第1章

PartTheFirstPartTheFirstBeingAnAnswerToMr。Burke"sAttackOnTheFrenchRevolutionGeorgeWashingtonPRESIDENTOFTHEUNITEDSTATESOFAMERICA

SIR,Ipresentyouasmalltreatiseindefenceofthoseprinciplesoffreedomwhichyourexemplaryvirtuehathsoeminentlycontributedtoestablish。

ThattheRightsofManmaybecomeasuniversalasyourbenevolencecanwish,andthatyoumayenjoythehappinessofseeingtheNewWorldregeneratetheOld,istheprayerofSIR,Yourmuchobliged,andObedienthumbleServant,THOMASPAINE

TheAuthor"sPrefacetotheEnglishEditionFromthepartMr。BurketookintheAmericanRevolution,itwasnaturalthatIshouldconsiderhimafriendtomankind;andasouracquaintancecommencedonthatground,itwouldhavebeenmoreagreeabletometohavehadcausetocontinueinthatopinionthantochangeit。

AtthetimeMr。BurkemadehisviolentspeechlastwinterintheEnglishParliamentagainsttheFrenchRevolutionandtheNationalAssembly,IwasinParis,andhadwrittentohimbutashorttimebeforetoinformhimhowprosperouslymattersweregoingon。SoonafterthisIsawhisadvertisementofthePamphletheintendedtopublish:Astheattackwastobemadeinalanguagebutlittlestudied,andlessunderstoodinFrance,andaseverythingsuffersbytranslation,IpromisedsomeofthefriendsoftheRevolutioninthatcountrythatwheneverMr。Burke"sPamphletcameforth,Iwouldanswerit。Thisappearedtomethemorenecessarytobedone,whenIsawtheflagrantmisrepresentationswhichMr。Burke"sPamphletcontains;andthatwhileitisanoutrageousabuseontheFrenchRevolution,andtheprinciplesofLiberty,itisanimpositionontherestoftheworld。

IamthemoreastonishedanddisappointedatthisconductinMr。Burke,as（fromthecircumstancesIamgoingtomention）Ihadformedotherexpectations。

Ihadseenenoughofthemiseriesofwar,towishitmightnevermorehaveexistenceintheworld,andthatsomeothermodemightbefoundouttosettlethedifferencesthatshouldoccasionallyariseintheneighbourhoodofnations。ThiscertainlymightbedoneifCourtsweredisposedtosethonestyaboutit,orifcountrieswereenlightenedenoughnottobemadethedupesofCourts。ThepeopleofAmericahadbeenbredupinthesameprejudicesagainstFrance,whichatthattimecharacterisedthepeopleofEngland;butexperienceandanacquaintancewiththeFrenchNationhavemosteffectuallyshowntotheAmericansthefalsehoodofthoseprejudices;

andIdonotbelievethatamorecordialandconfidentialintercourseexistsbetweenanytwocountriesthanbetweenAmericaandFrance。

WhenIcametoFrance,inthespringof1787,theArchbishopofThoulousewasthenMinister,andatthattimehighlyesteemed。IbecamemuchacquaintedwiththeprivateSecretaryofthatMinister,amanofanenlargedbenevolentheart;andfoundthathissentimentsandmyownperfectlyagreedwithrespecttothemadnessofwar,andthewretchedimpolicyoftwonations,likeEnglandandFrance,continuallyworryingeachother,tonootherendthanthatofamutualincreaseofburdensandtaxes。ThatImightbeassuredIhadnotmisunderstoodhim,norheme,Iputthesubstanceofouropinionsintowritingandsentittohim;subjoiningarequest,thatifIshouldseeamongthepeopleofEngland,anydispositiontocultivateabetterunderstandingbetweenthetwonationsthanhadhithertoprevailed,howfarImightbeauthorisedtosaythatthesamedispositionprevailedonthepartofFrance？

Heansweredmebyletterinthemostunreservedmanner,andthatnotforhimselfonly,butfortheMinister,withwhoseknowledgetheletterwasdeclaredtobewritten。

