyamorepermanentpromptitude。

TheFrenchConstitution,therefore,toprovideagainstboththeseevils,hastakenawaythepowerofdeclaringwarfromkingsandministers,andplacedtherightwheretheexpensemustfall。

WhenthequestionoftherightofwarandpeacewasagitatingintheNationalAssembly,thepeopleofEnglandappearedtobemuchinterestedintheevent,andhighlytoapplaudthedecision。Asaprincipleitappliesasmuchtoonecountryasanother。WilliamtheConqueror,asaconqueror,heldthispowerofwarandpeaceinhimself,andhisdescendantshaveeversinceclaimeditunderhimasaright。

AlthoughMr。BurkehasassertedtherightoftheParliamentattheRevolutiontobindandcontrolthenationandposterityforever,hedeniesatthesametimethattheParliamentorthenationhadanyrighttoalterwhathecallsthesuccessionofthecrowninanythingbutinpart,orbyasortofmodification。ByhistakingthisgroundhethrowsthecasebacktotheNormanConquest,andbythusrunningalineofsuccessionspringingfromWilliamtheConquerortothepresentday,hemakesitnecessarytoenquirewhoandwhatWilliamtheConquerorwas,andwherehecamefrom,andintotheorigin,historyandnatureofwhatarecalledprerogatives。Everythingmusthavehadabeginning,andthefogoftimeandantiquityshouldbepenetratedtodiscoverit。Let,then,Mr。BurkebringforwardhisWilliamofNormandy,foritistothisoriginthathisargumentgoes。Italsounfortunatelyhappens,inrunningthislineofsuccession,thatanotherlineparalleltheretopresentsitself,whichisthatifthesuccessionrunsinthelineoftheconquest,thenationrunsinthelineofbeingconquered,anditoughttorescueitselffromthisreproach。