第1章
ThewordWealthpresentsitselftodifferentmindswithsuchvarietyofmeaning，thatitwillbebesttobeginbyfixingon
someconventionallimittothesenseinwhichthetermshallbeused。ThedefinitionofMr。Malthusis，ofthemanywhich
havebeenproposed，perhapstheleastobjectionableandthemostconvenient。Wealth，accordingtohim，consistsofthose
materialobjectswhicharenecessary，useful，oragreeabletomankind。(1)Inthisrestrictedsensethewordwillbeusedhere。
Instancesofoccasionaldeviationfromit，ifanyoccur，shallbemarked。Itwillbeunderstood，however，thatthisdefinitionis
proposedasusefulinlimitingoursubject，notasfurnishingthebasisofanyconclusionsrelatingtoit。Ifamore
comprehensiveinterpretationofthetermWealthshouldbepreferred，theresultsofthefactsorreasoningsweshallhavetoadduce，willbeinnodegreeaffectedbythechange。Allwealth，whateverbeitssource，ismadeavailableforthepurposesofmanbyhumanlabor:bythateventhespontaneous
productionsoftheearthmustbegatheredandappropriated。Hencethehandsfromwhichallwealthisfirstdistributedmust
bethoseofthelaborer。Butthelaborerisrarelyinaconditiontoretainthewholeproduceofhisexertions。Inwhateverstate
ofsocietyheexists，sometie，orsomewant，makeshimtoacertainextentdependentuponothers。Thosewhoconstitutethe
largerproportionofthelaboringclassthroughouttheworldfindnofundaccumulatedbyothers，fromwhichtheymaydraw
theirdailysubsistence:theyareobligedthereforetoraiseitwiththeirownhandsfromthesoil。Ifthatsoilbelongstoothers，
thiscircumstancealonemakesthepeasantsatoncetributarytotheproprietors，andaportionoftheproduceisdistributedas
Rent。Ifbesidesthesoilotherthingsareneedfultofacilitatetheirexertions，totheownerofthesethingsanotherpartofthe
producemustberesigned，andhencetheoriginofProfits。Theshareofthelaborer，therewardofmerepersonalexertion，in
whatevershape，ormanner，ortime，itmaybereceived，constitutestheWagesoflabor。Intothesethreeportions，Rent，
Profits，andWages，theannualproduceofthelandandlaborofeverycountryisinthefirstinstancedivided:allother
revenuesarederivedfromthese。Thewholesubjectofthedistributionofwealththennaturallyseparatesitselfintothree
divisions，whichmayconvenientlybemadethesubjectofthreebooks，devotedtotheexaminationofthosecircumstances
whichindifferentstagesofsocietydeterminetheamount，firstofRent，thenofWages，thirdlyofProfits。Inafourthbook，if
ourplanshouldbecompleted，weshallattempttotracetherevenuewhichthestateatsuccessiveperiodsusuallyderives
fromeachofthese。
ThepresentvolumewillcontainthebookonRent。
SECTIONI。
OntheOriginofRents:ontheirDivisionintoPrimaryandSecondary，orPeasantandFarmer"sRents。Whenmankindhavebecomesufficientlynumeroustobedrivenfromthepastoralstatetoagricultureforsubsistence，and
beforesufficientfundshaveaccumulatedinthepossessionofotherstosupplythebodyofthepeoplewiththeirdailybread，
theymustextractitwiththeirownbandsfromthesoil，ortheymuststarve。Whilethuscircumstancedtheymay，ormaynot，
bethemselvestheownersoftheimplements，seed，&；c。bytheassistanceofwhichtheirmanuallaborappliedtothesoil
producesthemacontinuousmaintenance；astockwhichifusedforanyotherpurposemustsoonbeexhausted:suchastock，
iftheypossessit，isintheirpeculiarcircumstancesentirelydeprivedofitsmobility；itisconvertibletonootherpurpose，
andisconfinedtothetaskofassistingcultivation，bythesamenecessitywhichcompelsitsownerstoextracttheirfood
fromtheearth:andthereturnstostocksosituated，likethereturnstothelaborsofitsowners(ortheirwages)，mustbe
governedbythetermsonwhichlandcanbeobtained。Shouldthesurfaceofthecountrywhichsuchapeopleinhabitbe
appropriated，theonlychancewhichthecultivatorhasofbeingallowedtooccupythatportionofit，fromwhichheisto
drawhissubsistence，restsuponhisbeingabletopaysometributetotheowner。
Thepoweroftheearthtoyield，eventothe
rudestlaborsofmankind，morethanisnecessaryforthesubsistenceofthecultivatorhimself，enableshimtopaysucha
tribute:hencetheoriginofrent。Averylargeproportionoftheinhabitantsofthewholeeartharepreciselyinthe
circumstanceswehavebeendescribing；sufficientlynumeroustohaveresortedtoagriculture；toorudetopossessany
accumulatedfundintheshapeofcapital，fromwhichthewagesofthelaboringcultivatorscanbeadvanced。These
cultivatorsinsuchastateofsocietycomprisealways，fromcausesweshallhereafterarriveinsightof，anoverwhelming
majorityofthenation。Asthelandisthenthedirectsourceofthesubsistenceofthepopulation，sothenatureoftheproperty
establishedintheland，andtheformsandtermsoftenancytowhichthatpropertygivesbirth，furnishtothepeoplethemost
influentialelementsoftheirnationalcharacter。Wemaybepreparedthereforetoseewithoutsurprisesthedifferentsystems
ofrentswhichinthisstateofthingshavearisen1。outofthepeculiarcircumstancesofdifferentpeople，formingthemain
tieswhichholdsocietytogether，determiningthenatureoftheconnectionbetweenthegoverningpartofthecommunity
andthegoverned，andstampingonaverylargeportionofthepopulationofthewholeglobetheirmoststrikingfeatures，social，political，andmoral。Ifindeeditweretrue，assomehavefancied，thatlandswerealwaysfirstappropriatedbythosewhoarewillingtobestow
painsontheircultivation；ifinthehistoryofmankinditwereanordinaryfact，thattheuncultivatedlandsofacountry`were
opentotheindustryorneccssitiesofallitspopulation；thensometimewouldelapseintheprogressofagriculturalnations
beforerentsmadetheirappearanceatall；andwhentheydidappear，still，whileanyportionofthecountryremained
unoccupied，therentspaidonthelandsalreadycultivatedwouldonlybeinexactproportiontotheirsuperiority，frompositionorgoodness，overthevacantspots。Suchastateofthingsmightoccur；itisanabstractpossibility:butthepasthistoryandpresentstateoftheworldyield
abundanttestimony，thatitneitheris，noreverhasbeen，apracticaltruth，andthattheassumptionofitasthebasisofsystemsofpoliticalphilosophy，isamerefallacy。Whenmenbegintouniteintheformofanagriculturalcommunity，thepoliticalnotiontheyseemconstantlytoadoptfirst，is
thatofanexclusiveright，existingsomewhere，tothesoilofthecountrytheyinhabit。Theircircumstances，theirprejudices，
theirideasofjusticeorofexpediency，leadthem，almostuniversally，tovestthatrightintheirgeneralgovernment，andinpersonsderivingtheirrightsfromit。TherudestpeopleamongwhomthiscanatpresentbeobservedareperhapssomeoftheIslandersoftheSouthSeas。The
soiloftheSocietyIslandsisveryimperfectlyoccupied；thewholebelongstothesovereign；heportionsitamongthenobles，
andmakesandresumesgrantsathispleasure。Thebodyofthepeople，wholiveoncertainediblerootspeculiartothe
country，whichtheycultivatewithconsiderablecare，receivefromthenobles，intheirturn，permissiontooccupysmaller
portions。Theyarethusdependentonthechiefsforthemeansofexistence，andtheypayatribute，arent，intheshapeoflaborandservicesperformedonotherlands。(2)OnthecontinentofAmerica，theinstitutionsofthosepeople，whobeforeitsdiscoveryhadresortedtoagriculturefor
subsistence，indicatealsoanearlyandcompleteappropriationofthesoilbythestate。InMexicotherewerecrownlands
cultivatedbytheservicesofthoseclasseswhoweretoopoortocontributetotherevenueofthestateinanyothermanner。Thereexistedtooabodyofabout3000noblespossessedofdistincthereditarypropertyinland。"Thetenurebywhichthegreatbodyofthepeopleheldtheirpropertywasverydifferent。Ineverydistrictacertainquantityoflandwasmeasuredout
inproportiontothenumberoffamilies。Thiswascultivatedbythejointlaborofthe
whole:itsproducewasdepositedina
commonstorehouse，anddividedamongthemaccordingtotheirrespectiveexigencies。"(3)WhileinPeru"allthelands
capableofcultivationweredividedintothreeshares。OnewasconsecratedtotheSun，andtheproduceofitwasappliedto
theerectionoftemples，andfurnishingwhatwasrequisitetowardscelebratingthepublicritesofreligion。Thesecond
belongedtotheInca，andwassetapartastheprovisionmadebythecommunityforthesupportofgovernment。Thethird
andlargestsharewasreservedforthemaintenanceofthepeopleamongwhomitwasparcelledout。Neitherindividuals，
however，norcommunitieshadarightofexclusivepropertyintheportionsetapartfortheiruse。Theypossesseditonlyfor
ayear，attheexpirationofwhich，anewdivisionwasmadeinproportiontotherank，thenumber，andtheexigenciesofeachfamily。"(4)ThroughoutAsia，thesovereignshaveeverbeeninthepossessionofanexclusivetitletothesoiloftheirdominions，and
theyhavepreservedthattitleinastateofsingularandinauspiciousintegrity，undivided，aswellasunimpaired。Thepeople
arethereuniversallythetenantsofthesovereign，whoisthesoleproprietor；usurpationsofhisofficersaloneoccasionally
breakthelinksofthechainofdependenceforatime。Itisthisuniversaldependenceonthethroneforthemeansof
supportinglife，whichistherealfoundationoftheunbrokendespotismoftheEasternworld，asitisoftherevenueofthesovereigns，andoftheformwhichsocietyassumesbeneaththeirfeet。InmodernEuropethesamerightsonceprevailed，butheretheyweresoonmoderated，andfinallydisappeared。The
subordinatechiefs，whofollowedincrowdstheleadersofthebarbarianirruptions，werelittleaccustomedtotolerate
constantdependenceandregulargovernment，andutterlyunfittobecomeitssupportandagents。Yetevenbythem，the