Iputthisletterintothe,handsofMr。Burkealmostthreeyearsago,andleftitwithhim,whereitstillremains;hoping,andatthesametimenaturallyexpecting,fromtheopinionIhadconceivedofhim,thathewouldfindsomeopportunityofmakinggooduseofit,forthepurposeofremovingthoseerrorsandprejudiceswhichtwoneighbouringnations,fromthewantofknowingeachother,hadentertained,totheinjuryofboth。

WhentheFrenchRevolutionbrokeout,itcertainlyaffordedtoMr。Burkeanopportunityofdoingsomegood,hadhebeendisposedtoit;insteadofwhich,nosoonerdidheseetheoldprejudiceswearingaway,thanheimmediatelybegansowingtheseedsofanewinveteracy,asifhewereafraidthatEnglandandFrancewouldceasetobeenemies。Thattherearemeninallcountrieswhogettheirlivingbywar,andbykeepingupthequarrelsofNations,isasshockingasitistrue;butwhenthosewhoareconcernedinthegovernmentofacountry,makeittheirstudytosowdiscordandcultivateprejudicesbetweenNations,itbecomesthemoreunpardonable。

WithrespecttoaparagraphinthisworkalludingtoMr。Burke"shavingapension,thereporthasbeensometimeincirculation,atleasttwomonths;

andasapersonisoftenthelasttohearwhatconcernshimthemosttoknow,Ihavementionedit,thatMr。Burkemayhaveanopportunityofcontradictingtherumour,ifhethinksproper。

THOMASPAINE

TheAuthor"sPrefacetotheFrenchEditionTheastonishmentwhichtheFrenchRevolutionhascausedthroughoutEuropeshouldbeconsideredfromtwodifferentpointsofview:firstasitaffectsforeignpeoples,secondlyasitaffectstheirgovernments。

ThecauseoftheFrenchpeopleisthatofallEurope,orratherofthewholeworld;butthegovernmentsofallthosecountriesarebynomeansfavorabletoit。Itisimportantthatweshouldneverlosesightofthisdistinction。Wemustnotconfusethepeopleswiththeirgovernments;especiallynottheEnglishpeoplewithitsgovernment。

ThegovernmentofEnglandisnofriendoftherevolutionofFrance。

Ofthiswehavesufficientproofsinthethanksgivenbythatweakandwitlessperson,theElectorofHanover,sometimescalledtheKingofEngland,toMr。Burkefortheinsultsheapedonitinhisbook,andinthemalevolentcommentsoftheEnglishMinister,Pitt,inhisspeechesinParliament。

InspiteoftheprofessionsofsincerestfriendshipfoundintheofficialcorrespondenceoftheEnglishgovernmentwiththatofFrance,itsconductgivesthelietoallitsdeclarations,andshowsusclearlythatitisnotacourttobetrusted,butaninsanecourt,plunginginallthequarrelsandintriguesofEurope,inquestofawartosatisfyitsfollyandcountenanceitsextravagance。

TheEnglishnation,onthecontrary,isveryfavorablydisposedtowardstheFrenchRevolution,andtotheprogressoflibertyinthewholeworld;

andthisfeelingwillbecomemoregeneralinEnglandastheintriguesandartificesofitsgovernmentarebetterknown,andtheprinciplesoftherevolutionbetterunderstood。TheFrenchshouldknowthatmostEnglishnewspapersaredirectlyinthepayofgovernment,or,ifindirectlyconnectedwithit,alwaysunderitsorders;andthatthosepapersconstantlydistortandattacktherevolutioninFranceinordertodeceivethenation。But,asitisimpossiblelongtopreventtheprevalenceoftruth,thedailyfalsehoodsofthosepapersnolongerhavethedesiredeffect。

TobeconvincedthatthevoiceoftruthhasbeenstifledinEngland,theworldneedsonlytobetoldthatthegovernmentregardsandprosecutesasalibelthatwhichitshouldprotect。*[1]Thisoutrageonmoralityiscalledlaw,andjudgesarefoundwickedenoughtoinflictpenaltiesontruth。

