第5章

ThemostseriousofallthesestrugglesintheborderStates，however，wasthatwhichtookplaceinMissouri，where，owingtothestrengthofbothfactionsandtheirpromptnessinorganizing，realwarbeganimmediately。AUnionarmyledbyGeneralNathanielLyonattackedtheConfederateswithgreatspiritatWilson"sCreekbutwasbeatenbackinafierceandbloodybattleinwhichtheirleaderwaskilled。

EvenbeforetheseeventsFremonthadbeenappointedtochiefcommandinMissouri，andhereheatoncebeganastrangecourseofdawdlingandposing。Hismilitarycareermustbelefttothemilitaryhistorians——whohavenotrankedhimamongthegreatgenerals。Civilhistoryaccuseshim，ifnotofusinghisnewpositiontomakeillegitimateprofits，atleastofshowingrecklessfavoritismtowardthosewhodid。ItishardlyunfairtosaythatLincoln，inbearingwithFremontaslongashedid，showedatouchofamiableweakness；andyet，itmustbeacknowledgedthatthePresidentknewthatthecountrywasinadangerousmood，thatFremontwasimmenselypopular，andthatanychangemightbemisunderstood。ThoughLincolnhatedtoappearanythingbutafriendtoafallenpoliticalrival，hewasatlastforcedtoact。FraudsingovernmentcontractsatSt。Louiswereapublicscandal，andthereputationofthegovernmenthadtobesavedbytheremovalofFremontinNovember，1861。Asanimmediateconsequenceofthisactiontheoverstrainednervesofgreatnumbersofpeoplesnapped。

Fremont"spersonalfollowers，aswellastheabolitionistswhomhehadactivelysupportedwhileincommandinMissouri，andallthatvastcrowdofexcitablepeoplewhoareunabletostandsilentunderstrain，clamoredagainstLincolninthewildestandmostabsurdvein。Hewasaccusedofbeinga"dictator"；hewascalledan"imbecile"；heoughttobeimpeached，andanewparty，withFremontasitsleader，shouldbeformedtoprosecutethewar。ButthroughallthisclamorLincolnkepthispeaceandlettheheathenrage。

Towardtheendoftheyear，popularrageturnedsuddenlyonCameron，who，asSecretaryofWar，hadtakenanactivebutproperpartintheinvestigationofFremont"sconduct。Itwasoneofthosetremulousmomentswhenpeoplearedesperatelyeagertohavesomethingdoneandarereadytobelieveanything。ThoughMcClellan，nowinchiefcommandoftheUnionforces，hadanimmensearmywhichwasfastgettingproperlyequipped，monthfadedintomonthwithouthisadvancingagainsttheenemy。Againthepopularcrywasraised，"OntoRichmond!"ItwasatthismomentofmilitaryinactivityandpopularrestlessnessthatchargesofpeculationwerebroughtforwardagainstCameron。

Thesechargesbothwereandwerenotwellfounded。Himselfarichman，itisnotlikelythatCameronprofitedpersonallybygovernmentcontracts，eventhoughtheacrimoniousThadStevenssaidofhisappointmentasSecretarythatitwouldadd"anothermilliontohisfortune。"Thereseemslittledoubt，however，thatCameronshoweredlucrativecontractsuponhispoliticalretainers。AndnobosshaseverheldtheStateofPennsylvaniainafirmergrip。HistenureoftheSecretaryshipofWarwasonemeanstothatend。

TherestlessalarmofthecountryatlargeexpresseditselfinsuchextravagantwordsasthesewhichSenatorGrimeswrotetoSenatorFessenden:"Wearegoingtodestructionasfastasimbecility，corruption，andthewheelsoftimecancarryus。"Sodissatisfied，indeed，wasCongresswiththeconductofthewarthatitappointedacommitteeofinvestigation。DuringDecember，1861，andJanuary，1862，thecommitteewassummoninggeneralsbeforeit，questioningthem，listeningtoallmannerofviews，accomplishingnothing，butrenderingmoreandmorefeverishanatmospherealreadysurchargedwithanxiety。OnthefloorsofCongressdebateragedastowhowasresponsibleforthemilitaryinaction——forthecountry"s"unpreparedness，"weshouldsaytoday——andastowhetherCameronwashonest。EventuallytheHouseinavoteofcensurecondemnedtheSecretaryofWar。

Longbeforethishappened，however，Lincolnhadinterferedandverycharacteristicallyremovedthecauseoftrouble，whiletakinguponhimselftheresponsibilityforthesituation，bynominatingCameronministertoRussia，andbypraisinghimforhis"ability，patriotism，andfidelitytothepublictrust。"

ThoughthePresidenthadnotsufficientholdupontheHousetopreventthevoteofcensure，hisinfluencewasstrongintheSenate，andthenewappointmentofCameronwaspromptlyconfirmed。

TherewasinWashingtonatthistimethatgrimmanwhohadservedbrieflyasAttorney-GeneralintheCabinetofBuchanan——EdwinM。

Stanton。HedespisedthePresidentandexpressedhisopinioninsuchwordsas"thepainfulimbecilityofLincoln。"Thetwohadonepersonalrecollectionincommon:longbefore，inasinglecase，atCincinnati，theawkwardLincolnhadbeencalledinasassociatecounseltoservetheconvenienceofStanton，whowasalreadyalawyerofnationalrepute。Tohisless-knownassociateStantonshowedabrutalrudenessthatwascharacteristic。Itwouldhavebeenhardin1861tofindanothermanmoredifficulttogetonwith。Headstrong，irascible，rude，hehadasharptonguewhichhedelightedinusing；buthewasknowntobeinflexiblyhonest，andwassupposedtohavegreatexecutiveability。HewasalsoafriendofMcClellan，andifanybodycouldrousethattortoise-likegeneral，Stantonmightbesupposedtobetheman。HehadbeenavaliantDemocrat，andDemocraticsupportwasneededbythegovernment。LincolnastonishedhimwithhisappointmentasSecretaryofWarinJanuary，1862。StantonjustifiedthePresident"schoice，andunderhisstrongifruthlesshandtheWarDepartmentbecamesternlyefficient。ThewholestoryofStanton"srelationstohischiefispacked，liketheArabiangeniusinthefisherman"svase，intooneremarkofLincoln"s。"DidStantontellyouIwasafool?"saidLincolnononeoccasion，intheodd，smilingwayhehad。"ThenIexpectI

mustbeone，forheisalmostalwaysright，andgenerallysayswhathemeans。"