abstractrightofthesovereigntothesoilwasverygenerallyrecognized。Tracesofitarestillpreservedinthelanguageof
ourlaws；thehighesttitleasubjectcanclaimisthatoftenantofthefee，andthetermsofthistenancymadeoriginallytheonlydifferenceintheextentofinterestsinestates。Thestepsbywhichbeneficiariesbecametherealproprietorsarefamiliartoalmostallclassesofreaders；itisenoughforour
presentpurposetoseethatinEurope，asinAsiaandSouthAmerica，thesoilwaspracticallyappropriatedbythesovereign
oralimitednumberofindividuals，atatimewhenthebulkofthepeoplewerewhollydependentontheoccupationofportionsofitfortheirsubsistence，andwhentheybecametherefore，inevitably，tributarytoitsowners。TheUnitedStatesofNorthAmerica，thoughoftenreferredtoinsupportofdifferentviews，affordanotherremarkable
instanceofthepowervestedinthehandsoftheownersofthesoil，whenitsoccupationofferstheonlymeansofsubsistence
tothepeople。TheterritoriesoftheUnionstillunoccupied，fromtheCanadianbordertotheshoresoftheFloridas，fromthe
AtlantictothePacific，areadmitted，inlawandpractice，tobethepropertyofthegeneralgovernment。Theycanbe
occupiedonlywithitsconsent，inspotsfixedonandallottedbyitsservants，andontheconditionofapreviousmoney
payment。Thatgovernmentdoesnot，itistrue，convertthesuccessiveshoalsoffreshapplicantsintotenants，becauseits
policyrejectssuchameasure。
Itslegislatorsinheritedfromtheotherhemisphereattheoutsetoftheircareertheadvantages
ofanexperienceaccumulatedduringcenturiesofprogressivecivilization:theysaw，thatthepowerandresourcesoftheir
younggovernmentwerelikelytobeincreasedmoreeffectuallybytherapidformationofaraceofproprietors，thanbythe
creationofaclassofstatetenantry。Ithasbeensuggested，thattheymayhaveactedunwiselyinoverlookingsuchamodeof
creatingapermanentpublicrevenue。Hadtheyperverselyentertainedthewilltodoso，unquestionablytheyhadthepower。
Theirrapidlyincreasingnumberscouldhavebeensustainedonlybythespreadofcultivation。Asfreshsettlementsbecame
necessarytothemaintenanceofthepeople，thegovernmentmighthavemadeitsowntermswhengrantingthespacefrom
whichalonethepopulationcouldobtainsubsistence；andthiswithoutpartingwiththepropertyofthesoil。Hadthisbeen
done，thecareerofthenation，essentiallydifferentfromwhatithasbeen，wouldmorecloselyhaveresembledthatofthepeopleoftheoldworld。IntheEnglishcoloniesofAustralia，anunsettledterritory，whichwillbearcomparisonwiththewastesofNorthAmericain
extent，istheacknowledgedpropertyofthecrown。Asystemofdisposingofthepubliclandshaslatelybeenadopted，which
isameanbetweenanabsolutesaleandthecreationofapermanenttenantry。(5)Thepersonreceivingagrantissubjecttoamoderaterent，whichhemaycommuteforthepaymentofaspecific。(6)ThroughoutcentralAfricatheconsentofthekingorchiefmustbeobtained，beforeanyspotofgroundcanbecultivated。(7)Weknowbutlittleofthesubsequentrightsofthecultivatororofhisconnectionwiththesovereign；butthenecessityofapplyingforpermissionimpliesapowertowithholdit，ortograntitconditionally。Thepasthistoryandpresentstatethereforeoftheoldandnewworld，yieldabundantproofofthevisionarynatureofthose
notionsastotheoriginofrent，whichrestuponanassumption，thatitisnevertheimmediateresultofcultivation；andthat
whileanylandremainsunoccupied，norentwillbepaidforthecultivatedpart，exceptsuchasiswarrantedbyitssuperiorityoverthatpartwhichissupposedtobealwaysopentotheindustryofthecommunity。Wecomebackthentotheproposition，that，intheactualprogressofhumansociety，renthasusuallyoriginatedinthe
appropriationofthesoil，atatimewhenthebulkofthepeoplemustcultivateitonsuchtermsastheycanobtain，orstarve；
andwhentheirscantycapitalofimplements，seed，&；c。beingutterlyinsufficienttosecuretheirmaintenanceinanyother
occupationthanthatofagriculture，ischainedwiththemselvestothelandbyanoverpoweringnecessity。Thenecessitythen，
whichcompelsthemtopayarent，itneedhardlybeobserved，iswhollyindependentofanydifferenceinthequalityofthegroundtheyoccupy，andwouldnotberemovedwerethesoilsallequalized。Therentsthuspaidbythelaborer，whoextractshisownwagesfromtheearth，maybecalledpeasantrents，usingtheterm
peasanttoindicateanoccupierofthegroundwhodependsonhisownlaborforitscultivation；ortheymaybecalled
primaryrents，because，intheorderoftheirappearanceintheprogressofnationstowardscivilization，theyinvariably
precedethatotherclassofrentstowhichwehavenowtoadvert。
OntheOriginofSecondaryorFarmer"sRents。Muchtimeseldomelapses，aftertheformationofanagriculturalcommunity，beforesomeimperfectseparationtakesplace
betweenthedepartmentsoflabor。Thebodyofartizansandmechanicsbearatfirstaverysmallproportiontothewhole
numbersofthepeople:someofthesesoonbecomeabletostoreupsuchaquantityoffood，implements，andmaterials，as
enablethemtofeedandemployothers，totaketheresultsoftheirlabour，andtoexchangethemagainformorefood，andall
thatisnecessarytocontinuetheprocess。Aclassofcapitalistsisthusformed，distinctfromthatoflaborersandlandlords。
Thisclasssometimes(but，takingtheearththroughout，veryrarely)makesitsappearanceontheland，andtakeschargeofits
cultivation。Theagriculturallaborernolongerdependsforsubsistenceuponthecropsheraisesfromthesoil；andthe
landlord，insteadofreceivinghissharedirectlyfromthehandsofthelaborer，receivesitindirectlythroughthoseofthenewemployer。Sincetheserentsinvariablysucceedintheorderofcivilizationtheclassalreadypointedout，theymaybecalledsecondary
rents；or，becausethecapitalist，whobecomesresponsiblefortherentoflandwhichhecultivatesbythelaborofothers，isusuallycalledafarmer，theserentsmayconvenientlybecalledfarmer"srents，andsodistinguishedfrompeasantrents。Therearecases，nodoubt，inwhichitisdifficulttodeterminetowhichofthesetwoclasses，thepeasantorfarmer"srents，
therentspaidbyparticularindividualsbelong。Butthisisacircumstancewhichneedembarrasstheenquiriesofnonebut
thosewhodelightinsurroundingasubjectwithrefinementsanddifficultiesoftheirowncreation。Weshallfindthetwoclassesovervastregionsoftheglobedistinctlyandbroadlyseparatedintheirform，theireffects，andthecausesoftheirvariations:anditwouldbeveryuselesstrifling，tolingerandpuzzleoverthoseverylimitedspotsalone，wheretheyareinastateofmixtureandconfusion。Thecircumstanceswhichdeterminetheamountofpeasantrentsaremuchlesscomplexthanthosewhichdeterminethe
amountoffarmer"srents。Inthecaseoftheselast，theamountofwagesisfirstdeterminedbycausesforeigntothecontract
betweentheproprietorandthetenant，andthentheamountofrentisstrictlylimitedbytheamountoftheprofitsonthe
capitalused；whichcapital，ifthoseprofitsarenotrealized，maybewithdrawntoanotheremployment。Thecauseswhich
determinetheordinaryrateofthoseprofitsarealsoindependentofthecontractbetweenthelandlordandtenant，andforma
distinctsubjectofenquiry。Inthecaseofthefirstclass，orpeasantrents，theamountbothofwagesandrentsisdetermined
solelybythebargainmadebetweentheproprietorsandasetoflaborers，whosenecessitieschainthemtothesoilwiththe
smallcapitaltheyusetoaidtheirlabourandprocurefood；andthecauseswhichgovernthetermsofthatbargainarecomparativelysimple。Theclassofsecondaryorfarmer"srentsisthatwithwhichwearethemostfamiliarinEngland，orratherthatwithwhichwe
arealonefamiliar；andthisfamiliarityhascausedpeasantrentsintheirnumerousvarietiesnotonlytobeneglectedinour
investigations，but，intruth，tobeoverlookedaltogetherAndyet，ashasbeenbeforesuggested，comparedwiththese，the
massoffarmer"srentstobefoundontheglobeisverysmall。InEnglandandinmostpartsoftheNetherlandssecondary
rentsexclusivelyprevail。IntheHighlandsofScotland，theyareonlyatthismomentdisplacingthelastremainsofthemore
primitiveform:inFrance，beforetherevolution，theywerefoundonaboutone-seventhpartoftheland:intheother
countriesofEurope，theyaremuchmorerare，throughoutAsiahardlyknown。Weshallbemakingonthewholeanextravagantallowance，ifwesupposethemtooccupyone-hundredthpartofthecultivatedsurfaceofthehabitableglobe。Ifweconsiderprincipallythenumbersofthehumanracewhosefatetheyinfluence，ortheextentoftheregionsofwhichthe
socialconditionreceivesitsimpressfromthem，thenpeasantrentsundertheirvariousformswillbethemostinterestingand
important。Ifourtasteleadsustoundertakethediscussionofthesesubjectsasascientificproblem，themaininterestof
whichconsistsintheexerciseitaffordstothepowersofanalysisandcombination，perhapsthesecondclass(orfarmer"s
rents)maynotbeundeservingoftheexclusiveattentionithasreceived。
SECTIONII。
OnPeasantRents:ontheirSeparationintoLabor，Metayer，Ryot，andCottierRents。Whilethelaborerisconfinedtothecultureofthesoilonhisown-account，becauseitisinthatmanneralonethathecan
obtainaccesstothewagesonwhichheistosubsist，theformandamountoftheRentshepaysaredeterminedbyadirect
contractbetweenhimselfandtheproprietor。Theprovisionsofthesecontractsareinfluencedsometimesbythelaws，and
almostalwaysbythelongestablishedusages，ofthecountriesinwhichtheyaremade。Themainobjectinallis，tosecurearevenuetotheproprietorswiththeleastpracticableamountoftroubleorriskontheirpart。Thoughgovernedincommonbysomeimportantprinciples，thevarietyintheminuterdetailsofthisclassofRentsisof