TheEnglishgovernmentpresents,justnow,acuriousphenomenon。SeeingthattheFrenchandEnglishnationsaregettingridoftheprejudicesandfalsenotionsformerlyentertainedagainsteachother,andwhichhavecostthemsomuchmoney,thatgovernmentseemstobeplacardingitsneedofafoe;forunlessitfindsonesomewhere,nopretextexistsfortheenormousrevenueandtaxationnowdeemednecessary。

ThereforeitseeksinRussiatheenemyithaslostinFrance,andappearstosaytotheuniverse,ortosaytoitself。"Ifnobodywillbesokindastobecomemyfoe,Ishallneednomorefleetsnorarmies,andshallbeforcedtoreducemytaxes。TheAmericanwarenabledmetodoublethetaxes;theDutchbusinesstoaddmore;theNootkahumbuggavemeapretextforraisingthreemillionssterlingmore;butunlessIcanmakeanenemyofRussiatheharvestfromwarswillend。IwasthefirsttoinciteTurkagainstRussian,andnowIhopetoreapafreshcropoftaxes。"

Ifthemiseriesofwar,andthefloodofevilsitspreadsoveracountry,didnotcheckallinclinationtomirth,andturnlaughterintogrief,thefranticconductofthegovernmentofEnglandwouldonlyexciteridicule。

Butitisimpossibletobanishfromone"smindtheimagesofsufferingwhichthecontemplationofsuchviciouspolicypresents。Toreasonwithgovernments,astheyhaveexistedforages,istoarguewithbrutes。Itisonlyfromthenationsthemselvesthatreformscanbeexpected。ThereoughtnotnowtoexistanydoubtthatthepeoplesofFrance,England,andAmerica,enlightenedandenlighteningeachother,shallhenceforthbeable,notmerelytogivetheworldanexampleofgoodgovernment,butbytheirunitedinfluenceenforceitspractice。

（TranslatedfromtheFrench）

RightsofManAmongtheincivilitiesbywhichnationsorindividualsprovokeandirritateeachother,Mr。Burke"spamphletontheFrenchRevolutionisanextraordinaryinstance。NeitherthePeopleofFrance,northeNationalAssembly,weretroublingthemselvesabouttheaffairsofEngland,ortheEnglishParliament;

andthatMr。Burkeshouldcommenceanunprovokedattackuponthem,bothinParliamentandinpublic,isaconductthatcannotbepardonedonthescoreofmanners,norjustifiedonthatofpolicy。

ThereisscarcelyanepithetofabusetobefoundintheEnglishlanguage,withwhichMr。BurkehasnotloadedtheFrenchNationandtheNationalAssembly。Everythingwhichrancour,prejudice,ignoranceorknowledgecouldsuggest,ispouredforthinthecopiousfuryofnearfourhundredpages。

InthestrainandontheplanMr。Burkewaswriting,hemighthavewrittenontoasmanythousands。Whenthetongueorthepenisletlooseinafrenzyofpassion,itistheman,andnotthesubject,thatbecomesexhausted。

HithertoMr。BurkehasbeenmistakenanddisappointedintheopinionshehadformedoftheaffairsofFrance;butsuchistheingenuityofhishope,orthemalignancyofhisdespair,thatitfurnisheshimwithnewpretencestogoon。TherewasatimewhenitwasimpossibletomakeMr。

BurkebelievetherewouldbeanyRevolutioninFrance。Hisopinionthenwas,thattheFrenchhadneitherspirittoundertakeitnorfortitudetosupportit;andnowthatthereisone,heseeksanescapebycondemningit。

NotsufficientlycontentwithabusingtheNationalAssembly,agreatpartofhisworkistakenupwithabusingDr。Price（oneofthebest—heartedmenthatlives）andthetwosocietiesinEnglandknownbythenameoftheRevolutionSocietyandtheSocietyforConstitutionalInformation。