Inspiteofhisefficiencyandpersonalforce，StantonwasunabletomovehisfriendMcClellan，withwhomhesoonquarreled。EachnowsoughtinhisownwaytocontrolthePresident，thoughneitherunderstoodLincoln"scharacter。FromMcClellan，Lincolnenduredmuchcondescensionofakindperilouslynearimpertinence。ToStanton，Lincoln"spatienceseemedamystery；

toMcClellan——avainman，fullofhimself——thePresidentwhowouldmerelysmileatthisbullyraggingonthepartofoneofhissubordinatesseemedindeedaspiritlesscreature。MeanwhileLincoln，apparentlydevoidofsensibility，wasseekingduringtheanxiousmonthsof1862，inonecase，merelyhowtokeephispetulantSecretaryinharness；intheother，howtoquickenhistortoiseofageneral。

Stantonmadeatleastonegreatblunder。Thoughhehadbeenthreemonthsinoffice，andMcClellanwasstillinactive，therewerealreadyseveralsuccessestothecreditoftheUnionarms。

TheMonitorandVirginia(Merrimac)hadfoughttheirfamousduel，andGranthadtakenFortDonelson。ThelattersuccessbrokethroughthelonggloomoftheNorthandcaused，asHolmeswrote，"adeliriumofexcitement。"Stantonrashlyconcludedthathenowhadthegameinhishands，andthatasufficientnumberofmenhadvolunteered。ThiscivilianSecretaryofWar，whohadstillmuchtolearnofmilitarymatters，issuedanorderputtingastoptorecruiting。ShortlyafterwardsgreatdisasterbefelltheUnionarms。McClellan，beforeRichmond，wascheckedinMay。

EarlyinJuly，hispeninsulacampaignendeddisastrouslyintheterrible"SevenDays"Battle。"

AnticipatingMcClellan"sfailure，Lincolnhadalreadydeterminedtocallformoretroops。OnJuly1st，hecalledupontheGovernorsoftheStatestoprovidehimwith300，000mentoservethreeyears。Butthevolunteeringenthusiasm——explainitasyouwill——hadsufferedacheck。Thepsychologicalmomenthadpassed。

SoslowwastheresponsetothecallofJuly1st，thatanotherappealwasmadeearlyinAugust，thistimefor300，000mentoserveonlyninemonths。Butthisalsofailedtorousethecountry。Areinforcementofonly87，000menwasraisedinresponsetothisemergencycall。TheablelawyerintheWarDepartmenthadstillmuchtolearnaboutmenandnations。

Afterthischeck，terribleincidentsofwarcamethickandfast——thedefeatatSecondManassas，inlateAugust；thehorribledrawnbattleofAntietam-Sharpsburg，inSeptember；

Fredericksburg，thatcarnivalofslaughter，inDecember；thedearlyboughtvictoryofMurfreesboro，whichopened1863。Therewereotherdisastrouseventsatleastasserious。Foreignaffairs*wereattheirdarkest。WithinthepoliticalcoalitionsupportingLincoln，contentionwastheorderoftheday。TherewasgeneraldistrustofthePresident。Mostalarmingofall，thatebbofthewaveofenthusiasmwhichbeganinmidsummer，1861，reachedintheautumnof1862perhapsitslowestpoint。

ThemeasureofthereactionagainstLincolnwasgivenintheCongressionalelection，inwhich，thoughtheGovernmentstillretainedaworkingmajority，theDemocratsgainedthirty-threeseats。

*SeeChapterIX。

Iftherecouldbesuchathingasatruepsychologicalhistoryofthewar，oneofitsmostinterestingpageswoulddeterminejusthowfarStantonwasresponsible，throughhisstrangeblunderoverrecruiting，forthechecktoenthusiasmamongtheNorthernpeople。Withthisspeculationthereisconnectedastillunsolvedprobleminstatistics。Towhatextentdidtheanti-Lincolnvote，in1862，standforsympathywiththeSouth，andhowfarwasitthehopelesssurrenderofUnionistswhofeltthattheircausewaslost?Thoughcertaintyonthispointisapparentlyimpossible，therecanbenodoubtthatattheopeningof1863，theGovernmentfeltitmustapplypressuretotheflaggingspiritsofitssupporters。Inordertoreenforcethearmiesandtopushthewarthrough，therewasplainlybutonecoursetobefollowed——conscription。

ThegovernmentleadersinCongressbroughtinaConscriptionActearlyintheyear。Thehotdebatesuponthisissuedraggedthroughamonth"stime，andnowmakeinstructivereadingforthepresentgenerationthathaswatchedtheGreatWar*。TheActof1863wasnottheworkofsoldiers，butwasliterally"madeinCongress。"Stantongrimlymadethebestofit，thoughheunwaveringlycondemnedsomeofitsmostconspicuousprovisions。

Hisbusinesswastoretrievehisblunderofthepreviousyear，andhewassuccessful。Imperfectasitwas，theConscriptionAct，withlatersupplementarylegislation，enabledhimtoreplacethewastageoftheUnionarmiesandsteadilytoaugmentthem。Atthecloseofthewar，theUnionhadonfootamillionmenwithanenrolledreserveoftwomillionsandahalf，subjecttocall。

*ThebattleoverconscriptioninEnglandwasanticipatedinAmericasixty-fouryearsago。BagotsaysthattheaverageBritishpointofviewmaybeexpressedthus:"WhatIamsayin"isthishereasIwasasayin"yesterday。"TheAnglo-Saxonmindismuchthesametheworldover。InAmerica，today，theenemiesofeffectivemilitaryorganizationwoulddowelltosearchtheargumentsoftheirskillfulpredecessorsin1888，whofoughttothelastditchforamilitarysystemthatwouldmakeinescapable"peaceatanyprice。"Forthemodernbelieversinconscription，oneoftheirbestbitsofpoliticalthunderisstillthedefenseofitbyLincoln。