coursealmostinfinite。Butmenwillbedriveninsimilarsituationstoverysimilarexpedients，andthegeneralmassofpeasant
rentsmaybeseparatedintofourgreatdivisions，comprising1st，LaborRents，2dly，MetayerRents，3dly，RyotRents(borrowingthelasttermfromthecountryinwhichwearemostfamiliarwiththem，India)。Thesethreewillbefoundoccupyingincontiguousmassesthebreadthoftheoldworld，fromtheCanaryIslandstothe
shoresofChinaandthePacific，anddeciding，eachinitsownsphere，notmerelytheeconomicalrelationsofthelandlordsandtenants，butthepoliticalandsocialconditionofthemassofthepeople。Tothesemustbeaddedafourthdivision，thatofCottierRents，orRentspaidbyalaborerextractinghisownwagesfrom
theland，butpayinghisrentinmoney，asinIrelandandpartofScotland。Thisclassissmall，butpeculiarlyinterestingto
Englishmen，fromthefactofitsprevalenceinthesisterisland，andfromtheinfluenceithasexercised，andseemslikelyforsometimeyettoexercise，overtheprogressandcircumstancesoftheIrishpeople。1。Prin。ofPol。Econ。p。28。Ithinkthisdefinitionasitstands，isonthewholeratherpreferabletotheslightlyalteredversion
ofit，whichMr。MalthushassinceadoptedinhisWorkonDefinitions，p。234。Neitherofthemperhaps，areperfectlyproof
againstapains-takingobjector。Either，wouldverywellanswerourpresentpurpose，ofrestrictingthesubjectonwhichwe
areabouttoentertosomedefinitelimits。
2。Appendix。
3。Robertson"sAmerica，Bookvii。
4。Ibid。
5。EmigrationReport，p。397。AppendixII。6。InproposingpresenttermstopersonsinclinedtosettleattheSwanRiver，theColonialOfficeformallydeclaresan
intentionofgrantinglandsafter1830，onsuchconditionsonly，asmaythenseemadviseabletoGovernment。
7。Park"sTravelsinAfrica，p。260
CHAP。II。
SECT。I。
LaborRents，orSerfRents。Thelandedproprietorsofrudenationsusuallydislike，andareunfitfor，thetaskofsuperintendinglabor，andiftheycanrely，
throughthereceiptofproducerents，onasupplyofnecessariessuitedtotheirpurposes，theyuniformlythrowuponthe
peasantthewholebusinessofcultivation。Buttheirbeingabletodothisinsecuritysupposesinthetenantsthemselves，some
skill，andhabitsofvoluntaryandregularlabor:theymustbetrust-worthytoo，toacertainextent。Thereis，however，apoint
intheprogressofcivilization，belowwhichthebodyofthepeopledonotpossessthesequalifications:when，thoughdriven
toagriculturebytheirnumbers，theystillpossessmanyofthequalitiesofthesavage；andarenotyetripefortheregular
paymentofproduceormoneyrents；becausetheirignorance，theirimpatienceoftoil，andtheirimprovidence，wouldexpose
theproprietortoconsiderabledangerofstarvation，ifhedependedontheirpunctualityforthesupportofhimself，andhishousehold。Howeveraversetotheemployment，theproprietorsmaybe，theymustinthisstageofsociety，takesomeshareinthe
burthenofconductingcultivation。Theymaycontrive，however，togetridofthetaskofraisingfoodforthelaborers，who
aretheinstrumentsofthatcultivation。Theyusuallysetasidefortheiruseaportionoftheestate，andleavethemtoextract
theirownsubsistencefromit，attheirownrisk。Theyexactasarentforthelandthusabandoned，acertainquantityoflabor，
tobeusedupontheremainingportionoftheestate，whichisretainedinthehandsoftheproprietor。Suchistheexpedient
whichseemsgenerallytohavesuggesteditselftotheownersofthesoil，whilethelaborershavebeeninthisstateofhalfcivilization，andwhilenocapitalistsyetexisted。IntheSocietyIslands，thechiefsallottotheirtenantsaboutsixtyacresoflandeach。Therentpaidfortheseconsistsofwork
doneforacertainnumberofdaysatthecallofthechiefonhisowndemesnefarm。(1)Theyareperhapstherudestpeople
amongwhomthismodeofoccupyingandcultivatingthesoilcanbeobserved；anditisinstructivetoremarkamongthese
IslandersoftheAntipodes，thenecessitiesoftheirpositiongivingbirthtoasystem，whichwasoncenearlyuniversalinEurope，andwhichstillprevailsoverthelargerportionofit。ArrangementssomewhatsimilartotheseexistinsomeofourWestIndianIslands，betweenthenegroesandtheownersoftheestatestowhichtheybelong。Butthepeoplebywhomlaborrentswereestablishedonthewidestscale，andwerecommunicatedtothevastcountriesin
whichtheydid，ordo，principallyprevail，werethenationsofEasternEurope，theinhabitantsofthedesertsofGermany，and
thewastesbeyondtheVistula。Someofthetribes，whoinvadedthelowerempire，hadbeguntoresortpartiallytoagricultureforsubsistencebeforetheperiodoftheirirruption，anditisprobablethatthissystemwaseventhennotunknowntothem；buthoweverthismayhavebeen，theycertainlyestablisheditmostextensivelythroughouttheirconquestsinWestern
Europe；andwhentheirownfastnesses，thewastesfromwhichtheyhadmigrated，becamemoreregularlypeopledand
settled，thiswasthemodeofcultivatingtheland，whichuniversallyprevailedthere。Itprevailstherestill。Intheirconquests
westwardoftheRhine，ittookforatimestrongholdofthehabitsofthepeopletowhomtheyintroducedit，hasleftdeep
tracesintheirlaws，andyetlingersinparticularspots；butfromthisportionofEurope，thepeculiarcircumstancesofsome
nations，andtheadvanceofcivilizationinall，haverepelledthesystem，whichhasgivenplacetootherformsoftherelation
betweenproprietorsandtenants。InthecountrieseastwardoftheRhineitisstillfoundparamount；notwhollyunbroken，and
shewingeverywheresymptomsofgradualorapproachingchange，butfashioningstilltheframeofsociety，andexercisinga
predominantinfluenceovertheindustryandfortunesofallranksofpeople。
Theselaborrentsmay，withsomelittleextensionoftheordinaryuseofthetermserf；beallcalledserfrents。AslabororserfrentshavegraduallyrecededfromtheWest，soitisonthewesternextremityofthecountriesinwhichthey
stillprevail，thattheirdecompositionisthemostadvanced。Toobservethem，therefore，intheircompletestate，wemustgo
atoncetotheeastofEurope，andbeginwithRussia，andmaytracethemthence，graduallydecayinginformandspirit
throughHungary，Livonia，Poland，Prussia，andGermany，totheRhine，onthebordersofwhichtheymeltawayinto
differentsystems，andarenolongertoberecognized。
SECTIONII。
OnLabororSerfRentsinRussia。InRussiathepeasants，whoaresettledonthesoil，receivefromtheproprietoraquantityofland，greatorsmall，ashis
discretionorconveniencedictate，fromwhichtheyextracttheirwages。Theyareboundtoworkonthedemesnesofthe
landownerthreedaysintheweek。Theobligationwouldbelight，wereitnotfortheresultsithasledto。InRussiathismode
ofoccupyingthesoilhasestablishedthecompletepersonalbondageofthepeasant:hehasbecome，withallhisfamilyand
descendants，theslaveofthelord。Suchtoohasbeentheresultofsimilarrelationsbetweentheproprietorandhistenants，
wherevertheyhaveprevailedamongsemi-barbarouspeopleandfeeblegeneralgovernments。(2)Promthecountrieswestward
ofRussiathesamestateofbondage，oncecommon，isdisappearingbydegrees。InRussia，asinitslaststronghold，itstillsubsistsentire。Itisnotdifficulttotracethestepsbywhichlaborrentspreparedsogenerallytheservileconditionofthepeasants，and
coveredEuropeduringthemiddleageswitharaceofpredialbonds-men。Arudepeopledependentupontheirownlaboror
theirallotmentfortheirsupport，wereoftenexposed，fromthefailureofthecropsortheravagesofwar，toutterdestitution。
Thelordwasusuallyable，outofhisstore-houses，toaffordthemsomerelief，whichtheyhadnomeansofrepayingbutby
additionallabor。Fromthisandothercauses，theserfdid，anddoes，perpetuallyowetohislordnearlythewholeofhis
time。(3)Besidesthis，theyweremainlydependentonhimforprotectionfromstrangersandfromeachother。Fromhis
domestictribunal，hesettledtheirdifferencesandpunishedtheirfaultswithanauthoritywhichthegeneralgovernmentwas
innoconditiontosupersede，andwhichbecameatlastsanctionedbyusageandequivalenttolaw。Thepatriarchalauthority
oftheHighlandchiefshadnoothersource。
Inthemitwasatoncedignifiedandmoderatedbysupposedtiesofblood。
Elsewhereitreceivednosuchmitigation。Theirtimeandtheirpersonsbeingthusabandonedtothewilloftheirsuperiors，
thetenantryhadnomeansofresistingfurtherencroachments。Oneofthemostgeneralseemstohavebeen，theestablishment
ofarightbywhichthelandlord，providingtheserfwithsubsistence，mightwithdrawhimaltogetherfromthesoilonwhich
hehadplacedhim，toemployhimelsewhereatpleasure。Thenfollowedanunderstandingthattheflightofaserffromthe
estateofhislandlord，employer，andjudge，wasanoffenceandaninjury。Thisoncesanctionedbylawandusage，thechains
oftheserfwererivetted，andhebecameaslave，thepropertyofamaster。InRussiaheissostill:butsuccessivemodificationshaveeverywhereelsere-endowedhimwithatleastsomeoftheprivilegesofafreeman。Thedescentofthepeasantstowardsactualservitudedidnotperhaps，ineverycase，followtheprecisetrackheremarked
out。ThenationswithwhomlaborrentsoriginatedinEuropewerefamiliarwithdomesticslaverybeforetheyresortedto
agricultureforsubsistence，andsomeoftheirfirsttenantsweredoubtlessalreadyslaved。Butwhenweobserve，nota
portionofthepeople，inastateofslavery，butthewholebodyofpeasantryinawhollyagriculturalnation，asinRussiaand
formerlyinHungary，itisthenimpossiblenottobelievethatsuchextensiveservitudehasclosedgraduallyroundtheirrace。
TheRussiansthemselvescontend，thatthebondageoftheirpeasantrywasnotcomplete，tillsolateasthereignofCzarBorisGodounoff，whomountedthethronein1603。(4)IntheGeorgianprovincesofRussia，theownerreceivesfromthepeasantsamixtureofproducerentsandlabor:theywork