Dr。Pricehadpreachedasermononthe4thofNovember,1789,beingtheanniversaryofwhatiscalledinEnglandtheRevolution,whichtookplace1688。Mr。Burke,speakingofthissermon,says:"ThepoliticalDivineproceedsdogmaticallytoassert,thatbytheprinciplesoftheRevolution,thepeopleofEnglandhaveacquiredthreefundamentalrights:Tochooseourowngovernors。Tocashierthemformisconduct。Toframeagovernmentforourselves。"Dr。Pricedoesnotsaythattherighttodothesethingsexistsinthisorinthatperson,orinthisorinthatdescriptionofpersons,butthatitexistsinthewhole;thatitisarightresidentinthenation。Mr。

Burke,onthecontrary,deniesthatsucharightexistsinthenation,eitherinwholeorinpart,orthatitexistsanywhere;and,whatisstillmorestrangeandmarvellous,hesays:"thatthepeopleofEnglandutterlydisclaimsucharight,andthattheywillresistthepracticalassertionofitwiththeirlivesandfortunes。"Thatmenshouldtakeuparmsandspendtheirlivesandfortunes,nottomaintaintheirrights,buttomaintaintheyhavenotrights,isanentirelynewspeciesofdiscovery,andsuitedtotheparadoxicalgeniusofMr。Burke。

ThemethodwhichMr。BurketakestoprovethatthepeopleofEnglandhavenosuchrights,andthatsuchrightsdonotnowexistinthenation,eitherinwholeorinpart,oranywhereatall,isofthesamemarvellousandmonstrouskindwithwhathehasalreadysaid;forhisargumentsarethatthepersons,orthegenerationofpersons,inwhomtheydidexist,aredead,andwiththemtherightisdeadalso。Toprovethis,hequotesadeclarationmadebyParliamentaboutahundredyearsago,toWilliamandMary,inthesewords:"TheLordsSpiritualandTemporal,andCommons,do,inthenameofthepeopleaforesaid"（meaningthepeopleofEnglandthenliving）"mosthumblyandfaithfullysubmitthemselves,theirheirsandposterities,forEVER。"HequotesaclauseofanotherActofParliamentmadeinthesamereign,thetermsofwhichhesays,"bindus"（meaningthepeopleoftheirday）,"ourheirsandourposterity,tothem,theirheirsandposterity,totheendoftime。"

Mr。Burkeconceiveshispointsufficientlyestablishedbyproducingthoseclauses,whichheenforcesbysayingthattheyexcludetherightofthenationforever。Andnotyetcontentwithmakingsuchdeclarations,repeatedoverandoveragain,hefarthersays,"thatifthepeopleofEnglandpossessedsucharightbeforetheRevolution"（whichheacknowledgestohavebeenthecase,notonlyinEngland,butthroughoutEurope,atanearlyperiod）,"yetthattheEnglishNationdid,atthetimeoftheRevolution,mostsolemnlyrenounceandabdicateit,forthemselves,andforalltheirposterity,forever。"

AsMr。Burkeoccasionallyappliesthepoisondrawnfromhishorridprinciples,notonlytotheEnglishnation,buttotheFrenchRevolutionandtheNationalAssembly,andchargesthataugust,illuminatedandilluminatingbodyofmenwiththeepithetofusurpers,Ishall,sansceremonie,placeanothersystemofprinciplesinoppositiontohis。

TheEnglishParliamentof1688didacertainthing,which,forthemselvesandtheirconstituents,theyhadarighttodo,andwhichitappearedrightshouldbedone。But,inadditiontothisright,whichtheypossessedbydelegation,theysetupanotherrightbyassumption,thatofbindingandcontrollingposteritytotheendoftime。Thecase,therefore,dividesitselfintotwoparts;therightwhichtheypossessedbydelegation,andtherightwhichtheysetupbyassumption。Thefirstisadmitted;butwithrespecttothesecond,Ireply—