TheActprovidedforacompletemilitarycensus，forwhichpurposethecountrywasdividedintoenrollmentdistricts。Everyable-bodiedmalecitizen，orintendingcitizen，betweentheagesoftwentyandforty-five，unlessexemptedforcertainspecifiedreasons，wastobeenrolledasamemberofthenationalforces；

theseforcesweretobecalledtothecolors——"drafted，"thetermwas——astheGovernmentfoundneedofthem；eachsuccessivedraftwastobeapportionedamongthedistrictsintheratioofthemilitarypopulation，andthenumberrequiredwastobedrawnbylot；ifthedistrictraiseditsquotavoluntarily，nodraftwouldbemade；anydraftedmancouldofferasubstituteorcouldpurchasehisdischargeforthreehundreddollars。ThelatterprovisionespeciallywascondemnedbyStanton。Itwasseizeduponbydemagoguesasadeviceforgivingrichmenanadvantageoverpoormen。

Americanpoliticsduringthewarformawildlyconfusedstory，sointricatethatitcannotbemadeclearinabriefstatement。Butthiscentralfactmaybeinsistedupon:intheNorth，thereweretwopoliticalgroupsthatwerethepolesaroundwhichvariousothergroupsrevolvedandcombined，onlytoflyasunderandrecombine，withallthemaddeninginconstancyofakaleidoscope。

Thetwoirreconcilableelementswerethe"warparty"madeupofdeterminedmenresolvedtoseethingsthrough，andthe"copperheads"*whoforonereasonoranotherunitedinafaithfulstruggleforpeaceatanyprice。Aroundthecopperheadsgatheredthevariousandsingulargroupswhohelpedtomakeuptheeverfluctuating"peaceparty。"ItisanerrortoassumethatthispeacepartywasanimatedthroughoutbyfondnessfortheConfederacy。Thoughmanyofitsmembersweresoactuated，thecoreofthepartyseemstohavebeenthatstrangetypeofmanwhosustainedpoliticalevasionintheolddays，whothoughtthatsweetwordscanstopbullets，whoseprogrammein1863calledforacessationofhostilitiesandageneralconventionofalltheStates，andwhopromisedasthespeedyresultofadebauchoftalkacarnivalofbrighteyesglisteningwiththetearsofrevivedaffection。Withthesestrangepeoplein1863therecombinedanumberofdifferenttypes:thestillstranger，stilllesscreditablevisionary，ofwhommuchhereafter；theavowedfriendsoftheprincipleofstaterights；allthosewhodistrustedtheGovernmentbecauseofitsanti-slaverysympathies；

Quakersandotherswithmoralscruplesagainstwar；andfinally，sincerelegaliststowhomtheConscriptionActappearedunconstitutional。Inthespringof1863theissueofconscriptiondrewthelinefairlysharplybetweenthetwopoliticalcoalitions，thougheachcontinuedtofluctuate，moreorless，totheendofthewar。

*Thetermarose，ithasbeensaid，fromtheuseofthecoppercentwithitsheadofLibertyasapeacebutton。Butamoreplausibleexplanationassociatesthepeaceadvocateswiththedeadlycopperheadsnake。

Thepeacepartyof1863hasbeendenouncedhastilyratherthancarefullystudied。Itsprecisemachinationsarenotfullyknown，buttheuglyfactstandsforththataportionoftheforeignpopulationoftheNorthwasrousedin1863torebellion。Theoccasionwasthebeginningofthefirstdraftunderthenewlaw，inJuly，1863，andthesceneoftherebellionwastheCityofNewYork。TheopponentsofconscriptionhadalreadymadeinflammatoryattacksontheGovernment。ConspicuousamongthemwasHoratioSeymour，whohadbeenelectedGovernorofNewYorkinthatwaveofreactionintheautumnof1862。SeveralNewYorkpapersjoinedthecrusade。InCongress，theGovernmenthadalreadybeenthreatenedwithcivilwariftheactwasenforced。

Nevertheless，thepublicdrawingbylotbeganonthedaysannounced。InNewYorkthefirstdrawingtookplaceonSaturday，July12th，andthelistswerepublishedintheSundaypapers。Asmightbeexpected，manyofthemendrawnwereofforeignbirth，andalldaySunday，theforeignquarterofNewYorkwasacauldronboiling。

OnMonday，theresumptionofthedrawingwasthesignalforrevolt。Amobinvadedoneoftheconscriptionoffices，droveoffthemenincharge，andsetfiretothebuilding。Inashortwhile，thestreetswerefilledwithdensecrowdsofforeignbornworkmenshouting，"Downwiththerichmen，"andsinging，"We"llhangHoraceGreeleyonasourappletree。"Housesofprominentcitizenswereattackedandsetonfire，andseveraldraftingofficeswereburned。Manynegroeswhowereseizedwereeitherclubbedtodeathorhangedtolampposts。Evenanorphanasylumforcoloredchildrenwasburned。Theofficeofthe"Tribune"wasraided，gutted，andsetonfire。FinallyadispatchtoStanton，earlyinthenight，reportedthatthemobhadtakenpossessionofthecity。

Theeventsofthenextdaywerenolessshocking。Thecitywasalmoststrippedofsoldiers，asallavailablereserveshadalreadybeenhurriedsouthwhenLeewasadvancingtowardGettysburg。Butsuchmilitiaascouldbemustered，withasmallforceoffederaltroops，foughtthemobinthestreets。

Barricadeswerecarriedbystorm；bloodwasfreelyshed。Itwasnot，however，untilthefourthdaythattherebellionwasfinallyquelled，chieflybyNewYorkregiments，hurriednorthbyStanton——amongthemthefamousSeventh——whichsweptthestreetswithcannon。

TheaftermathoftheNewYorkriotswasacorrespondencebetweenLincolnandSeymour。ThelatterhaddemandedasuspensionofthedraftuntilthecourtscoulddecideontheconstitutionalityoftheConscriptionAct。Lincolnrefused。WithtenthousandtroopsnowassembledinNewYork，thedraftwasresumed，andtherewasnofurthertrouble。