forhimonlyonedayintheweekinsteadofthree，andpayoneseventhofthecropsraisedontheirallotments。(5)Withthis
andperhapsotherlocalexceptions，thebodyofRussianserfswhoareactualcultivators，paylaborrents，nominallyatthe
rateofthreedayslaborintheweek，fortheirallotments，butinfacttheirconditionhasdegeneratedintoastateofcomplete
personalbondage，andthedemandsoftheproprietor，thoughinfluencedbycustom，arereallylimitedonlybyhisown
forbearance。Themoneycommutationoftheselaborrents，whentheyarepermittedtomakeone，whichtheyverygenerally
are，iscalledlikethepaymentsfromthepersonalslaves，obrocorabroc，andiscompletelyarbitrary，andsettledbythemasteraccordingtohissuspicionsoftheirability。(6)ButeveninRussia，thebondageoftheserfs，althoughmoreentirethanelsewhere，isyet，asrespectsalargebody，perhaps
halfofthepeasantry，inastateofrapidchange。Thatchangehasoriginatedwiththegovernment。Theexistenceofvery
extensivecrowndomainsmayperhapsbeconsideredasanindicationofabackwardstateofcivilization。Inotherpartsof
Europe，theywillusuallybefoundsmallinproportiontotheadvanceofthepeopleinwealthandnumbers。Thedomainsof
theRussiansovereignareimmense，andperhapsmorethanequaltheestatesofallhissubjects。Thisfactisindicatedbythe
numberofroyalserfs:ofthese，in1782，tenmillionsandahalfbelongedtothecrown。
Toextractlaborrentsfromsucha
bodyofpeople，thatistoemploythem，astheyareemployedbysubjectsinraisingproduceforthebenefit，andunderthe
superintendence，oftheirowner，wasaworkclearlybeyondtheadministrativecapacityofanygovernment。Induced
thereforepartlybythenecessityofthecase，partly，wemaybelieve，byawisepolicy，theRussiangovernmenthasattempted
toestablishonthecrowndomainsadifferentsystemofcultivation，includinganalmosttotalabolitionoflaborrents，anda
voluntaryandveryconsiderablemodificationofthesovereign"spower，asowneroftheserfs。Thevillagesinhabitedbythe
peasantsofthecrownhavebeenformedintoasortofcorporations；thesurroundinglandsarecultivatedbythematavery
moderatefixedrentorabroc:theserfsmaysecurelyacquireforthemselvesandtransmittootherspersonalproperty，and
whatisamoreimportantprivilege，andonenotalwaysconcededtotheirclassinneighbouringcountriesofmoreliberal
institutions，(inHungaryforinstance)，theymaypurchaseorinheritland。(7)
Inthetribunalsinstitutedespeciallyforthe
managementoftheircorporations，twopeasants，chosenbythebody，haveaseatandvoicewiththeofficersofthe
emperor。(8)Buttherighttotheirpersonalserviceshasnotbeenwhollyabandoned。Theserfissofarattachedtothesoilas
tobeforbiddentoleavehisvillageunlesswithaspeciallicence，whichisonlygranted，whengrantedatall，foralimited
term。TheRussianmonarchshavemanufacturesandminesconductedontheirownaccount。Theserfsonthecrownlands
arestillliabletobetakenfromtheirhomesandemployedonthese。Theyarehiredoutoccasionallytotheownersofsuch
similarestablishmentsasitisthoughtpolitictoencourage；andinsomeoftheforeignprovincesunitedtoRussia，thoughnot
lately，itshouldseem，inRussiaproper，theyareliabletobesold，ortobegivenaway，orgrantedwiththesoilforaterm，to
individualswhomthecourtwishestoenrich。Couldthislargeportionofthepopulationoftheempirebethoroughly
emancipated，completelyfreedfromoppression，andenabledtocollectandpreservecapital，Russiawouldsoonhaveathird
estateandanefficientbodyofcultivators，fittedgraduallytobringintoactionhergreatterritorialresources。Thetenantson
theroyaldomainsalreadyappeartobe，onthewhole，(9)inaconditionsuperiortothatoftheserfsofindividuals，butthe
progressoftheirimprovementisretardedbycausesnotlikelysoontolosetheirinfluence。HoweverearnestlytheEmperors
ofRussiamayshakeoffthecharacterofownersofslaves，theywillevidentlybeobligedforsomegenerationstoretainthat
ofdespots，andthereissomedanger，thattheordinarydefectsoftheirformofgovernmentwillmartheirreallyhumane
effortsaslandedproprietors。TheofficersoftheRussiangovernmentareproverbiallyillpaid；oppressionandextortionstill
afflictthepeasantry，andtheconditionoftheserfsofthecrownissometimesevenworsethanthatoftheslavesoftheneighbouringnobility。(10)Inthemeantime，theinsensibilityforwhichthebodyoftheRussianpeasantryhavebeenrenowned，seemstobegivingway。
SoonaftertheaccessionofthepresentEmperor，manyofthetenantsofthecrownrefusedtopaytheirabrockorrents，and
theserfsofindividualstoperformtheiraccustomedlabor。Aproclamationappeared，reproachingthemwithentertaining
unreasonableexpectationsofbeingreleasedfromrentsandservicesaltogether，andthreateningthem，inastylewhichit
mustbeconfessedistrulyoriental，withseverepunishmentiftheyevenpetitionedtheCzaronsuchsubjectsagain。Butwe
mustnotjudgetheconductoftheRussiancourtbytheharshlanguageofaproclamationissuedonsuchanemergency。The
spiritinwhichtheCzarshavedealtwiththeirserfshashithertobeenevidentlypaternal。Theformoftheirgovernmentis
theoreticallybad；butRussiaoffersatpresentnomaterialsforforminganynotlikelytobeworse，andthegradual
improvementintheconditionofsuchapeople，howeverslowlyweseeitproceed，isprobably，afterall，saferinthehandsof
themonarch，thanitwouldbeintheirown，orinthoseoftheirmastersthenobles。
SECTIONIII。
OnLaborRentsinHungary。InHungary，thenoblesaloneareallowedtobecometheproprietorsofland，eitherbyinheritanceorpurchase。They
constituteaboutonepartintwenty-oneofapopulationofeightmillions。(11)Oftheotherinhabitants，agreatmajorityarepeasants；forin1777therewereonly30，921artizansinHungary，andtheirnumberissaidtobenotmuchincreased。(12)Thesepeasantsoccupyabouthalfthecultivatedsurfaceofthecountry，(13)andallpaylaborrents。TillthereignofMariaTheresa，theirsituationwasnearlysimilartothatoftheRussianserf。Theywereallattachedtothe
estatesonwhichtheywereborn，andsubjectedtoservicesandpaymentswhollyindefinite。ThatPrincesssettheexampleof
anearnestattempttoelevatetheircharacter，andimprovetheircircumstances；andtheexamplehasbeenfollowedinthe
neighbouringcountrieswithzealcertainly，ifnotalwayswithjudgmentorsuccess。Theresultsofherowneffortswere
extremelyimperfect，andnotalwaysfreefrommischief:butitmustberemembered，thatthoseeffortsweremuchcramped
bytheinfluencewhichtheHungarianconstitutionenabledtheproprietorstoexercise，inthwartingormodifyinghermeasuresfortheemancipationoftheirtenantry。Byanedictofhers，whichtheHungarianscalltheUrbarium，personalslaveryandattachmenttothesoilwereabolished，and
thepeasantsdeclaredtobe"hominesliberaetransmigrationis。"Ontheotherhand，theyweredeclaredmeretenantsatwill，
whomthelordathispleasuremightdismissfromtheestate。Butaninterestinthesoil，thoughdeniedtothemasindividuals，
wasattemptedtobesecuredtothemasabody。Thelandsoneachestate，beforeallottedtothemaintenanceofserfs，were
declaredtobelegallyconsecratedtothatpurposeforever。Theyweredividedintoportionsoffrom35to40Englishacres
each，calledSessions。(14)Thequantityoflaborduetotheproprietorforeachsession，wasfixedat104daysperannum。(15)Theproprietormightdividethesesessions，andgrantanyminuteportionofthemhepleasedtoapeasant；buthecould
stipulateforlaboronlyinproportiontothesizeoftheholding:forhalfasession52days，foraquarter26days，andsoproportionablyforsmallerquantities。TheurbariumofMariaTheresastillcontinuesthemagnachartaoftheHungarianserfs。Buttheauthorityoftheownersof
thesoiloverthepersonsandfortunesoftheirtenantryhasbeenveryimperfectlyabrogated:thenecessitiesofthepeasants
obligethemfrequentlytoresorttotheirlandlordsforloansoffood；theybecomeladenwithheavydebtstobedischargedby
labor。Alonglistofcustomarypaymentsofflax，poultry，&；c。arestilldue，whichswellthisaccount:theproprietorsretain
therightofemployingthematpleasure；payingthem，inlieuofsubsistence，aboutone-thirdoftheactualvalueoftheir
labor:(16)andlastly，theadministrationofjusticeisstillinthehandsofthenobles；(17)andoneofthefirstsightswhichstrikea
foreigneronapproachingtheirmansions，isasortoflowframe-workofposts，towhichaserfistiedwhenitisthoughtpropertoadministerthedisciplineofthewhip，foroffenceswhichdonotseemgraveenoughtodemandaformaltrial。(18)Butwhiletheregulationsoftheurbariumhavesecuredthusimperfectlytheinterestsandlibertyofthepeasant，theyare
extremelyembarrassingtotheproprietors。
Apartofeachestateisirrevocablydevotedtothemaintenanceofthelaborers，
andthatnotfixedinreferencetoitsextentandwants，butdecidedbythenumberofpeasantswhohappenedtobeonitat
thetimeoftheedict。Onsomeestates，asmightbeexpected，thesessionsdevotedtothepeasantrymaintainmorelaborers
thanarenowwanted。Thelaborrents，tothatextent，areworthnothingtotheproprietor，andunlesshehasanadjacent
estatetoemploytheserfsupon，hegetsnothingbuttheflax，poultry，andsmallproducepaymentstowhichtheyareliable。
Someestatesarewhollyoccupiedbyuselesslaborers；onotherstherearetoofew；andfromthemanytieswhichstill
connecttheserfandhislandlord，aninterchangebetweendifferentproprietorsisrare，whilefromtheunwillingnessofthe
peasantstoquittheirhold，suchasitis，uponthesoil，freelabor，isstillmoreso。Allthispartofthearrangementisevidently
clumsyandinexpedient:itisprobableitoriginatedinacompromisebetweenthewishoftheEmpresstosecurethepeasants