Thereneverdid,thereneverwill,andtherenevercan,existaParliament,oranydescriptionofmen,oranygenerationofmen,inanycountry,possessedoftherightorthepowerofbindingandcontrollingposteritytothe"endoftime,"orofcommandingforeverhowtheworldshallbegoverned,orwhoshallgovernit;andthereforeallsuchclauses,actsordeclarationsbywhichthemakersofthemattempttodowhattheyhaveneithertherightnorthepowertodo,northepowertoexecute,areinthemselvesnullandvoid。Everyageandgenerationmustbeasfreetoactforitselfinallcasesastheageandgenerationswhichprecededit。Thevanityandpresumptionofgoverningbeyondthegraveisthemostridiculousandinsolentofalltyrannies。Manhasnopropertyinman;neitherhasanygenerationapropertyinthegenerationswhicharetofollow。TheParliamentorthepeopleof1688,orofanyotherperiod,hadnomorerighttodisposeofthepeopleofthepresentday,ortobindortocontroltheminanyshapewhatever,thantheparliamentorthepeopleofthepresentdayhavetodisposeof,bindorcontrolthosewhoaretoliveahundredorathousandyearshence。

Everygenerationis,andmustbe,competenttoallthepurposeswhichitsoccasionsrequire。Itistheliving,andnotthedead,thataretobeaccommodated。

Whenmanceasestobe,hispowerandhiswantsceasewithhim;andhavingnolongeranyparticipationintheconcernsofthisworld,hehasnolongeranyauthorityindirectingwhoshallbeitsgovernors,orhowitsgovernmentshallbeorganised,orhowadministered。

Iamnotcontendingfornoragainstanyformofgovernment,norfornoragainstanyparty,hereorelsewhere。Thatwhichawholenationchoosestodoithasarighttodo。Mr。Burkesays,No。Where,then,doestherightexist？Iamcontendingfortherightsoftheliving,andagainsttheirbeingwilledawayandcontrolledandcontractedforbythemanuscriptassumedauthorityofthedead,andMr。Burkeiscontendingfortheauthorityofthedeadovertherightsandfreedomoftheliving。Therewasatimewhenkingsdisposedoftheircrownsbywillupontheirdeath—beds,andconsignedthepeople,likebeastsofthefield,towhateversuccessortheyappointed。

Thisisnowsoexplodedasscarcelytoberemembered,andsomonstrousashardlytobebelieved。ButtheParliamentaryclausesuponwhichMr。

Burkebuildshispoliticalchurchareofthesamenature。

Thelawsofeverycountrymustbeanalogoustosomecommonprinciple。

InEnglandnoparentormaster,noralltheauthorityofParliament,omnipotentasithascalleditself,canbindorcontrolthepersonalfreedomevenofanindividualbeyondtheageoftwenty—oneyears。Onwhatgroundofright,then,couldtheParliamentof1688,oranyotherParliament,bindallposterityforever？

Thosewhohavequittedtheworld,andthosewhohavenotyetarrivedatit,areasremotefromeachotherastheutmoststretchofmortalimaginationcanconceive。Whatpossibleobligation,then,canexistbetweenthem—whatruleorprinciplecanbelaiddownthatoftwononentities,theoneoutofexistenceandtheothernotin,andwhonevercanmeetinthisworld,theoneshouldcontroltheothertotheendoftime？

InEnglanditissaidthatmoneycannotbetakenoutofthepocketsofthepeoplewithouttheirconsent。Butwhoauthorised,orwhocouldauthorise,theParliamentof1688tocontrolandtakeawaythefreedomofposterity（whowerenotinexistencetogiveortowithholdtheirconsent）andlimitandconfinetheirrightofactingincertaincasesforever？

AgreaterabsurditycannotpresentitselftotheunderstandingofmanthanwhatMr。Burkeofferstohisreaders。Hetellsthem,andhetellstheworldtocome,thatacertainbodyofmenwhoexistedahundredyearsagomadealaw,andthattheredoesnotexistinthenation,noreverwill,norevercan,apowertoalterit。Underhowmanysubtiltiesorabsurditieshasthedivinerighttogovernbeenimposedonthecredulityofmankind？

Mr。Burkehasdiscoveredanewone,andhehasshortenedhisjourneytoRomebyappealingtothepowerofthisinfallibleParliamentofformerdays,andheproduceswhatithasdoneasofdivineauthority,forthatpowermustcertainlybemorethanhumanwhichnohumanpowertotheendoftimecanalter。