TheresistancetotheGovernmentinNewYorkwasbutthemostterribleepisodeinaprotractedcontentionwhichinvolves，asAmericansarebeginningtosee，oneofthemostfundamentalandpermanentquestionsofLincoln"srule:howcantheexerciseofnecessarywarpowersbythePresidentbereconciledwiththeguaranteesoflibertyintheConstitution?ItisunfortunatethatLincolndidnotdrawupafullyroundedstatementofhisowntheoryregardingthisproblem，insteadofleavingittobeinferredfromdetachedobservationsandfromhisactions。

Apparently，hefelttherewasnothingtodobuttofollowtheRomanprecedentand，inacaseofemergency，franklypermittheuseofextraordinarypower。WemayattributetohimthatpointofviewexpressedbyadistinguishedDemocratofourownday:

"Democracyhastolearnhowtousethedictatorasanecessarywartool。"*WhetherLincolnsetagoodmodelfordemocracyinthisperilousbusinessisstilltobedetermined。Hisactionshavebeenfreelylabeledusurpation。Thefirstnotoriousinstanceoccurredin1861，duringthetroublesinMaryland，whenheauthorizedmilitaryarrestsofsuspectedpersons。Forthereleaseofoneofthese，acertainMerryman，ChiefJusticeTaneyissuedawritofhabeascorpus**。Lincolnauthorizedhismilitaryrepresentativestodisregardthewrit。In1862heissuedaproclamationsuspendingtheprivilegesofthewritofhabeascorpusincasesofpersonschargedwith"discouragingvolunteerenlistments，resistingmilitarydrafts，orguiltyofanydisloyalpractice……"Suchpersonsweretobetriedbymilitarycommissions。

*PresidentEdwinA。Alderman，oftheUniversityofVirginia。

**TheConstitutionpermitsthesuspensionoftheprivilegesofthewritofhabeascorpus"whenincasesofrebellionorinvasionthepublicsafetymayrequireit，"butfailstoprovideamethodofsuspension。TaneyheldthatthepowertosuspendlaywithCongress。Fiveyearsafterward，whenChasewasChiefJustice，theSupremeCourt，inexparteMilligan，tookthesameviewandfurtherdeclaredthatevenCongresscouldnotdepriveacitizenofhisrighttotrialbyjurysolongasthelocalcivilcourtsareinoperation。TheConfederateexperiencedifferedfromtheFederalinasmuchasCongresskeptcontrolofthepowertosuspendthewrit。Butbothgovernmentsmadeuseofsuchsuspensiontosetupmartiallawindistrictswherethelocalcourtswereopenbutwhere，fromonecauseoranother，theAdministrationhadnotconfidenceintheireffectiveness。UnderexparteMilligan，bothPresidentsandbothCongresseswereguiltyofusurpation。

Themerelaymanwaitsforthenextgreathouroftrialtolearnwhetherthisinterpretationwillstand。IntheMilligancasetheChiefJusticeandthreeothersdissented。

Therecanbelittledoubtthatthisproclamationcausedsomethinglikeapanicinmanyminds，filledthemwiththedreadofmilitarydespotism，andcontributedtothereactionagainstLincolnintheautumnof1862。Underthisproclamationmanyarrestsweremadeandmanyvictimsweresenttoprison。SoviolentwastheoppositionthatonMarch3，1863，Congresspassedanactwhichattemptedtobringthemilitaryandcivilcourtsintocooperation，thoughitdidnottakeawayfromthePresidentallthedictatorialpowerwhichhehadassumed。Theactseems；

however，tohavehadlittlegeneraleffect，anditwasdisregardedinthemostcelebratedofthecasesofmilitaryarrest，thatofClementL。Vallandigham。

ArepresentativefromOhioandoneofthemostvituperativeanti-LincolnmeninCongress，VallandighaminasensationalspeechappliedtotheexistingsituationChatham"swords，"Mylords，youcannotconquerAmerica。"Heprofessedtoseebeforehiminthefuturenothing"butuniversalpoliticalandsocialrevolution，anarchy，andbloodshed，comparedwithwhichtheReignofTerrorinFrancewasamercifulvisitation。"Toescapesuchafuture，hedemandedanarmistice，tobefollowedbyafriendlypeaceestablishedthroughforeignmediation。

ReturningtoOhioaftertheadjournmentofCongress，Vallandighamspoketoamass-meetinginawaythatwasconstruedasranktreasonbyGeneralBurnsidewhowasincommandatCincinnati。

Vallandighamwasarrested，triedbycourtmartial，andcondemnedtoimprisonment。Therewasanimmediatehueandcry，inconsequenceofwhichBurnside，whoreportedtheaffair，feltcalleduponalsotooffertoresign。Lincoln"sreplywascharacteristic:"WhenIshallwishtosupersedeyouIshallletyouknow。AlltheCabinetregrettedthenecessityforarresting，forinstance，Vallandigham，someperhapsdoubtingtherewasarealnecessityforit；butbeingdone，allwereforseeingyouthroughwithit。"Lincoln，however，commutedthesentencetobanishmentandhadVallandighamsentthroughthelinesintotheConfederacy。

ItseemsquiteplainthatthecondemnationofLincolnonthisissueofusurpationwasnotconfinedtothefriendsoftheConfederacy，norhasitbeenconfinedtohisenemiesinlaterdays。OneofLincoln"smostardentadmirers，thehistorianRhodes，condemnshiscourseunqualifiedly。"Therecanbenoquestion，"hewrites，"thatfromthelegalpointofviewthePresidentshouldhaverescindedthesentenceandreleasedVallandigham。"Lincoln，headds，"standsresponsibleforthecastingintoprisonofcitizensoftheUnitedStatesonordersasarbitraryasthelettres-de-cachetofLouisXIV。"SinceMr。

Rhodes，uncompromisingUnionist，canwriteashedoesuponthisissue，itisplainthattheoppositionpartycannotbedismissedasthroughandthroughdisunionist。

ThetrialofVallandighammadehimamartyrandbroughthimtheDemocraticnominationforGovernorofOhio*。Hisfollowerssoughttomaketheissueofthecampaigntheacceptanceorrejectionofmilitarydespotism。IndefenseofhiscourseLincolnwrotetwopubliclettersinwhichhegaveevidenceoftheskillwhichhehadacquiredasalawyerbeforeajurybythewayinwhichheplayedupontheemotionsofhisreaders。