someinterestinthesoil，andthedislikeofthenoblestoestablishtheindependenceoftheirserfs。Thedietonlyconfirmed
theurbariumatfirstprovisionally，tillsomethingbettercouldbedevised。(19)ItappearsfromSchmalz，thatsimilarattempts
onthepartofthesovereign，tosecuretothepeasants，asabody，theoccupationofanylandoncecultivatedbythem，were
commonthroughoutGermany，andoriginatedintheexemptionofthelandscultivatedbythenoblesfromdirecttaxation:
whenlandoncegotintothehandsofthepeasant，itwasavailabletothepublicrevenue:hencemanylawsexistedindifferent
states，whichforbadeitsresumptionbytheproprietor，withoutsecuringadefiniteinterestinittoanyindividualtenant。Such
lawsnecessarilycreatedcomplicatedandanomalousinterestsinthesoil，andinmanyinstancesleftinnohandsanyauthorityoverit，whichcouldbeasufficientbasisforthemostobviousimprovements。(20)Suchasystem，however，asestablishedbytheUrbarium，isstillnearlyuniversalthroughoutHungary，andthereislittle
immediateprospectofachange。
SECTIONIV。
OnLaborRentsinPoland。ThePolishserfs，beforethepartition，seemtohavebeeninaconditionverysimilartothatofthoseofHungarybeforethe
edictofMariaTheresa，differinglittle，ifatall，fromthatoftheRussianslave；(21)butfromthedarkfateofPoland，thesystem
oflaborrentsnowpresentsitself，indifferentpartsofwhatonceformedthatkingdom，underaconsiderablevarietyof
modifications。Intheportionsseizedbythepartitioningpowers，thearrangementsbetweenlandlordandtenanthavebeen
influencedbytheverydifferentmeasuresadoptedbyeachintheirowndominions；whileinwhatmaynowbecalledPolandproper，whichbecameaRussianprovinceatalaterdate，asystemhasarisenwhichispeculiartoit。Whenin1791StanislausAugustus，andtheStateswerepreparingahopelessresistancetothethreatenedattackofRussia，a
newconstitution，adoptedtoolate，establishedthecompletepersonalfreedomofthepeasantry。Thisboonhasneverbeen
recalled。Butthisconstitutiondidnomoreforthem:itsecuredthemnointerestinthelandtheyoccupied:itdidnoteven
stipulate，liketheHungarianregulations，thatadefiniteportionofthesoilshouldbeunalienablydevotedtothemaintenance
oftheirclass；butitleftthemtoarrangetheircontractswiththelandownersastheycould。
Findingthattheirdependenceon
theproprietorsforsubsistenceremainedundiminished，thepeasantsshewednoverygratefulsenseoftheboonbestowed
uponthem:theyfearedthattheyshouldnowbedeprivedofallclaimupontheproprietorsforassistance，whencalamityor
infirmityovertookthem。Thislosstheythoughtmorethanbalancedthevalueofanincrease，tothematfirstmerelynominal，
intheirpoliticalrights。Itisonlysincetheyhavediscoveredthattheconnectionbetweenthemandtheownersoftheestates
onwhichtheyresideislittlealteredinpractice，andthattheiroldmastersverygenerallycontinue，fromexpediencyorhumanity，theoccasionalaidtheyformerlylentthem，thattheyhavebecomereconciledtotheirnewcharacteroffreemen。Butalthoughbestoweduponapeoplesofarsunkastobeignorantofitsvalue，thegiftoffreedomhasalreadydevelopedits
importanceamongthem。
SincethedateoftheemancipationofthePolishpeasantry，anotheralterationinthelawshastaken
awaytheexclusiverightofthenoblestobepossessorsofthesoil，andintroducedanewclassofproprietors。Thesehave
been，onthewhole，morediligentinpushingcultivationthantheirpredecessorsontheirestates，andtheirenterpriseshave
alreadycreatedanincreaseddemandforlabor。Theeffectsofthishaveshewnthemselvesintheonlymannerinwhich，ina
countrysooccupiedandsocultivated，theycouldshewthemselves，inincreasedwages，obtainedbyincreasedallotmentsoflandgrantedonthereserveoflesslabor，andwitheveryencouragementtothepeasantrytousetheirfreedom，andmigrate###第2章
OnLaborRentsinLivoniaandEsthonia。ThestateofthepeasantryinLivoniaisremarkable，becauseitpresentstheresultsofadeliberateexperimentonthebestmeansofgraduallyconvertingaserftenantryintoaraceoffreemen。TillthereignofAlexandertheconditionoftheLivonianpeasantrywassimilartothatoftheRussianslave。Theservile
conditionofthecultivatorshadattractedsomeattentionundertheEmpressCatharine，andshehadencouragedthemenof
lettersinherdominionstocommunicatetheirideasonthebestmeansofgraduallymodifyingit。M。deBoltin，M。de
Kaï；sarof，andM。deStroï；novaky，successivelywroteuponthesubject。TheworkofthelastwritteninPolishwastranslated
intoRussian:itenteredintoadetailedaccountofthemeasurespropertoprepareandforwardwhatwastreatedasagreat
andusefulreform。Norwerethesenotionsconfinedtoliterarymen，ortoindividuals。In1805thewholebodyofproprietors
inEsthoniaagreedamongthemselvesonsomepreliminaryregulationsforthepeasantryontheirestates，which，itwas
avowed，weremeanttopavethewaytotheirultimateemancipation。Theseregulationsreceivedaformalsanctionfromthe
Emperor。ThealterationsinLivoniabeganayearearlier，andseemtohaveoriginatedinmindsequallyalivetothe
importanceofachange，andtothepracticalreasonsforitsbeingeffectedgradually。
Theirobjectappearstohavebeen，to
elevatetheserfbydegrees，andwhilethatelevationwasinprogress，toretainconsiderablecontroloverhim，partlyforhis
ownadvantage，partlytosecuretheinterestsoftheproprietors。Thepersonallibertyatfirstconcededtothepeasantwas
muchlesscompletethanthatoftheHungarianandPole，forhewasstillattachedtotheglebe，andhadnopowerofchusing
hisemploymentorresidence。Butabenefitwasbestowedmoreimportantintheoutsetthanfreedomitself，topersonsso
whollydependantonthesoilforsubsistence；abenefitwhichhadbeenwithheldfromhiminHungaryandPoland:everyindividualpeasantwasinvestedwithasecureinterestintheallotmentoflandwhichhecultivated。TheedictoftheEmperorfinallylegalizingtheseregulationsappearedin1804。TheLivonianserfwasdeclaredthehereditary
farmerofthelandheoccupied。Therentwasfixedinlabor，tobeperformedonthedomainoftheproprietor。Itwastoleave
thepeasantmasterofatleasttwo-thirdsofhistime。Ifthislaborrentshouldatanytimebecommutedforamoneypayment，
theamountofthatpaymentwaslimitedandfixed，anditwasnevertobeincreased。Aleasewastobegrantedonthese
terms，irrevocable，andonlysubjecttoforfeitureincasetherentshouldbetwoyearsinarrear；andthenonlyafterthe
decisionofalegaltribunal，whichwastodirecttheleasetoberenewedtothenextheirofthedefaulter。Somerightsofcuttingbothfirewoodandtimberforbuilding，intheproprietorsforests，werealsoreservedtotheserf。Hewasenabledtoacquirepropertyinmoveablesorland，andtomarryathisowndiscretion。Withalltheseprivileges，however，lieremainsattachedtothesoil。Hecannolongerbesoldawayfromit，butheissoldwith
it，orratherthebenefitsarisingfromhiscompulsoryoccupationofhisallotmentaresoldwiththerestoftheestate:heissubjecttoacorrectionaldisciplineoffifteenlashes。Onthewhole，theseregulationsdocredittothegoodfeelingsandgoodsenseoftheframersofthem。Theemancipationof
theserfisincomplete；butitwouldhavebeenevidentlyrashtohaveabandonedatonceallcontrolovertheindustryofso
rudearace；onwhoseexertionsthesubsistenceoftheproprietorsthemselves，andthewholecultivationofthecountry，must
forsometimedepend。(23)Thesuccessfulresultstobelookedforfromsuchanexperimentcouldnotbeexpectedtoappearat
once；butitisunpleasanttoobservethelittleeffectapparentlyproducedinfifteenyears。
VonHalen，whotravelledthrough
Livoniain1819，observes，"AlongthehighroadthroughLivonia，arefoundatshortdistancesfilthypublichouses，calledin
thecountryRhartcharuas，beforethedoorsofwhichareusuallyseenamultitudeofwretchedcartsandsledgesbelongingto
thepeasants，whoaresogreatlyaddictedtobrandyandstrongliquors，thattheyspendwholehoursinthoseplaces，without
payingtheleastregardtotheirhorses，whichtheyleavethusexposedtotheinclemencyoftheweather，andwhich，with
themselves，belongtothegentlemenornoblemenofthecountry。Nothingprovessomuchthestateofbarbarisminwhich
thesemenaresunk，asthemannerinwhichtheyreceivedthedecreeissuedaboutthistime。Thesesavages，unwillingto
dependupontheirownexertionsforsupport，madealltheresistanceintheirpowertothatdecree，theexecutionofwhichwasatlengthentrustedtoanarmedforce。"(24)TheLivonianpeasants，therefore，receivedtheirnewprivilegesyetmoreungraciouslythanthePoles，thoughaccompanied
withthegiftofproperty，andsecuremeansofsubsistenceiftheychosetoexertthemselves。Subsequentlytheirdiscontent
appearstohavetakenadifferentturn。Theyaresaidtohaveconstitutedapartofthepeasantry，againstwhomthatedictof
theEmperorNicholaswasdirected，whichaccusestheserfsofwishingtothrowoffallrentsandservicesatonce。
SECTIONVI。OfLaborRentsinGermany。WeshallunderstandbetterthepresentstateoflaborrentsinGermany，ifwepreviouslyrecalltomindthedownward
progressofsimilarsystemsinothercountries，fromwhichtheyhavedisappearedgradually；becauseweshallthensee
distinctlythesuccessivestepsofthatslowdemolition，theprogressofwhichGermanynowinitsdifferentpartsexhibitsinmanyvariousstages。WemaytakeEnglandforsuchapreviousinstance。Thirteenhundredyearshaveelapsedsincethefinalestablishmentofthe
Saxons。EighthundredofthesehadpassedawayandtheNormanshadbeenfortwocenturiessettledhere，andaverylarge
proportionofthebodyofcultivatorswasstillpreciselyinthesituationoftheRussianserf。(25)Duringthenextthreehundred，
theunlimitedlaborrentspaidbythevilleinsforthelandsallottedtothemweregraduallycommutedfordefiniteservices，still