ButMr。Burkehasdonesomeservice—nottohiscause,buttohiscountry—

bybringingthoseclausesintopublicview。Theyservetodemonstratehownecessaryitisatalltimestowatchagainsttheattemptedencroachmentofpower,andtopreventitsrunningtoexcess。ItissomewhatextraordinarythattheoffenceforwhichJamesII。wasexpelled,thatofsettinguppowerbyassumption,shouldbere—acted,underanothershapeandform,bytheParliamentthatexpelledhim。ItshowsthattheRightsofManwerebutimperfectlyunderstoodattheRevolution,forcertainitisthattherightwhichthatParliamentsetupbyassumption（forbythedelegationithadnot,andcouldnothaveit,becausenonecouldgiveit）overthepersonsandfreedomofposterityforeverwasofthesametyrannicalunfoundedkindwhichJamesattemptedtosetupovertheParliamentandthenation,andforwhichhewasexpelled。Theonlydifferenceis（forinprincipletheydiffernot）thattheonewasanusurperoverliving,andtheotherovertheunborn;andastheonehasnobetterauthoritytostanduponthantheother,bothofthemmustbeequallynullandvoid,andofnoeffect。

Fromwhat,orfromwhence,doesMr。Burkeprovetherightofanyhumanpowertobindposterityforever？Hehasproducedhisclauses,buthemustproducealsohisproofsthatsucharightexisted,andshowhowitexisted。

Ifiteverexisteditmustnowexist,forwhateverappertainstothenatureofmancannotbeannihilatedbyman。Itisthenatureofmantodie,andhewillcontinuetodieaslongashecontinuestobeborn。ButMr。BurkehassetupasortofpoliticalAdam,inwhomallposterityareboundforever。Hemust,therefore,provethathisAdampossessedsuchapower,orsucharight。

Theweakeranycordis,thelesswillitbeartobestretched,andtheworseisthepolicytostretchit,unlessitisintendedtobreakit。HadanyoneproposedtheoverthrowofMr。Burke"spositions,hewouldhaveproceededasMr。Burkehasdone。Hewouldhavemagnifiedtheauthorities,onpurposetohavecalledtherightofthemintoquestion;andtheinstantthequestionofrightwasstarted,theauthoritiesmusthavebeengivenup。

Itrequiresbutaverysmallglanceofthoughttoperceivethatalthoughlawsmadeinonegenerationoftencontinueinforcethroughsucceedinggenerations,yettheycontinuetoderivetheirforcefromtheconsentoftheliving。Alawnotrepealedcontinuesinforce,notbecauseitcannotberepealed,butbecauseitisnotrepealed;andthenon—repealingpassesforconsent。

ButMr。Burke"sclauseshavenoteventhisqualificationintheirfavour。

Theybecomenull,byattemptingtobecomeimmortal。Thenatureofthemprecludesconsent。Theydestroytherightwhichtheymighthave,bygroundingitonarightwhichtheycannothave。Immortalpowerisnotahumanright,andthereforecannotbearightofParliament。TheParliamentof1688mightaswellhavepassedanacttohaveauthorisedthemselvestoliveforever,astomaketheirauthorityliveforever。All,therefore,thatcanbesaidofthoseclausesisthattheyareaformalityofwords,ofasmuchimportasifthosewhousedthemhadaddressedacongratulationtothemselves,andintheorientalstyleofantiquityhadsaid:OParliament,liveforever！

Thecircumstancesoftheworldarecontinuallychanging,andtheopinionsofmenchangealso;andasgovernmentisfortheliving,andnotforthedead,itisthelivingonlythathasanyrightinit。Thatwhichmaybethoughtrightandfoundconvenientinoneagemaybethoughtwrongandfoundinconvenientinanother。Insuchcases,whoistodecide,thelivingorthedead？

AsalmostonehundredpagesofMr。Burke"sbookareemployedupontheseclauses,itwillconsequentlyfollowthatiftheclausesthemselves,sofarastheysetupanassumedusurpeddominionoverposterityforever,areunauthoritative,andintheirnaturenullandvoid;thatallhisvoluminousinferences,anddeclamationdrawntherefrom,orfoundedthereon,arenullandvoidalso;andonthisgroundIrestthematter。