*EdwardEverettHale"sfamousstory"TheManWithoutaCountry"，thoughitgotintoprinttoolatetoaffecttheelection，wasaimedatVallandigham。Thatquaintallegoryonthelackofpatriotismbecameatemporaryclassic。

"Longexperience[hewrote]hasshownthatarmiescannotbemaintainedunlessdesertionshallbepunishedbytheseverepenaltyofdeath。Thecaserequires，andthelawandtheConstitutionsanction，thispunishment。MustIshootasimple-mindedsoldierboywhodeserts，whileImustnottouchahairofawilyagitatorwhoinduceshimtodesert?Thisisnonethelessinjuriouswheneffectedbygettingafather，orbrother，orfriendintoapublicmeeting，andthereworkinguponhisfeelingstillheispersuadedtowritethesoldierboythatheisfightinginabadcauseforawickedadministrationandacontemptiblegovernment，tooweaktoarrestandpunishhimifheshalldesert。Ithinkthatinsuchacasetosilencetheagitatorandsavetheboyisnotonlyconstitutional，but，withal，agreatmercy。"

Hisrealargumentmaybesummedupinthesewordsofhis:

"Youask，insubstance，whetherIreallyclaimthatImayoverridealltheguaranteedrightsofindividuals，onthepleaofconservingthepublicsafety——whenImaychoosetosaythepublicsafetyrequiresit。Thisquestion，divestedofthephraseologycalculatedtorepresentmeasstrugglingforanarbitraryprerogative，iseithersimplyaquestionwhoshalldecide，oranaffirmationthatnobodyshalldecide，whatthepublicsafetydoesrequireincasesofrebellionorinvasion。

"TheConstitutioncontemplatesthequestionaslikelytooccurfordecision，butitdoesnotexpresslydeclarewhoistodecideit。Bynecessaryimplication，whenrebellionorinvasioncomes，thedecisionistobemade，fromtimetotime；andIthinktheman，whomforthetime，thepeoplehaveundertheConstitution，madethecommander-in-chiefoftheirarmyandnavy，isthemanwhoholdsthepowerandbearstheresponsibilityofmakingit。

Ifheusesthepowerjustly，thesamepeoplewillprobablyjustifyhim；ifheabusesit，heisintheirhandstobedealtwithbyallthemodestheyhavereservedtothemselvesintheConstitution。"

LincolnvirtuallyappealedtotheNorthernpeopletosecureefficiencybysettinghimmomentarilyaboveallcivilauthority。

Heaskedtheminsubstance，tointerprettheirConstitutionbyashowofhands。Nothoughtfulpersoncandoubttherisksofsuchamethod；yetinOhio，in1863，thegreatmajority——perhapseveryonewhobelievedinthewar——acceptedLincoln"sposition。

BetweentheirtraditionalsystemoflegaljuriesandthenewsystemofmilitarytribunalstheOhiovotersmadetheirchoicewithouthesitation。TheyrejectedVallandighamandsustainedtheLincolncandidatebyamajorityofoverahundredthousand。ThatsameyearinNewYorktheanti-LincolncandidateforSecretaryofStatewasdefeatedbytwenty-ninethousandvotes。

Thoughtheseelectionsin1863canhardlybecalledtheturning-pointinthehistoryoftheLincolnGovernment，yetitwasclearthatthetideofpopularitywhichhadebbedsofarawayfromLincolnintheautumnof1862wasagainintheflood。

Anotherphaseofhisstormycoursemaybethoughtofashavingended。AndinaccountingforthisturnofthetideitmustnotbeforgottenthatbetweenthenominationandthedefeatofaVallandighamthebloodyrebellioninNewYorkhadtakenplace，Gettysburghadbeenfought，andGranthadcapturedVicksburg。

Theautumnof1863formedabreathingspaceforthewarpartyoftheNorth。

CHAPTERIX。THECRUCIALMATTER

ItisthecustomofhistorianstomeasuretherelativestrengthofNorthandSouthchieflyintermsofpopulation。TheNorthnumbered23，000，000inhabitants；theSouth，about9，000，000，ofwhichtheslavepopulationamountedto3，500，000。Buttheseobviousstatisticsonlypartiallyindicatetherealsituation。

Notwhatonehas，butwhatoneiscapableofusingis，ofcourse，thetruemeasureofstrength。If，in1861，eithersidecouldhavestruckswiftlyandwithallitsforce，thestoryofthewarwouldhavebeendifferent。Thequestionofrelativestrengthwasinrealityaquestionofmunitions。Bothpowerswereglaringlyunprepared。Bothhadinstantneedofgreatsuppliesofarmsandammunition，andbothturnedtoEuropeanmanufacturersforaid。

ThoseAmericanswho，inalaterwar，wishedtomakeillegaltheneutraltradeinmunitionsforgotthattheinternationalrightofabelligerenttobuyarmsfromaneutralhadpreventedtheirowndestructionin1861。InthesupremeAmericancrisis，agentsofbothNorthandSouthhurriedtoEuropeinquestofmunitions。OntheNorthernsidetheworkwasdonechieflybythethreeministers，CharlesFrancisAdams，atLondon；WilliamL。Dayton，atParis；andHenryS。Sanford，atBrussels；byanablespecialagent，ColonelGeorgeL。Schuyler；andbythefamousbanking-houseofBaringBrothers，whichonemightalmosthavecalledtheEuropeandepartmentoftheUnitedStatesTreasury。

TheeagersolicitudeoftheWarDepartmentoverthecompetitionofthetwogroupsofagentsinEuropeinformsanumberofdispatchesthatare，today，preciousadmonitionstotheheedlessdescendantsofthatdreadfultime。AslateasOctober，1861，theActingSecretaryofWarwrotetoSchuyler，oneofwhoseshipmentshadbeendelayed:"TheDepartmentearnestlyhopestoreceive……the12，000Enfieldriflesandtheremainderofthe27，000，whichyoustateyouhavepurchased，bytheearlieststeamerfollowing。Couldyouappreciatethecircumstancesbywhichwearesurrounded，youwouldreadilyunderstandtheurgentnecessitythereisfortheimmediatedeliveryofallthearmsyouareauthorizedtopurchase。TheDepartmentexpectstohearthatyouhavebeenabletoconcludethenegotiationsforthe48，000

riflesfromtheFrenchgovernmentarsenals。"ThattheConfederateGovernmentactedevenmorepromptlythantheUnionGovernmentappearsfromaletterofSanfordtoSewardinMay:"I

havevainlyexpectedorders，"hecomplains，"forthepurchaseofarmsfortheGovernment，andamtemptedtoorderfromBelgiumalltheycansendoverimmediately……MeanwhiletheworkshopsarefillingwithordersfromtheSouth……Itdistressesmetothinkthatwhileweareinwantofthem，Southernmoneyistakingthemawaytobeusedagainstus。"