payableinkind；andtheyhadalegalrighttothehereditaryoccupationoftheircopyholds。Twohundredyearshavebarely
elapsedsincethechangetothisextentbecamequiteuniversal，orsincethepersonalbondageofthevilleinsceasedtoexist
amongus。Thelastclaimofvillenagerecordedinourcourtswasinthe15thofJamesI。1618。Instancesprobablyexisted
sometimeafterthis。Theultimatecessationoftherighttodemandtheirstipulatedservicesinkindhasbeensincebrought
about，silentlyandimperceptibly，notbypositivelaw；for，whenotherpersonalserviceswereabolishedattherestoration，thoseofcopyholderswereexceptedandreserved。(26)ThroughoutGermanysimilarchangesarenowtakingplace，ontheland；theyareperfectedperhapsnowhere，andinsome
largedistrictstheyexhibitthemselvesinverybackwardstages。Ashortdescriptionoftheconditionofonestatewillmake
thatofothersintelligible；allowancemustofcoursebemadeforanindefinitevarietyofmodificationsinthepracticeandphraseologyofdifferentdistricts。Thedomainlands，thosewhichinHungaryPolandandmanyGermanstatesarestillcultivatedbythenoblesthemselves，are
generallyinHanoverletforamoneyrenttopersonswhooccupythedomainasafarm，andhavethebenefitoftheservices
whichthepeasanttenantsareboundtoperform。Someoftheselargertenants，underthenameofAmtmen，exercisethe
importantterritorialjurisdiction，stillinvestedinthenobles，andkeptaliveanddistinctevenonthedemesnalpossessionsof
thecrown。(27)Theamtmenarenotusuallypracticalfarmersthemselves，butlawyersorofficersofgovernment，theonlyclasseswhichseemtopossesscapitalforsuchundertakings。Theyresidesometimesintowns，andemploystewardsorbailiffstolookaftertheirverylargefarms。(28)ThesestewardsarethebestpracticalfarmersinGermany，areusuallywell
educated(oftenintheagriculturalinstitutions)；andareinferioringeneralandprofessionalknowledgetonosetofcultivatorsintheworld。ItwouldbewellforthestrengthandprosperityofGermany，ifitssoilwereuniversallyundersuchmanagement。Butbyfar
thelargerproportion，ithasbeenlooselysaidfourfifths，isoccupiedbyaclassofmencalledcollectivelyBauers。These，
underanothername，aretheserfs，whoinPoland，Hungary，andRussia，formthelaboringtenantryofthenobles。Whenthe
lawsarerecollected，(passedasbeforeremarkedforfiscalpurposes)whichinmanyGermanstatesforbadethecultivationby
theproprietorofanylandwhichhadoncebeeninthehandsofabauer，thespreadofthisorderandtheproportionofthe
landoccupiedbythemwillnotappearextraordinary。InsomepartsofHanoverthesemennowpresentthemselvesintwo
distinctclasses，withavarietyofsubdivisions。TheyarecalledLeibeigenersandMeyers。Theleibeigenersareinthestateof
theEnglishvilleins，whenhislaborrenthadceasedtobearbitrary，butwasstillpaidinkind，afterhishereditaryclaimtohis
allotmenthadbeenrecognized。Theleibeigenerpaysalaborrent，inkind，andcultivatesthelandsofthelandlord，fora
certainnumberofdaysintheyear；bringshomethelord"swood，performsotherserviceswhencalledupon，andissubjected
tosomemostburthensomeandvexatiousrestrictionsastothemodeofcroppinghisland，whichmustbesoarrangedasto
leaveonethirdalwaysinfallow，fortheproprietor"sflockstorangeover。Butstilltheconditionsonwhichheholdstheland
arefixed；anditdescendstohischildren。HeismuchinthepositioninwhichtheLivonianproprietorshavelatelyplacedtheirserftenants，exceptthatheisnottiedtothesoil。Themeyertenantisabauerwhoselaborrentshavebeencommutedformoneyoracornrent，andinsomecasesfora
definiteportionofthecrops:thoughheisstillliabletosometriflingservices。Theproprietorcannotraisetherent，norcan
herefusetorenewthelease，unlesstheheirbeanidiot，ortherentinarrear:butasthistenureinmanyinstancesismodern，
therentoftenamountstonearlythefullvalueoftheland。Thistenureisgraduallydisplacingthatoftheleibeigeners，andthe
tenantunderitismuchinthepositionoftheEnglishcopyholder，whenhehadceasedtoperformservicesinkind，andbefore
hisquitrentshadbecomeamerenominalpayment。Themeyerpaysafineonalienation。
Insomecasesthewholeofanestateisoccupiedbymeyersandleibeigeners，andtheproprietorhasnodomainlandatall。ThebauersthroughoutGermanyarenearlyallfree:chainedbymanytiestothesoil，theyarenolongerthepropertyofits
proprietors，orlegallyconfinedtothespottheycultivate。Buttheyhavegainedthisfreedom，not，asinEngland，bythe
gradualwearingoutoftheirchains，butbythedetermined
exertionoftheirsovereigns。Awoman，SophiaMagdalenaof
Denmark，gave，in1761，oneoftheearliestexamplesofthisspirit。Between1770and1790，itwasfollowedbythe
MargraveofBadenandotherminorprinces。In1781，JosephII。abolishedslaveryintheGermandominionsofAustria。Since1810ithasceasedinPrussia，andverylatelyinMecklenburg。(29)ThehigherclasseshavepartakenlargelyformanygenerationsofthegeneralcivilizationofEurope。Totheirlothingatthe
degradedconditionoftheirinferiors，thelatteroweanemancipationfrompersonalthraldom，ofwhichinsomecasesthey
hardlyyetfeelthefullvalue。Atthemomentinwhichtheybecamefreementheybecomeinsomeinstancessmall
proprietors，subjecttoaperpetualrentcharge。TotheirforcibleinvestmentwiththischaracterinPrussia，weshallhereafter
haveoccasiontoadvert。
SECTIONVII。HavingnowtracedthesystemoflaborrentsfromRussiatotheRhine，(30)wemayquitit。Fragmentsofitindeedstillsubsist
tothewestwardoftheRhine；therelicsforthemostpartofastormandinundation，whichhavepassedoverandaway；but
theyarethinlyscattered，andceasetogiveanypeculiarformandcomplexiontotherelationsbetweenthedifferentordersofsociety。Ofthesefragmentshowever，oneofthemostinterestingtous，subsists，underaveryprimitiveform，inacornerofourown
island。InthenorthernHighlands，thechiefseemsnevertohavebeenabletointroduceeitherproduceormoneyrents，
exclusively，thatis，totrusthispeoplewiththetaskofproducingsubsistenceforhimselfandhishouseholds。Eachchief
thereforekeptinhishandsaconsiderabledomain；theremainderofhiscountrywasparcelledoutamongthetacksmenor
inferiorgentryoftheclan，andtheseagaindivideditamongaraceoftenants，whopaida
largeproportionofthestipulated
rentinlabor，poultry，eggs，andarticlesofdomesticproduce，exactlysumlartothosewhichformapartoftheduesofthe
Hungarianpeasant。Intheirrentrolls，servitudeisincludedasaprominentandimportantarticle。Theinterestofthe
proprietorshasledthem，since1745，tosubstituteforthisraceoftenantry，extensivesheepfarmers。Thecultivationofthe
oldtenantryappearstohavebeenslothful，ignorant，andinefficient，andtheirsituationextremelymiserable:butstillthese
northernserfs，whosespirithadneverbeensubduedbypersonalbondage，clungfondlytotheirhomes，andhavebeenremoved，weknow，onlybyadifficultandpainfulprocess。TheagentoftheMarquisofStaffordhaspublishedanaccountofthechangesnowtakingplaceinSutherland，which
containsaveryinterestingpictureofthehabits，character，andcircumstancesthissystemhadproducedthere。(31)Itslast
relicsarehoweverfastwearingaway，andwhenafewleasestoexistingtacksmenhaveexpired，laborrentswillfinallydisappearfromGreatBritain。IthasbeencommontospeakoftheservicesduefromserfsthroughoutEuropeasfeudalservices，andoftherelation
betweenthemandtheproprietorsaspartofthefeudalsystem。Thisisbynomeanscorrect。Thefeudaltiesoriginatedina
planofmilitarydefence，madenecessarybythecircumstances，andcongenialtothehabits，ofthebarbarianswhohad
quarteredthemselvesinWesternEurope。Thegranterofafeuddeliberatelydivestedhimselfoncertainspecifiedconditions，
ofallrighttothepossessionofthelandwhichheabandonedtohisvassal。
Theobjectinlaborrentswasproducealone:they
aroseinEuropeasintheSocietyIslands，fromamodeofcultivationwhichtherudenessofthepeoplemadenecessary，if
anyrentatallwastobeexactedfromthem:andtheproprietorneverdeliberatelydivestedhimselfoftherightofresuming，
athispleasure，thepossessionoftheallotmentsoccupiedbyhisserfs；thoughusageandprescriptionpermitted，inthecourse
ofages，aclaimtohereditaryoccupationontheirparttoestablishitself。Thefeudalsystem，withitsschemeofmilitary
service，andnicelygraduatedscaleoffealtyandlimitedobedience，nevermademuchwaytotheeastofPrussia。Butitis
preciselyinthoseeasternpartsofEurope，thatlaborrentshaveprevailedthemostwidelyandthelongest。Itwouldnot
indeedbedifficulttoshew，werethistheplaceforit，thatthemultiplicationofthefeudalvassalswhowerefreemenbyvirtue
oftheirtenureandtheirswords，preventedlaborrentsfromeverprevailingsoexclusivelyoverthesurfaceofwestern
Europe，astheyhavealwaysprevailed，anddonowprevail，overitseasterndivision。
SECTIONVIII。
SummaryofSerfRents。Wehaveobservedserfrents，inthedifferentcountriesinwhichtheystillprevail，andastheyhavebeenvariouslyaffectedby
timeandcircumstances。Itwillbeconvenient，perhapstorecallinashortsummarythemostmarkedfeaturescommontothe
systeminallitsmodifications，andtocollectintooneviewthegeneralprinciplessuggestedbythefactstowhichwehave
referred。Thisplanweshallpursuewiththeotherdivisionsofpeasantrents，aswesuccessivelyarriveatthem。
DependenceofWagesonRents。Themostmarkedfeatureofasystemofserfrents，isonewhichithasincommonwithalltheformsofpeasantrents；and
that"is，thestrictconnexionitcreatesbetweenthewagesoflaborandrents。Theserfsconstitutethegreatbodyoflaborers
ineasternEurope。Therealwagesoftheserf，thewealthheannuallyconsumes，dependonwhatheisabletoextractfrom