AtLondon，Adamstookituponhimselftocontractforarmsinadvanceofinstructions。HewrotetoSeward:"AwareofthedegreetowhichIexceedmyauthorityintakingsuchastep，nothingbutaconvictionoftheneedinwhichthecountrystandsofsuchassistanceandthejointopinionofallthediplomaticagentsoftheUnitedStates……inParis，hasinducedmetoovercomemyscruples。"Howrealwasthenecessityofwhichthisablediplomatwassoearlyconscious，isdemonstratedateveryturninthepapersoftheWarDepartment。WitnessthisbriefdispatchfromHarrisburg:"Allreadytoleavebutnoarms。

GovernornotwillingtoletusleaveStatewithoutthem，asactofAssemblyforbids。Canarmsbesenthere?"Whenthisappealwasmade，inDecember，1861，armswerepouringintothecountryfromEurope，andthecrisishadpassed。Butifthisappealhadbeenmadeearlierintheyear，theinevitableanswermaybeguessedfromadispatchwhichtheOrdnanceOfficesent，aslateasSeptember，totheauthoritiesofWestVirginia，refusingtosupplythemwitharmsbecausethesupplieswereexhausted，andadding，"Everypossibleexertionisbeingmadetoobtainadditionalsuppliesbycontract，bymanufacture，andbypurchase，andassoonastheycanbeprocuredbyanymeans，inanyway，theywillbesupplied。"

Curiouslyenough，notonlytheConfederacybutvariousStatesoftheNorthweremoreexpeditiousinthisall-importantmatterthanCameronandtheWarDepartment。Schuyler"sfirstdispatchfromLondongivesthissingularinformation:"AllprivateestablishmentsinBirminghamandLondonarenowworkingfortheStatesofOhio，Connecticut，andMassachusetts，excepttheLondonArmory，whosemanufactureissupposedtogototheRebels，butofthislastfactIamnotpositivelyinformed。IammakingarrangementstosecuretheseestablishmentsforourGovernment，ifdesirableafterthepresentStatecontractsexpire。OntheContinent，Messrs，DaytonandSanford……havebeenmakingcontractsandagreementsofvariouskinds，ofwhichyouarebythistimeinformed。"Soonafterward，fromParis，hemadealongreportdetailingthedifficultiesofhistask，thelimitationsoftheexistingmunitionsplantsinEurope，andpromisingamongotherthingsthose"48，000riflesfromtheFrenchgovernmentarsenals"forwhich，intheletteralreadyquoted，theWarDepartmentyearned。Itwasanenormouslabor；and，striveashewould，SchuylerfoundAmericanmailcontinuingtobringhimsuchlettersasthisfromtheAssistantSecretaryofWarinOctober:

"Inoticewithmuchregretthat[inthelatestconsignment]therewerenogunssent，asitwasconfidentlyexpectedthat20，000

wouldarrivebythe[steamship]Fulton，andaccordinglyarrangementshadbeenmadetodistributethemthroughthedifferentStates。Promptandearlyshipmentsofgunsaredesirable。Wehopetohearbynextsteamerthatyouhaveshippedfrom80，000to100，000stand。"

Thelastwordontheproblemofmunitions，whichwassosignificantafactorinthelargerproblem，isthereportoftheUnitedStatesOrdnanceOfficeforthefirstyearofthewar。ItshowsthatbetweenApril，1861，andJune，1862，theGovernmentpurchasedfromAmericanmanufacturerssomewhatover30，000

rifles，andthatfromEuropeanmakersitpurchased726，000。

FromtheseillustrationsitisthereforeobviousthatthetruemeasureoftheimmediatestrengthoftheAmericancontestantsin1861wastheextentoftheirabilitytosupplythemselvesfromEurope；andthis，statedmoreconcretely，becamethequestionastowhichwasthebetterabletokeepitsportsopenandreceivetheabsolutelyessentialEuropeanaid。Lincolnshowedhisclearrealizationofthesituationwhenheissued，immediatelyafterthefirstcallforvolunteers，aproclamationblockadingtheSoutherncoasts。WhethertheNorthernpeopleatthetimeappreciatedthesignificanceofthisorderisaquestion。Amidthewildandvainclamorofthemultitudein1861，withitsconventionalandold-fashionednotionofwarasathingoftrumpetsandglitteringarmies，theNorthseemswhollytohaveignoreditsfleet；andyetinthebeginningthisresourcewasitsonlystrength。

Thefleetwassmall，tobesure，butitstaskwasatfirstalsosmall。TherewerefewSouthernportswhichweredoingaregularbusinesswithEurope，andtoclosethesewasnotdifficult。Asotherportsopenedandthetaskofblockadegrew，theNorthernnavyalsoincreased。Withinafewmonths，tothefewobserverswhodidnotlosetheirheads，itwasplainthattheNorthhadwonthefirstgreatcontestofthewar。IthadsohamperedSoutherntradethatLincoln"sadvantageinarmingtheNorthfromEuropewastentoone。AttheverytimewhendetractorsofLincolnwerehystericalovertheremovalofFremont，whenGrimeswrotetoFessendenthatthecountrywasgoingtothedogsasfastasimbecilitycouldcarryit，thisgreatachievementhadquietlytakenplace。AnexpeditionsailinginAugustfromFortressMonroeseizedthefortswhichcommandedHatterasInletoffthecoastofNorthCarolina。InNovember，CommanderDupont，U。S。

N。，seizedPortRoyal，oneofthebestharborsonthecoastofSouthCarolina，andestablishedthereanavalbase。Thenceforth，whiletheopenNorthernportsreceivedEuropeanmunitionswithouthindrance，itwasariskybusinessgettingmunitionsintotheportsoftheSouth。Onlytheboldesttraderswouldattemptto"runtheblockade，"toevadetheFederalpatrolshipsbynightandrunintoaSouthernport。