hisallotmentofland；andthisagaindepends，partlyonitsextentandfertility，partlyonthecultureheisabletobestowupon
it。Butthelaborhecanexertforhisownpurposesislimitedbythatwhichheyieldsasarenttohislandlord。Thisvariesof
courseindifferentcountries，andoccasionallyfromtimetotimeinthesamecountry，sometimesdirectlyandavowedly，
sometimesindirectlyandalmostinsensibly。ThusinHungary，thenumberofdayslabornominallyduefromthepeasantsfor
eachsessionofland，isdoubledinpracticebythecommutationintolaborofmanyotherdues，alltrifling，andsomevery
indefinite。Inmostplacestoo，theauthorityofthelandlordenableshim，atveryinadequateprices，tocommand，inaddition
tothelaborformallyduetohim，asmuchofthepeasant"stimeandexertionsashepleases。Whereclaimsuponhistimearethusmultiplied，thegroundoftheserfmustbeimperfectlytilled，andafteracertainpoint，witheachadvanceintheexactions
ofthelandlord，theproduceofthepeasant"sallotment，hisrealwages，mustbecomeless。Tounderstand，then，theconditionoftheserflaborersandthecauseswhichdeterminetheactualamountoftheirwages，a
detailedaccountisnecessaryoftheircontractwiththeproprietors，andofthemannerinwhichthatcontractispractically
interpretedandenforced。Thisactiveinfluenceofthenatureandamountoftherentstheypayontherevenuesandcondition
ofthelabouringclass，isoneofthemostimportanteffectsoftheexistenceofasystemoflaborrents。Weshallfindhowever
thesameeffect，producedinasomewhatdifferentmanner，characterizingpeasantrentsinalltheirforms。
InefficiencyofAgriculturalLabor。Thenextprominentfeatureofasystemoflabororserfrents，ispeculiartothatformoftenancy:itis，itssingulareffectindegradingtheindustrioushabitsofthelaborers，andmakingtheminefficientinstrumentsofcultivation。Thepeasantwhodependsforhisfooduponhislaborinhisownallotmentofground，andisyetliabletobecalledawayat
thediscretionandconvenienceofanotherpersontoworkuponotherlands，intheproduceofwhichheisnottoshare，is
naturallyareluctantlaborer。Whenlongprescriptionhasengenderedafeeling，thatheisacoproprietor，atleast，inthespot
ofgroundwhichheoccupies，thenthisreluctancetobecalledfromthecareofittoperformhistaskofforcedlabor
elsewhere，isheightenedbyavaguesenseofoppression，andbecomesmoredoggedandsullen。Fromsuchmenwhohave
nomotiveforexertion，butthefearofthelash，strenuouslaborisnottobeexpected。Accordingly，theexceedingworthlessnessofserflaborisbeginningtobethoroughlyunderstoodinallthosepartsofEuropeinwhichitprevails。TheRussians，orratherthose
GermanwriterswhohaveobservedthemannersandhabitsofRussia，statesomestrongfacts
onthispoint。TwoMiddlesexmowers，theysay，willmowinadayasmuchgrassassixRussianserfs，andinspiteofthe
dearnessofprovisionsinEngland，andtheircheapnessinRussia，themowingaquantityofhaywhichwouldcostanEnglish
farmerhalfacopeck，willcostaRussianproprietorthreeorfourcopecks。(32)ThePrussiancounsellorofstateJacobis
consideredtohaveproved，thatinRussia，whereeverythingischeap，thelaborofaserfisdoublyasexpensiveasthatofa
laborerinEngland。(33)Mr。SchmalzgivesastartlingaccountoftheunproductivenessofserflaborinPrussia，fromhisown
knowledgeandobservation。(34)InAustria，itisdistinctlystated，thatthelaborofaserfisequaltoonlyonethirdofthatofa
freehiredlaborer。Thiscalculation，madeinanAbleworkonAgriculture(withsomeextractsfromwhichIhavebeen
favored)，isappliedtothepracticalpurposeofdecidingonthenumberoflaborersnecessarytocultivateanestateofagiven
magnitude。Sopalpableindeedaretheilleffectsoflaborrentsontheindustryoftheagriculturalpopulation，thatinAustria
itself，whereproposalsforchangesofanykinddonotreadilymaketheirway，schemesandplansforthecommutationoflaborrentsareaspopularasinthemorestirringGermanprovincesofthenorth。Laborrentshaveanotherbadeffectonthenationalindustry:theindolenceandcarelessnessoftheserfsareapttocorrupt
thefreelaborerswhomaycomeincontactwiththem。"Theexistenceofforcedlabor，"saysSchmalz，wholivedinthemidst
ofit，"habituatesmentoindolence；everywheretheworkdonebyforcedlaborisilldone:whereveritprevails，daylaborers
andevendomesticservantsperformtheirworkill。"(35)Astrikingexampleofthemischievousinfluenceofthehabitsformed
bytheselaborrents，occurredlatelyinthenorthofGermany。Anewroadisatthistimemaking，whichistoconnect
HamburghandtheElbe，withBerlin；itpassesoverthesterilesandsofwhichsomuchofthenorthofGermanyconsists，and
thematerialsforitaresuppliedbythoseisolatedblocksofgranite，ofwhichthepresenceon
thesurfaceofthosesands
formsanotoriousgeologicalpuzzle。Theseblocks，transportedtothelineofroad，arebrokentothepropersizeby
workmen，someofwhomarePrussianfreelaborers，othersleibeigenersoftheMecklenburgterritory，throughapartof
whichtheroadpasses。Theyarepaidastipulatedsumforbreakingacertainquantity，andallarepaidalike。Yetthe
leibeigenerscouldnotatfirstbeprevailedupontobreakmorethanonethirdofthequantitywhichformed。theordinarytask
ofthePrussians。Themenweremixed，inthehopethattheexampleandthegainsofthemoreindustrious，wouldanimate
thesluggish。Acontraryeffectfollowed；theleibeigenersdidnotimprove，buttheexertionsoftheotherlaborerssensibly
slackened，andatthetimemyinformant(theEnglishengineerwhosuperintendedtheroad)wasspeakingtome，themenwereagainatworkinseparategangs，carefullykeptasunder。InPrussia，before1811，twothirdsofthewholepopulationconsistedofleibeigeners，orofanenslavedserftenantry，inayet
morebackwardstate。(36)InotherpartsofeasternandnorthernEurope，similarclassescomposeayetlargerproportionof
thepeople。Upontheirhands，eitherasprincipals，orasthemostessentialinstruments，reststhetaskofmakingthesoil
productive，theonlyspeciesofindustryyetcarriedontoanygreatextent。Theinefficiencyofthislargeportionofthe
productivelaborersofthecommunity，theirdisliketosteadyexertionswhenworkingforothers，theirwantofskill，means，
andenergy，whenemployedontheirownallotments，musthaveadisastrousinfluenceontheannualproduceofthelandand
laboroftheirterritory，andtendtokeeptheircountryinastateofcomparativepovertyandpoliticalfeebleness；whichgreat
extent，andthecheapnessofhumanlaborandlifeformilitarypurposes，haveonlypartiallybalanced。
InefficientSuperintendenceofLabor。Thenextpeculiarityofasystemoflaborrentsveryconsiderablyaggravatesthebadeffectsofthatinefficiency，whichseems
theinseparablecharacteristicofthe，laborofserfs。Thispeculiarityisthelaxsuperintendence，theimperfectassistanceofthe
landedproprietors；whoarenecessarily，intheircharacterofcultivatorsoftheirowndomains，theonlyguidesanddirectorsoftheindustryoftheagriculturalpopulation。TheRussian，Polish，Hungarian，orGermannobles，elevated，whennotcorrupted，bytheprivilegesandhabitsoftheirorder，
haveseldominclinationtobestowattentiononthedetailofthelaborsofhusbandry；andperhapsyetmoreseldomthemeans
ofsavingcapitalandusingit。(37)Seedproducedfromtheestateissownbythelaborofthetenants，whoinduetimegather
theharvestintothebarnsoftheproprietor。Thisprocessisrepeatedinaslovenlymanner，tillthelandisexceedingly
impoverished，(38)andiscontinuedwhilethereisaprospectofthesmallestgain。Theseoperationsarecontrivedanddirectedasclumsilyandnegligentlyastheyareexecuted。Thereareexceptionsnodoubt；afewindividualproprietorsdevotethemselveswithzealtotheimprovementofagriculture。
Thismayalwaysbeexpected。WhenasimilarraceoftenantryoccupiedEngland，RobertdeRubs，thechamberlainofthe
Conqueror，distinguishedhimselfbyimprovementswhichheintroduceduponhisestates，ofsufficientconsequencetoinduce
thehistoriansoftheagetohanddownhisnametoposterity，asapublicbenefactor。Onlookingnowatthedifferent
countriesofeasternEurope，weshallfindasprinklingofmenwhoaretheRobertdeRulos"oftheirday；butitwouldbe
hopelessandirrationaltoexpect，thataraceofnobleproprietors，fencedroundwithprivilegesanddignity，andattractedto
militaryandpoliticalpursuitsbytheadvantagesandhabitsoftheirstation，shouldeverbecomeattentivecultivatorsasabody。Thereremainsforthemtheexpedientofeducatingandemployingableandscientificmanagers，andonafewofthelarge
estates，belongingtorichproprietors，thisisverycarefullyandwelldone。Butthetrainingandemployingsuchaclassof
men，isfirstveryexpensive，andisthennearlyuselessunlesstheycanbesuppliedfreelywithcapitalasthemeansofcarrying
intoeffecttheimprovedsystemswhichtheyhavebeentaught。Thesecircumstancesconfinetonarrowlimitsthenumberof
estatesconductedbysuchadescriptionofmanagers；andtakinglargedistrictsonlyintoaccount，thepaucityofmindand
skill，steadilyappliedtoagriculture，andthepoorusewhichismadeofthereluctantlaborofthepeasantry，furnishanother
strikingfeatureofthesystemofcultivationbyaserftenantry。
SmallnumbersofindependentClasses。Thetwocircumstancesjustpointedout，theindolenceofthelaborers，andtheinefficiencyofthedirectorsoflabor，are
causeswhichmaketheagriculturalproduceofcountriescultivatedbyserfs，extremelysmallwhencomparedwiththeir
extent。Itfollowsthat，evenwherethewholeoftherawproduceraisedisconsumedathome(whichfromothercausesitrarelyis)，still，afterthepeasantryhavebeenfed，thenumbersofthenon-agriculturalclassesmaintained，aresmall。WehaveseenthatinPrussiatwothirdsofthewholepopulationwerebauers:inotherpartsoftheeastofEurope，the