However，foronemomentintheautumnof1861，itseemedasifallthemasterfulworkoftheNorthernnavywouldbeundonebytheNorthernpeoplethemselvesinbackinguptherashnessofCaptainCharlesWilkes，ofthewar-shipSanJacinto。OnthehighseasheoverhauledtheBritishmailsteamer，Trent。AboardherweretwoConfederatediplomaticagents，JamesM。MasonandJohnSlidell，whohadruntheblockadefromCharlestontoHavanaandwerenowontheirwaytoEngland。WilkestookoffthetwoConfederatesasprisonersofwar。ThecrowdintheNorthwentwild。"Wedonotbelieve，"saidtheNewYorkTimes，"thattheAmericanhearteverthrilledwithmoresinceredelight。"

TheintemperatejoyofthecrowdovertherashnessofWilkeswasdueinparttoafeelingofbitternessagainsttheBritishGovernment。InMay，1861，theQueenhadissuedaproclamationofneutrality，whosejustificationininternationallawwashotlydebatedatthetimeandwasgenerallydeniedbyNortherners。

Englandwasthegreatcottonmarketoftheworld。TotheexcitedNorthernmind，in1861，therecouldbebutoneexplanationofEngland"saction:apartisandesiretoservetheSouth，tobreakuptheblockade，andtosecurecotton。Whethersuchwastherealpurposeoftheministrytheninpowerisnowdoubted；butatthattimeitwasthebeginningofasharpcontentionbetweenthetwoGovernments。TheTrentaffairnaturallyincreasedthetension。

SokeenwastheindignationofallclassesofEnglishmenthatitseemed，foramoment，asifthenextstepwouldbewar。

InAmerica，thepromptdemandforthereleaseofMasonandSlidellwasmet，atfirst，inaspiritequallybellicose。

FortunatelytherewerecoolandclearheadsthatatoncecondemnedWilkes"sactionasagrossbreachofinternationallaw。

ProminentamongthesewasSumner。TheAmericanGovernment，however，admittedthejusticeoftheBritishdemandandtheenvoyswerereleased。

RelationswiththeUnitedStatesnowbecameaburningissueinEnglishpolitics。TherewerethreedistinctgroupsinParliament。Therepresentativesofthearistocracy，whetherLiberalsorConservatives，inthemainsympathizedwiththeSouth。Sodidmostofthelargemanufacturerswhosebusinessinterestswereaffectedbycotton。GreatbitternessgrewupamongtheNorthernersagainstboththesegroups，partlybecauseinthepastmanyoftheirmembershadcondemnedslaveryandhadsaidscornfulthingsaboutAmericafortoleratingit。TotheseNorthernerstheEnglishmenrepliedthatLincolnhimselfhaddeclaredthewarwasnotoverslavery；thatitwasanordinarycivilwarnotinvolvingmoralissues。Nevertheless，thethirdParliamentarygroupinsistedthattheAmericanwar，nomatterwhatthemotivesoftheparticipants，would，intheeventofaNorthernvictory，bringabouttheabolitionofslavery，whereas，iftheSouthwon，theresultwouldbetheperpetuationofslavery。Thisthirdgroup，therefore，threwallitsweightonthesideoftheNorth。InthisgroupLincolnrecognizedhisallies，andtheircauseheidentifiedwithhisowninhislettertoEnglishworkmenwhichwasquotedinthepreviouschapter。

TheirleadersinParliamentwereRichardCobden，W。E。Forster，andJohnBright。AllthesegroupswererepresentedintheLiberalparty，which，forthemoment，wasinpower。

IntheCabinetitselftherewasa"Northern"anda"Southern"

faction。Then，too，thereweresomewhosympathizedwiththeNorthbutwhofeltthatitscausewashopeless——solittledidtheyunderstandtherelativestrengthofthetwosections——andwhofeltthatthewarwasaterribleproofoftheuselessnessofmeresuffering。Gladstone，inlaterdays，wishedtobethoughtofashavingbeenoneofthese，thoughatthetime，afamousutteranceofhiswasconstruedintheNorthasadeclarationofhostility。ToagreataudienceatNewcastlehesaidinOctober，1862:"Wemayhaveourownopinionsaboutslavery；wemaybefororagainsttheSouth；butthereisnodoubtthatJeffersonDavisandotherleadersoftheSouthhavemadeanarmy；theyaremaking，itappears，anavy；andtheyhavemade，whatismorethaneither——theyhavemadeanation。"

ThePrimeMinister，LordPalmerston，wishedtointerveneintheAmericanwarandbringaboutanamicableseparationintotwocountries，andso，apparently，didtheForeignSecretary，LordJohnRussell。Recently，theAmericanministerhadvainlyprotestedagainstthesailingofashipknownas290whichwasbeingequippedatLiverpoolpresumablyfortheserviceoftheConfederacy，andwhichbecamethefamousAlabama。FortwoyearsitrovedtheoceandestroyingNortherncommerce，andnotuntilitwassunkatlastinabattlewiththeU。S。S。KearsargedidallthemaritimeinterestsoftheNorthbreatheagainfreely。Intimeandasaresultofarbitration，EnglandpaidfortheshipssunkbytheAlabama。Butin1862，theprotestsoftheAmericanministerfellondeafears。

ItmustbeaddedthatthesailingoftheAlabamafromLiverpoolwasdueprobablytothecarelessnessofBritishofficialsratherthantodeliberatepurpose。AndyetthefactisclearthataboutthefirstofOctober，1862，theBritishministrywasonthevergeofinterveningtosecurerecognitionoftheindependenceoftheSouthernconfederacy。ThechiefmotivepressingthemforwardwasthedistressinEnglandcausedbythelackofcottonwhichresultedfromtheAmericanblockade。In1860，theSouthhadexported615，000bales；in1861，only10，127bales。In1862halfthespindlesofManchesterwereidle；theworkmenwereoutofemployment；theownerswerewithoutdividends。Itwaschieflybythesemanufacturingcapitaliststhatpressurewasputupontheministry，anditwasinthemanufacturingdistrictthatGladstone，thinkingtheGovernmentwaslikelytointervene，madehisallusiontotheSouthasanation。

MeanwhiletheEmperoroftheFrenchwasconsideringaproposaltoEnglandandRussiatojoinwithhiminmediationbetweentheAmericanbelligerents。OnOctober28，1862，NapoleonIIIgaveaudiencetotheConfederateenvoyatParis，discussedtheSoutherncauseinthemostfriendlymanner，questionedhimupontheMarylandcampaign，plainlyindicatedhispurposetoattemptintervention，andatpartingcordiallyshookhandswithhim。

WithinafewdaystheEmperormadegoodhisimpliedpromise。

ThemonthofNovember，1862，isoneoftheturningpointsinAmericanforeignrelations。BothRussiaandEnglandrejectedFrance"sproposal。ThemotiveusuallyassignedtotheEmperorAlexanderishishatredofeverythingassociatedwithslavery。

HisownmostfamousactionwastheliberationoftheRussianserfs。ThemotivesoftheBritishministry，however，appearmoreproblematical。

Mr。RhodesthinkshecandiscernevidencethatAdamscommunicatedindirectlytoPalmerstonthecontentsofadispatchfromSewardwhichindicatedthattheUnitedStateswouldacceptwarratherthanmediation。PalmerstonhadkepthiseyesupontheMarylandcampaign，andLee"swithdrawaldidnotincreasehisconfidenceinthestrengthoftheSouth。LordRussell，twomonthsprevious，hadflatlytoldtheConfederateenvoyatLondonthattheSouthneednothopeforrecognitionunlessitcouldestablishitselfwithoutaid，andthat"thefluctuatingeventsofthewar，thealternationofdefeatandvictory，"composedsuchacontradictorysituationthat"HerMajesty"sGovernmentarestilldeterminedtowait。"

PerhapstheveiledAmericanwarning——assumingitwasconveyedtoPalmerston，whichseemshighlyprobable——wasnottheonlydiplomaticinnuendooftheautumnof1862thathasescapedthepagesofhistory。SlidellatParis，puttingtogetherthestatementsoftheBritishAmbassadorandthoseoftheFrenchMinisterofForeignAffairs，foundinthemcontradictionsastowhatwasgoingonbetweenthetwogovernmentsinrelationtoAmerica。HetookahandbyattemptingtoinspireM。DrouyndeL"huyswithdistrustofEngland，tellinghimhe"HADSEEN……aletterfromaleadingmemberoftheBritishCabinet……inwhichheveryplainlyinsinuatedthatFrancewasplayinganunfairgame，"

tryingtouseEnglandasNapoleon"scatspaw。AmongthemanymotivesthatmaywellhaveanimatedthePalmerstonGovernmentinitswaitingpolicy，adistrustofNapoleondeservestobeconsidered。

Itisscarcelyrash，however，tofindthechiefmotiveinhomepolitics。TheimpetuousGladstoneatNewcastlelosthisheadandspoketoosoon。Themostseriouseffectofhisprematureutterancewasthepromptreactionofthe"Northernparty"intheCabinetandinthecountry。WhateverPalmerston"ssecretdesireswere，hewasnotpreparedtotakethehighhand，andhethereforepermittedothermembersoftheCabinettostateinpublicthatGladstonehadbeenmisunderstood。InaninterviewwithAdams，LordRussell，"whilstendeavoringtoexcuseMr。Gladstone，"

assuredhimthat"thepolicyoftheGovernmentwastoadheretoastrictneutralityandleavethestruggletosettleitself。"Inthelastanalysis，theNorthernpartyinEnglandwasgainingground。ThenewsfromAmerica，possibly，andGladstone"srashness，certainly，rousedittoincreasedactivity。

Palmerston，whosetenureofpowerwasnonetoosecure，darednotriskabreakthatmightcarrythedisaffectedintotheranksoftheOpposition。

FromthistimeforwardtheNorthrapidlygrewinfavorinBritishpublicopinion，anditsinfluenceupontheGovernmentspeedilyincreased。

SaysLordCharnwoodinhisrecentlifeofLincoln:"ThebattleofAntietamwasfollowedwithinfivedaysbyaneventwhichmadeitimpossibleforanygovernmentofthiscountrytotakeactionunfriendlytotheNorth。"HerefersofcoursetotheEmancipationProclamation，whichwasissuedonSeptember23，1862。LordCharnwood"sremarkmaybetoodramatic。ButtherecanbenodoubtthattheEmancipationProclamationwastheturning-pointinLincoln"sforeignpolicy；andbecauseofit，hisfriendsinEnglandeventuallyforcedtheGovernmenttoplayintohishands，andsofrustratedNapoleon"sschemeforintervention。

ConsequentlyLincolnwasabletomaintaintheblockadebymeansofwhichtheSouthwasstrangled。Thus，atbottom，thecrucialmatterwasEmancipation。

Lincoln"spolicywithregardtoslaverypassedthroughthreedistinctstages。Aswehaveseen，heproposed，atfirst，topledgetheGovernmentnottointerferewithslaveryintheStateswhereitthenexisted。Thiswashismaximumofcompromise。Hewouldnotagreetopermittingitsextensionintonewterritory。

Hemaintainedthispositionthrough1861，whenitwasmadeanaccusationagainsthimbytheAbolitionistsandcontributedtotheebbofhispopularity。ItalsoplayedagreatpartintheepisodeofFremont。AtacrucialmomentinFremont"scareer，whenhisholduponpopularityseemedprecarious，hesetatnaughtthepolicyofthePresidentandissuedanorder(August30，1861)，whichconfiscatedallpropertyandslavesofthosewhowereinarmsagainsttheUnitedStatesoractivelyaidingtheenemy，andwhichcreateda"bureauofabolition。"WhetherFremontwasactingfromconvictionor"playingpolitics"maybelefttohisbiographers。InamosttactfulletterLincolnaskedhimtomodifytheordersoastoconformtotheConfiscationActofCongress；andwhenFremontprovedobdurate，Lincolnorderedhimtodoso。IntheoutcryagainstLincolnwhenFremontwasatlastremoved，theAbolitionistsrangthechangesonthisreversalofhispolicyofmilitaryabolition。