numbersoftheclassesnotconnectedwithagricultureareyetsmaller，comparedwiththeextentoftheirterritory，orthe
grossamountoftheirpopulation。InHungary，wehaveobservedthattherewerebutthirtythousandartizanswhenthere
wereeightmillionsofinhabitants，andnowheredoesthenumberoftheclasswhichisunconnectedwiththesoilreachthe
sizeatwhichitmaybeobservedincountriescultivatedunderbettersystems。
AuthorityofLandlordsoverTenants。Anothermarkedandimportanteffectofasystemoflaborrents，istheconstantcoercionwhichisnecessarytomakeittoany
extentefficient，andthearbitraryauthoritythiscircumstancethrowsintothehandsofthelandlords，underanypossible
modificationsofthetenure。WehaveseenthatatonestageoftheirprogressthroughoutEurope，theserfshavealmost
universallybeenatonetimeactualslaves。Thisextremestateofthingshasindeedchanged，exceptinRussiaalone。Butthe
authorityoftheproprietorsovertheserfs，exercisedthroughthemediumofjudicialtribunals，inwhichthenoblesarethe
judges，hasnotceasedtobeextremelyarbitrary。Whilethesystemoflaborrentsexiststoanypracticalpurpose，thiscan
hardlybeotherwise。Whilelargedomainsarecultivatedbyagriculturallabor，duefromanumeroustenantry，thenecessary
workmustbedelayed，embarrassed，andfrequentlyaltogethersuspended，ifalaw-suit
beforeindependenttribunalswerethe
onlymodeofsettlingadisputewithareluctantorrefractorylaborer。(39)Hencethejudicialpowerhasrarely，ifever，been
abandonedbytheproprietors，evenwherethepersonalfreedomoftheserfhasbeenrecognized。TheHungariannoblestill
exercisescriminalandciviljurisdictionbyhisofficers。EveninGermany，wheretheauthorityofthegeneralgovernmenthas
mademoreway，andwherethesystemoflaborrentsisinamoreadvancedstageofdecomposition，thewholecountrytill
veryrecentlywascoveredbydomainialtribunals，whichwereatonetimedividedandmultiplied。tosuchexcess，thatthe
jurisdictionofsomeofthemissaidtohavecomprehendedonlyadwelling-house，andasmuchgroundasisfoundwithinthe
linemarkedbythewater-dripfromtheeaves。(40)Ontheestatesofthesovereignandoflargeproprietors，thisauthorityisusuallyadministeredbytheAmtmen，who，eitherastenantsorstewards，havechargeofthedomain。InthewestofEurope，asinFranceforinstance，theprideofthenobility，andtheconnivanceorindolenceofthe
government，keptthesetribunalsinexistence，longafterthealteredrelationsofthecultivatorsandtheirlandlordshadmade
themuseless:butintheeastofEuropeitwouldreallybedifficulttodispensewiththem:andwherethesovereignsarealive
totheinconvenienceofthesepettytribunals(whichtheydonotseemalwaystobe)，theywillhardlyventureondepriving
theproprietorsofallsummaryauthorityovertheirtenantry，whileanyconsiderableportionoftheirterritoryismade
productivebytheuseoflaborrentsalone。Sonaturallydoestheusefulnessofthisjurisdictionoftheproprietorsaccompany
theexistenceoflaborrents，thatIperceivebythepublicpapers，insomepartsoftheDanishdominions，whereageneral
commutationoftheserentshastakenplace，theproprietorshavemadeavoluntaryoffertothecrownofabandoningtheirjudicialauthorityaltogether。Theserf，however，whoisliabletohaveclaimsuponhistimeandlaborinterpreted，andsummarilyenforced，bytheperson
whomakesthoseclaims，canneverbemorethanhalfafreeman，evenwhenhehasceasedtobewhollyaslave。
ThePowerandInfluenceoftheAristocracy。Thesubjectionoftheserfstotheproprietors，underallthemodificationsoftheirtenure，throwsinevitablygreatpowerand
influenceintothebandsofthelandedbody。Thelandholdersthemselvesmayenjoyverydifferentmeasuresofpolitical
freedom。Wemayobservethem，whollyunawedbythecrown，exercisingthewildlicenceofthePolishnobility；or，when
unitedwithotherstatesunderapowerfulsovereign，asinthecaseofHungary，stillabletomaintaintheprivilegesoftheir
orderwithadegreeofindependencewhichthegovernmentfeelsitwouldbeimpolitictoprovoke，eventhoughitwere
possibletooverwhelmit:orwemayseethem，asinRussia，socircumstanced，thatlegalbounds
tothepowerofthe
sovereignareunthoughtof。Stillinallthesedifferentcasesthepowerofthearistocracyoverthemassofthepeoplecreates
amoralinfluence，whichmustbefeltbythegeneralgovernment，and，ifnotobeyed，musttosomeextentbeattendedto。
Fromthisinfluence，eventheabsolutegovernmentoftheRussianEmperorreceivesanunacknowledgedbutpowerfulcheck，
sufficienttodistinguishitfromanAsiaticdespotism，toensureawholesomedominiontoformsandusages，andtoprescribe
decencyandlimitseventocapriceandinjustice。Amidstthemischiefsincidenttothismodeofoccupyingthesoil，this
politicaleffectmustbedistinguishedasbeing，whenreactingonastronggeneralgovernment，thesourceofbenefitstothe
peoplewhichareimportantthoughimperfect。IthasformanycenturiesstavedoffunlimiteddespotismfromalargeportionofEurope。Asthegeneralgovernmentbecomesfeeble，theinfluenceofsuchanaristocracymaybeexpectedofcoursetoshewitself
moreactiveanddominant；andthentherearedoubtlessinstancesofitsassumingtheformofanationalevil。
WantofPopularInfluenceinthePoliticalConstitutionofsuchCountries。Thesmallnumbersandsmallimportanceoftheclasseswhoareindependentofthesoil，theabsenceonthesoilitselfofany
classlikeourfarmers，theabjectdependenceoftheserfsontheproprietors，makeanyrealinfluenceofathirdestateinthe
constitutionofcountriesinwhichlaborrentsprevailutterlynugatory。Thegovernmentofsuchcountriesmustbesharedby
thesovereignandthearistocracy:itmaybesharedveryunequally；theymaycontroleachotherindifferentdegrees；baton
theirjointauthorityalonethepublicpowermustrest。Tracingbackthehistoryofourowncountryweobserve，thatwhilea
similarsystemprevailedinEngland，theabsenceofanyefficientthirdestate，madeourgovernmentarudemixtureof
monarchyandalandedaristocracy，strugglingfiercely，andeachthreateningtoextinguishtheotherinitsturn。Itisthevery
samewantofathirdestate，whichmakesitsodifficulttoestablishinmanycontinentalnations，thoseimitationsoftheactual
EnglishConstitution，whichwehaveseenoflatefrequentlyattempted。BeforethepeopleofeasternEuropecanhave
governments，ofwhichthespringsandweightsreallyresemblethoseoftheEnglish，aspaceoftimemustelapsesufficientto
introduceverydifferentingredientsintotheirsocialelements。Tillthen，wemayexpecttoseeyetmorewell-meantattempts
ofsovereignsandnoblesendindisappointment。Andwhensocietyhasundergonethenecessarychange，serfrents，wemay
venturetopredict，willhavebeensuperseded，andwillhaveceasedtoexist:exceptperhapsinsomeobsoleteshapesand
names，fromwhich，asinthecaseofthecopyholdsofEngland，alllifeandpowerhavedeparted。
WhatdeterminestheAmountofLaborRents。Thevalueofserforlaborrents，theadvantageswhichtheproprietorderivesfromthelandsallottedtotheserfs，depend
partlyuponthequantityoflaborexacted，andpartlyupontheskillusedinapplyingit。Theproprietor，therefore，may
increasetherentofthelandheldbyhisserfs，eitherbyexactingmorelaborfromthem，orbyusingtheirlabormoreefficiently。Ifmorelaborisexactedfromtheserf，heisinfactthrustfartherdownwardsinthescaleofcomfortandrespectability；his
exertionsbecomemorereluctant，morelanguid，andinefficient；theproprietorgainslittlebyhisincreasedservices；the
communitygainsnothingbytheriseofrents；forifthelandsheldbytheproprietorsbebettertilledbytheadditionalculture
bestoweduponthem，thoseheldbytheserfsmustbeworsetilledwhenlaboriswithdrawnfromthem。Thesecondmodeof
increasingtherentsofthelandsheldbytheserfs，theusingthelaborofthetenantrymoreskilfullyandefficiently，isattended
bynodisadvantages。Itleadstoanunquestionableaugmentationoftherevenuesofthenation。Thelandsheldbythe
proprietorsproducemore，thoseheldbytheserfsdonotproduceless。Buttheunfitnessoftheproprietors，asabody，to
advancethescienceofagriculture，orimprovetheconductofitsdetails，makesthismodeofincreasingtherentsderived
fromtheLandswhichtheserfshold，rare。Itwouldbevisionarytocountuponitasthesourceofanygeneralimprovement
intherevenuesofthelandedclass。
AchangefromLaborRentstoProduceRentsalwaysdesirable。Theillusorynatureofallattemptstoincreaselaborrentsbyexactingmoreandmorelaborfromtheserfs，andthe
repugnanceoftheproprietors，asabody，tothetaskofincreasingtheirrevenuebythebetterapplicationofthelabordueto
them，makeusconcludethatthesubstitutionofproduceormoneyrentsistheonlystepbywhichtheinterestsofthe
landlordsofserfscanbesubstantiallyandpermanentlypromoted。Itisimpossibletocastaneyeonwhatispassinginthe
eastofEuropewithoutseeinghowdeeplythisisfeltbytheproprietorsthemselves。Theirksomenessofthetaskof
superintendingtheoperationsofagriculture，theuncertaintyoftheirreturns，andthe
burthensomenatureoftheirconnexion
withtheirtenantry，makethemeverywhereanxiousforachange。Tothesemotiveswemustaddfirst，thegradualincrease
insomedistrictsoftheprescriptiverightsoftheserfstothehereditarypossessionoftheirallotments；whichmakesthem
moreunmanageableandlessprofitabletenants；andthentheexampleofwesternEurope，withwhichtheproprietorsofits
easterndivisionarefamiliarlyacquainted；andwhichpresentstothemaraceoflandlordsfreedfromalmostallthevexations
andembarrassmentswithwhichthemanagementoftheirownestatesisencumbered。Inthedesireoftheproprietorsfora